ALLEN W. HATHEWAY

Remediation of FormerManufactured Gas Plants

andOther Coal-Tar Sites

CRC Press is an imprint of theTaylor & Francis Group, an informa business

Boca Raton London New York

Cover image: Aerial photograph of the derelict Tilghman Street Manufactured Gas Plant, Chester, Pennsylvania. Interpretation and image courtesy of Kristen Stout, Environmental Research, Inc., Linden, Virginia, on photography commissioned by the U.S. Geological Survey and executed on Aug. 19, 1975.

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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data

Hatheway, Allen W.Remediation of former manufactured gas plants and other coal-tar sites / author, Allen W. Hatheway.

p. cm.“A CRC title.”Includes bibliographical references and index.ISBN 978-0-8247-9106-3 (alk. paper)1. Gas manufacture and works--Environmental aspects. 2. Coal-tar--Environmental aspects. 3.

Hazardous waste site remediation. I. Title.

TD899.G3H38 2010665.7028’6--dc22 2010029540

Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site athttp://www.taylorandfrancis.com

and the CRC Press Web site athttp://www.crcpress.com

to

My Parents

Clarence Wilman Hatheway (1906–1978)

Marie Elizabeth Sisto Hatheway (1908–1987)

who raised me to embrace a devotion to learning

to

My Wife

Diane Margaret Rydell Hatheway, BA, MA

who shares my love of and fascination with history

and exploratory travel,

and who devoted much editorial energy to this book

and to

Willard C. Lacy, PhD, PGeol, PE

Professor Emeritus, Geological Engineering

University of Arizona

and

the late Richard L. Sloane, MS, PE

Professor of Civil Engineering

University of Arizona

both who taught always to turn

to the literature first,

then to spade the ground diligently for

first-hand site characterization truths

vii

ContentsForeword........................................................................................................................................xxixAcknowledgments..........................................................................................................................xxxiAuthor......................................................................................................................................... xxxiiiIntroduction...................................................................................................................................xxxv

Part I Background Information

Chapter 1 History.of.Manufactured.Gas.and.Coal-Tar.Activities.................................................3

Today’s.Environmental.Concern...................................................................................3Estimated.Number.of.Former.Gas-Manufacturing.and.Related.Sites.in.the.United.States.and.the.British.Isles................................................................................4Frequency.of.Discovery.Today.................................................................................... 10Present-Day.Environmental.Concerns........................................................................ 12Origin.of.Manufactured.Gas....................................................................................... 14Gas.Plant.Architecture.and.Layout............................................................................. 17Locating.Former.Manufactured.Gas.Plants................................................................20Franchises.and.Other.Public.Certifications.of.the.Manufactured.Gas.Industry.........23

Gas.Company.Rates.to.Consumers........................................................................24Competition.and.Consolidation..............................................................................25Varieties.of.Gas.Companies.and.Gas.Company.Names........................................26Municipal.Ownership............................................................................................. 31

Economics.of.the.Manufactured.Gas.Industry........................................................... 33Capitalization.of.a.Gasworks.................................................................................. 33Fighting.Electricity.................................................................................................34

Streetlights......................................................................................................... 35Gaslights............................................................................................................ 35

Residential.Hot.Water.and.Cooking....................................................................... 37Fighting.Natural.Gas.............................................................................................. 39Embracing.Natural.Gas:.A.Time.of.Confusion.and.Its.Environmental.Legacy.........................................................................................41

The.New.Scenario.(1928–1960)........................................................................ 41Confusion.Associated.with.the.New.Scenario..................................................44Environmental.Downside.of.the.Substitute.Natural.Gas.(SNG).Scenario........44

Holding.Companies.....................................................................................................44Factors.Leading.to.Formation.of.Holding.Companies........................................... 45Utility.Management.Service.Costs......................................................................... 45Holding.Company.Failures.and.the.Great.Depression........................................... 45Today’s.Implications.of.MGP.Ownership.by.Holding.Companies........................46Early.Federal.Anti-Trust.Actions.against.Utility.Holding.Companies..................46The.Large.Utilities................................................................................................. 47

Case.Example.of.the.Philadelphia.Electric.Company.......................................48

viii Contents

Casualties.of.War........................................................................................................48Gasworks.in.Our.Time................................................................................................48

Films.with.Gasworks’.Background........................................................................48Summary..................................................................................................................... 53

Chapter 2 Gas Manufacturing Processes (I): Coal Gas and Carburetted Water Gas (Lowe)...................................................................................................... 55

Introduction................................................................................................................. 55Modern.Environmental.Implications.of.Historic.Gas.Feedstocks.............................. 56

Coals....................................................................................................................... 57Peat......................................................................................................................... 58Lignite.and.Brown.Coal.(Lignite.[France],.Braunkohle.[Germany])..................... 58Traditional.Alternative.Fuels.for.Manufactured.Gas............................................. 63

Resin.(Rosin).and.Fatwood................................................................................ 63Wood.................................................................................................................. 63Kerosene............................................................................................................64Naphtha..............................................................................................................64Benzole..............................................................................................................65Coke...................................................................................................................66

Nontraditional.Fuels.for.Manufacture.of.Illuminating.Gas...................................66Influences.of.Price.Fluctuations.on.Gas-Making.Feedstocks................................ 67Development.of.Gas-Manufacturing.Processes..................................................... 67Historic.Attempts.to.Manufacture.Gas.from.Coal-Gas.Tar...................................68The.Broad.Selection.of.Gas-Manufacturing.Processes.and.Variants.................... 77

Coal.Gas.(Dry.Distillation.of.Coal)............................................................................87Selection.of.Gas.Coals............................................................................................88Situation.about.1850............................................................................................... 91Situation.about.1885............................................................................................... 91Situation.about.1900...............................................................................................92Situation.about.1920...............................................................................................98Situation.about.1940............................................................................................. 100

Coal.Gas.................................................................................................................... 105Retorts.(Ovens)..................................................................................................... 105Retort.Capacity..................................................................................................... 109Retort.House.(Gashouse)...................................................................................... 109Furnaces.and.Boilers............................................................................................ 113Modifications.to.Retort.Houses............................................................................ 113Ascension.Pipes,.Dips,.and.the.Hydraulic.Main.................................................. 113Linking.the.Retorts.to.the.Gas.Treatment.Process.and.to.Generation.of.Toxics............................................................................................................114Tar.Wells.and.Clarification.Sumps....................................................................... 117Alternative.Forms.of.(Improved).Coal-Gas.Retorts............................................ 117Through.Retorts.at.Coal-Gas.Plants.................................................................... 117Processes.Employing.Gravity.as.an.Assist........................................................... 117Inclined.Coal-Gas.Retorts.................................................................................... 118Vertical.Coal-Gas.Retorts.................................................................................... 119Intermittent.and.Continuous.Vertical.Coal-Gas.Retorts...................................... 119

Coal-Gas.Enrichment................................................................................................ 122Water.Gas.(Blue.Gas.=.Blue.Water.Gas.=.Blast.Furnace.Gas.=.Producer.Gas).......... 123

Contents ix

Dealing.with.the.Term.“Water.Gas”.................................................................... 123Differentiation.of.Water.Gas.from.Oil-Enriched.Water.Gas............................... 123

Carburetted.Water.Gas.(CWG).................................................................................124The.Coming.of.Carburetted.Water.Gas.(Lowe;.CWG)........................................124Empirical.Generalizations.Regarding.CWG.Systems.......................................... 126Institutional.Resistance.to.Adoption.of.CWG.for.Illumination........................... 126The.Economic.“Beauty”.of.Carburetted.Water.Gas.(CWG)................................ 129Understanding.the.Workings.of.Carburetted.Water-Gas.(CWG).Generation...... 132Carburetted.Water-Gas.(CWG).Sets..................................................................... 132Generators............................................................................................................ 135Carburetors........................................................................................................... 135Superheaters......................................................................................................... 136

Function.of.the.Carburetted.Water-Gas.(CWG).Seal................................................ 137The.Relief.Holder................................................................................................. 140PG&E’s.Resurgent.Experiment.with.Carburetted.Water.Gas.(1925)................... 144Influences.of.Price.Fluctuations.on.Gas-Making.Feedstocks.............................. 144Narrative.(1918).of.the.New.Municipal.Coal-Gas.Plant.at.Bellefontaine,.OH...... 147

Summary................................................................................................................... 149

Chapter 3 Gas Manufacturing (II) Secondary Processes: Gas-Manufacturing Processes Other than Coal Gas and Carburetted Water Gas............................ 151

Premise.of.the.“Second”.and.“Third”.Levels.of.Gas-Related.Processes................. 151General.Phasing.of.Second.and.Third.Levels.of.Gas-Manufacturing.Processes.......................................................................................................... 151Subtle.Exceptions.to.Hatheway’s.Concept.of.Gas-Process.Phasing.................... 151

Second-Level.Gas-Manufacturing.Processes........................................................... 157Oil-Enriched.Water.Gas:.Lowe’s.Competitors.and.Emulators................................. 157

Remedial.Implications.......................................................................................... 166Water.Gas.(Blue.Gas.=.Blue.Water.Gas.=.Blast.Furnace.Gas.=.Producer.Gas).......... 166

Blue.Gas.(Water.Gas)........................................................................................... 167Gas.Engines,.Producer.Gas,.and.Producer.Gas.Engines.......................................... 167

Producer.Gas.Engines.......................................................................................... 167Early.Gas.Engines................................................................................................ 167Industrial.Sites.Favoring.the.Use.of.Gas.Producers............................................. 169Producer.(Fuel).Gas.and.Its.Production.and.Use................................................. 174Producer.Gas.Engines.......................................................................................... 174Producer.Gas.as.an.Industrial.Fuel...................................................................... 180Producer.Gas.Plants.as.Industrial.Fuel.Gasworks................................................ 182

Gas.Producer.Processes............................................................................................ 182Pressure.Producers............................................................................................... 187Suction.Producers................................................................................................. 188Combinations.of.Pressure.and.Suction................................................................. 192Where.to.Expect.to.Encounter.Gas.Producers..................................................... 193Producer.Gas.Residuals.and.Wastes..................................................................... 199Fate.of.Producer-Plant.PAH.and.Gas-Treatment.Wastes.....................................200Remedial.Implications.for.Producer.Gas.Plants.(Gas.Producers)........................ 201

Pacific.Coast.Oil-Gas................................................................................................202Remedial.Implications.Associated.with.Pacific.Coast.Oil.Gas.Plants.................203

Coal.Carbonization...................................................................................................203

x Contents

By-Product.Coke-Oven.Plants..................................................................................203Remedial.Aspects.of.By-Product.Coke-Oven.Plants...........................................208

Other.Carbonization.Processes.of.Coal.and.Organic.Feedstocks............................ 213Summary................................................................................................................... 213

Chapter 4 Third-Level Gas-Related Processes....................................................................... 231

Premise.of.the.“Third-Level”.Processes.of.Gas.Manufacturing.............................. 231Artificial.Gas:.Manufacturing.Processes.Producing.Lesser.Accumulations.of.Toxic.Residuals.and.Wastes...................................................................................... 231Various.Patented.Gas-Manufacturing.Processes...................................................... 231Early.Oil-Gas.Systems.(Pre-1890)............................................................................ 238

Early.Oil-Gas.Processes....................................................................................... 241Remedial.Implications.of.Early.Oil-Gas.Plants...................................................242

Substitute.Natural.Gas.(SNG:.1920–1955)...............................................................242Historic.Perspective:.The.Role.of.Edward.G..Boyer,.Gas.Engineer.................... 243SNG.Processes.as.Sources.of.Toxic.Residuals.and.Wastes.................................. 243Contemporary.(2010).Concern.for.Contamination.at.Derelict.SNG.Plant.Sites........................................................................................................ 248Contemporary.Case-in-Point:.Riverhead,.Long.Island........................................ 251Remedial.Implications.for.Derelict.SNG.Sites..................................................... 251

Gas–Air.Mixtures..................................................................................................... 253Butane–Air.(Compressed.Gas.Service).Gas.Plants.............................................. 253Propane.Plants......................................................................................................254Remedial.Implications..........................................................................................254

Railway.Lighting....................................................................................................... 255Pintsch.Oil-Gas.Process....................................................................................... 255Typical.Pintsch.Plant.as.a.Remediation.Target.................................................... 263On-Board.Rail-Car.Pintsch.Lighting.Equipment................................................. 263Numbers.of.Pintsch.Railway.Oil-Gas.Plants....................................................... 263Remedial.Implications.for.Pintsch.Railway.Gas.Plants....................................... 267

Late.Twentieth.Century.High-Technologies.for.Coal.Gasification.(aka.Syntheses.Plants)...............................................................................................268Other.Carbonization.Processes.of.Coal.and.Organic.Feedstocks............................269Nonrecovery.Coke.and.Charcoal.Ovens.(Carbonization)......................................... 273

Synopsis.of.the.Duration.and.Impact.of.Beehive.Coke.Ovens............................ 273“Standard”.American.Beehive.Non-recovery.Block.Coke.Oven......................... 274“Belgian”.Beehive.Non-recovery.Block.Coke.Oven............................................ 275Planning.and.Conducting.Beehive.Oven.Site.and.Waste.Characterization......... 277Using.Historic.Industrial.Archeological.Artifacts.in.Beehive.Site.Assessment....................................................................................................... 281Summary.of.Remedial.Implications.for.Beehive.Coke-Oven.Plants................... 281

Artificial.Gas:.Manufacturing.and.Related.Processes.Not.Known.for.Producing.Accumulations.of.Toxic.Residuals.and.Wastes.......................................285Institutional.Gas.Machines.......................................................................................286Illuminating.Gas.from.“Gasolene”.and.Acetylene................................................... 291“Gasolene”.(Spirit.or.Vapor).Gases...........................................................................292

The.Coming.of.Burning.Fluid..............................................................................292Gasolene.Vapor.Gas.............................................................................................292Gasolene.Gas.Machines....................................................................................... 293Westinghouse.Compressed.Gasoline.Vapor.Lighting.......................................... 295

Contents xi

The.American.Gas.Machine.Company................................................................296Remedial.Implications.of.“Gasolene”.Gas.Plants................................................296

Acetylene.(C2H2).Gas................................................................................................296Acetylene.Small-Town.Systems...........................................................................297Acetylene.Plants.at.American.Military.Posts.and.Installations...........................299Acetylene.Railway.Lighting.................................................................................299Remedial.Implications.for.Acetylene.Gas-Lighting.Plants..................................303

Lime-Light................................................................................................................303Remedial.Implications.for.Sites.of.Limelight.Usage............................................303

Bottle-Compressed.Liquid.Manufactured.Gas.........................................................304Blau.Gas...............................................................................................................304Remedial.Implications.of.Blau.Gas-Manufacturing.Plants.................................305

Carbon.Briquettes.for.Home.and.Fuel......................................................................305Conversion.of.Peat.to.Low-Carbonization.Fuel.Briquettes..................................305Remedial.Implications.of.Derelict.Fuel.Briquette.Plant.Sites..............................305

Peat-Gas.Plants..........................................................................................................305Refrigeration.as.a.Derivative.of.Manufactured.Gas.................................................307Summary...................................................................................................................308

Chapter 5 Gasworks Components (I): Generation through Clarification (or Pre-Purification)................................................................................................309

Concept.of.the.“Engineered”.Gasworks................................................................... 310The.Clarification.Processes....................................................................................... 311Clarification:.The.Means.of.Pre-Purification.Gas.Cleansing................................... 312Clarification.and.the.Particulate-Removal.Train...................................................... 314Concept.of.Removal.of.Particulate.Gas.Impurities................................................... 317Concept.of.Tar.Capture............................................................................................. 318

Tar.Extractors....................................................................................................... 319Tar.Filters............................................................................................................. 319Straw-Box.Tar.Filter.for.Discharged.Gas.Liquor.Plant.Effluent.(1905)............... 319Tar.Filter.as.a.Fitting.on.Large.Carburetted.Water-Gas.Sets.(1926).................... 322Tar.Separators....................................................................................................... 322Tar.Filter.Boxes.for.Final.Gas-Liquor.Predischarge.Treatment........................... 332Lampblack.Separators.......................................................................................... 332

Management.of.Collected.Gas.Tars.and.Tar.Residuals............................................ 334Tar.Management.Options..................................................................................... 334

Discharge.of.Tar.to.the.Ground....................................................................... 334Exhausters.................................................................................................................340The.Wash.Box........................................................................................................... 342

Remedial.Implications..........................................................................................344Condensation.............................................................................................................344

Remedial.Implications.Related.to.the.Presence.of.Manufactured.Gas.Condenser.Locations............................................................................................ 350Generalizations.about.Manufactured.Gas.Condensers........................................ 353Remedial.Implications.of.Condenser.Use............................................................ 356

Washers..................................................................................................................... 356Scrubbers................................................................................................................... 358

Scrubbers.Designed.for.Particular.Removals....................................................... 359Light-Oil.Scrubbing.............................................................................................360Rotary.Scrubbers..................................................................................................360

xii Contents

Tower.Scrubbers...................................................................................................360Remedial.Implications.of.Scrubber.Utilization....................................................366

Washer-Scrubbers...................................................................................................... 368Scrubber.Doubles.as.Condenser.and.Wash.Box................................................... 368

Combined.Use.of.Condensers,.Scrubbers,.and.Washers........................................... 370Electrostatic.Precipitators......................................................................................... 370Purification.and.Storage.(Chapter.6)......................................................................... 372

Purifiers................................................................................................................ 372Gasholders............................................................................................................ 373

Summary................................................................................................................... 373

Chapter 6 Gasworks Components (II): Purification and Storage........................................ 375

Purification................................................................................................................ 375Today’s.Environmental.Impacts.of.Yesteryear’s.Purification.Activities.............. 375Contaminants.and.Contamination.Associated.with.Purification.and.Spent.Purifier.Media....................................................................................................... 377

Gas.Impurities.Treated.by.Purification..................................................................... 379Purification.as.a.Process........................................................................................... 379Purifier.Design.......................................................................................................... 381

Purifiers.as.Viewed.from.the.Standpoint.of.Size.and.Layout.............................. 381Quantities.of.Spent.Purification.Media................................................................ 382Series.Removal.of.Impurities............................................................................... 382Sizing.of.Purifiers................................................................................................. 382The.Basic.Purification.Process............................................................................. 383Purifier.Trays........................................................................................................ 387

Purification.Media..................................................................................................... 389Selection.of.Purification.Media.Based.on.Performance.and.Handling................ 391Coal-Liming.as.a.Pre-Purification.Extender.of.Media.Life................................. 392Lime.as.a.Purifier.Medium................................................................................... 392Crushed.Sea.Shells............................................................................................... 395Crushed.Lime....................................................................................................... 395Potential.Reuse.of.Spent.Purifier.Lime................................................................ 396Wood.Shavings..................................................................................................... 396“Oxides”............................................................................................................... 396Iron.Oxide.(Bog.Iron.Ore).................................................................................... 397Iron.Strips,.Borings,.and.Filings.......................................................................... 397Proprietary.Brands.of.Prepared.Oxide................................................................. 398Appearance.of.Spent.Iron.Oxide.in.the.Gasworks.Dump.................................... 398A.Misnomer.......................................................................................................... 399Preparation.of.the.Shavings/Metallic.Particle.“Oxide”.Mixture......................... 399Life.of.Purifier.Media...........................................................................................400Spent.Purifying.Media.as.a.Contaminant............................................................403

Purifiers.as.a.Remediation.Consideration.................................................................404Contamination.around.Purifier.Boxes..................................................................405Fate.of.Spent.Purification.Media..........................................................................405

Removal,.Collection,.and.Management.of.Gas.Impurities.......................................405Hierarchical.Steps.in.the.Generation.of.Gas.Plant.Wastes:.Toxic.and.Nontoxic.405

Hierarchy.of.Process.Factors...........................................................................406Hierarchy.of.Products,.Residuals,.By-Products,.and.Wastes..........................407Cyanide.Removal.............................................................................................408

Contents xiii

Gasholders.(Gasometers)........................................................................................... 410Purpose.and.Function.of.Gasholders........................................................................ 412Gasholder/Gasometer.Design.................................................................................... 412

Evolution.of.the.Gasholder................................................................................... 413Important.Design.Features.(for.Remedial.Engineering.Consideration)............... 417

Gasholder.Tanks.(Pits.and.Basins)............................................................................ 425Pit-Valve.Chambers.............................................................................................. 430Remedial.Implications.of.Gasholder.Design.Type............................................... 430

Gasholder.Types........................................................................................................ 431Gasholders.Classified.by.Function....................................................................... 432

Commercial.Gasworks.................................................................................... 432Relief.Holders.................................................................................................. 432Storage.Holders................................................................................................ 433Distribution.Holders........................................................................................ 433Off-Plant.District.(Distribution).Holders......................................................... 433Institutional...................................................................................................... 433Small.Commercial........................................................................................... 434Railyards.......................................................................................................... 434

Gasholders.Classified.by.Design.Characteristics................................................. 434Non-Telescoping................................................................................................... 435Multi-Lift.Gasholders........................................................................................... 435Slab-on-Grade...................................................................................................... 437Waterless............................................................................................................... 437High-Pressure.Holders;.Spherical,.Hemispherical.and.Cylindrical..................... 438

Construction.of.Gasholders....................................................................................... 439Representative.Gasholder.Water-Seal.Tanks........................................................ 456

Maintenance.of.Gasholders.......................................................................................460Generic.Leakage.of.Gasholder.Subsurface.Water-Seal.Tanks................................. 462

Gasholders.Employed.for.Early.Bottled.Gas.Distribution...................................466“Sediment”.in.Gasholder.Water-Seal.Tanks........................................................ 470

Gasholder.Accidents.................................................................................................. 473Governors.................................................................................................................. 473

Survival.of.Holders............................................................................................... 473Remedial.Implications.of.Gasholders....................................................................... 476

A.Selection.of.Gasholder.Layout.Plots.................................................................480Distribution.of.Manufactured.Gas............................................................................ 483

Gas.Mains.and.Distribution.Systems...................................................................484Gas.Plant.Distribution.System..............................................................................484Mains.and.Distribution.Pipes...............................................................................484Compressors.........................................................................................................485Off-Site.Gas.Storage............................................................................................. 485Meters...................................................................................................................485

Summary...................................................................................................................487

Chapter 7 Historic Sources, Mechanisms, and Choices Responsible for Coal-Tar Site Contamination.................................................................................................. 489

Organization.of.This.Chapter.................................................................................... 489Anticipating.Residuals.and.Wastes.at.Derelict.Gas-Plant.Sites................................ 489

Discriminating.between.Coal-Tar.Residuals.and.Petroleum.Hydrocarbons........490Nuisance.Odors.as.an.Indication.of.Pollution.Release......................................... 491

xiv Contents

Case.of.Margaret Bohan (Respondent) vs. the Port Jervis Gaslight Company........................................................................................... 493

Physical.and.Chemical.Nature.of.Gasworks.Contaminants..................................... 493Organic.Hydrocarbons......................................................................................... 494Petroleum.Hydrocarbons...................................................................................... 496Hydrocarbons.Found.in.Diesel.Fuels.(Oils)......................................................... 498Coal-Tar.Hydrocarbons........................................................................................ 499

Coal-Tar.Process.Residues.as.Gas-Manufacturing.Contaminants............................ 499Modern.Studies.of.PAH.Compounds.as.Toxic.Organic.Chemicals..................... 501Impact.of.the.Appendix.VIII.List.of.Priority-Pollutant.PAHs............................. 501Regulatory.Use.of.the.Appendix.VIII.List.of Priority Pollutant.PAHs.Is.Scientifically.Flawed............................................................................................ 505Dealing.with.the.Flaw.Produced.by.RCRA.Appendix.VIII................................ 505Nongasification.Types.of.PAHs............................................................................506Arguments.Featuring.Anthropogenic.(Non-FMGP).PAHs.................................506Potential.Confusion.over.Obsolete.PAH.Chemical.Compound.Names...............507

Coal.Distillation.versus.Coal.Carbonization............................................................507Temperature.Effects.of.Carbonization.on.Nature.of.Residuals................................ 510Particular.Coal-Tar.Residuals.as.Gasworks.Contaminants....................................... 511

The.Light.Oils.of.Coal.Tar.as.Residuals.of.Gas.Manufacturing.......................... 511Naphthalene.as.a.Manufactured.Gas.Residual................................................ 511

Light.Oils:.Monocyclic.Aromatic.Hydrocarbons—BTEX.................................. 520Light.Oils:.Duocyclic.Aromatic.Hydrocarbons................................................... 521

Naphthalene..................................................................................................... 521Capture.of.Naphthalene.at.the.Drips............................................................... 528Removal.of.Naphthalene.in.the.Clarification.Train......................................... 528Naphtha.or.the.Naphtha.Cut.(a.Solvent).......................................................... 529Toluol............................................................................................................... 531

Middle.Oils.of.Coal.Tars;.the.Phenols,.Cresols,.and.Carbolic.Oils..................... 534Tar.Acids:.Phenols.and.Cresols....................................................................... 534

Tar.Oils:.“Coal.Tar”.as.The.Typical.Manufactured.Gas.PAH.Mixture............... 535Tars.................................................................................................................. 535

Heavy.Oils:.High-Ring.PAHs.(More.Viscous.Tars.and.Creosote.Oils).............. 537Green.Oil.(Anthracene.Oils)........................................................................... 537

Residuals.Produced.by.Carbonization.of.Lignite................................................. 537Residuals.Typical.of.the.Various.Manufactured.Gas.Processes............................... 537

Residuals.Typical.of.Coal.Gas.Production........................................................... 537Gas.Liquors......................................................................................................540

Tars.of.Carburetted.Water.Gas............................................................................. 545Naphthalene-Residual.Tar...............................................................................546Carburetted.Water.Gas.Oils............................................................................546Crude-Oil.Tars.of.Carburetted.Water.Gas.Generation....................................546

Residuals.Typical.of.Oil-Gas.Production.............................................................546Residuals.Typical.of.Producer-Gas.Processes......................................................548

Historic.Gasworks.Management.Options.for.Gas-Manufacturing.Residuals........... 549Gas-Yard.Accumulation.of.Tar.Residuals............................................................ 551Collection.and.Direct.Discharge.......................................................................... 551Management.of.Tar.Residuals.............................................................................. 552Residuals.Separation.and.Storage........................................................................ 552Historic.Commentary.Regarding.Gas-Plant.Residuals.Management.................. 553Coal.Tar.as.a.Gasworks.Furnace.and.Steam.Boiler.Fuel..................................... 555

Contents xv

Burning.for.Disposal.of.Unwanted.Tars............................................................... 557As.Internal.Combustion.Engine.Fuel................................................................... 558Collection,.Storage,.and.Sales.............................................................................. 558

Direct.Sales...................................................................................................... 558Rail.Shipment.................................................................................................. 558

Briquettes.............................................................................................................. 558Gasworks.Process.Components.as.Sources.of.Site.Contamination.......................... 559

Gas.Holders.......................................................................................................... 559Tar.Extractors....................................................................................................... 559Wash.Boxes..........................................................................................................560All.Other.Clarification.Devices,.along.with.Purifiers.......................................... 561

Gasworks.Fluid.and.Semifluid.Residuals.and Wastes.as.Potential.Contaminants... 561Clarification.Effluent.Waters................................................................................ 561Tars.and.Tar.Sludge.............................................................................................. 563Management.of.Gasworks.Tars............................................................................ 563Tar-Separation.Sludge.......................................................................................... 563

Ammonia......................................................................................................... 565Light-Oil.Still.Wastes......................................................................................566Producer.Gas-Tar.Extraction...........................................................................566Gas.“Cooler”.Water.........................................................................................566

Tar–Water.Emulsion,.the.Troubling.Residual-Turned.Toxic.Waste.....................566Treating.Tar–Water.Emulsions............................................................................. 569Modern.Remedial.Implications.of.Tar–Water.Emulsions.................................... 570

Oil-Gas.Plant.Tars........................................................................................... 575Coke-Oven.Plant.Tars...................................................................................... 576

Gasworks.Solid.Wastes.as.Potential.Contaminants.................................................. 576General.Remedial.Implications.of.Gas-Manufacturing.Solid.Residuals.and.Wastes............................................................................................................ 577

Coke................................................................................................................. 577Ash................................................................................................................... 578Clinker............................................................................................................. 580Spent.Purifier.Media.(Purifier.Box.Waste)...................................................... 581Spent.Purifier.Lime......................................................................................... 581Spent.Wood.Chips.and.Shavings..................................................................... 582Spent.Iron.Oxides.and.Oxide.Mixtures........................................................... 583Cyanide.and.Cyanogens.................................................................................. 584Prussian.Blue-Stained.Gravel.and.Cobbles..................................................... 587Ferrocyanides.................................................................................................. 587Historic.Cyanogen.Recovery........................................................................... 588Regulatory.Implications.of.Gasworks.Cyanide.and.Cyanogens..................... 588Tar.Pitches....................................................................................................... 589Lampblack....................................................................................................... 590Trapping.Lampblack.in.Oil.Gas.Wash-Box.Residuals.................................... 590Breeze.............................................................................................................. 592

Inert.Solid.Wastes.at.Gasworks.Sites........................................................................ 592Demolition.Waste.of.Replaced.Ceramic.Retorts.and.Brick.Benches.................. 593Inert.Plant.Trash................................................................................................... 594

Historic.Reuse.Options.for.Gasworks.Residuals...................................................... 595On-Plant.Use.of.Gas.Tar.as.Gas-Plant.Fuels........................................................ 595Burning.Tar.at.the.Gasworks,.as.a.Fuel............................................................... 597Gas-Plant.Accommodations.for.Off-Plant.Sales.of.Gas.Tars..............................600

xvi Contents

Gasworks.Dumps.and.Tar.Ponds..............................................................................600Detecting.and.Verifying.Gasworks.Dumps.........................................................608The.Reality.of.Gasworks.Dumps.........................................................................609Case.Study.of.Gasworks.Nos..1.and.2,.Ramsgate,.Kent,.the.United.Kingdom............................................................................................. 610Gasworks.Dumping.on.or.into.Bodies.of.Open.Water......................................... 612Plant-Area.Contaminated.Sediment..................................................................... 613Tar.Ponds.as.an.Historic.Residuals.Management.Option.................................... 614Tar.Ponds.as.the.Ultimate.Disposal.Site.for.Tar–Water.Emulsions..................... 615Case.of.the.Adamczak.Road.Gasworks.Dump,.Manistee,.MI............................. 615

Fate.and.Transport.of.Coal-Tar.Residuals................................................................. 615Source.Areas.and.Associated.Waste.Types.for.Characterization.Planning......... 617

Waste.Types..................................................................................................... 617Fate.of.Residuals.and.Wastes.at.the.Plant.Site................................................ 617Fate.of.Surface.Disposal.................................................................................. 617Evaporation...................................................................................................... 617Weathering.and.Degradation........................................................................... 617

Organic.Chemical.Fingerprint.Association.with.Source.Area............................ 617Historic.Knowledge,.Legislation,.and.Litigation.over.Gas-House.Wastes............... 618By-Product.Recovery.Operations.as.Sources.of.Gasworks.Contamination............. 618

Recovery.of.By-Products...................................................................................... 619Recovery.of.Naphthalene.as.a.By-Product.Base............................................. 619

Inorganic.Compounds.......................................................................................... 621Sulfur............................................................................................................... 621Ammonia.and.Its.Recovery............................................................................. 622Ammonia.Still.Wastes..................................................................................... 623

Recovery.of.Ammonium.Sulfate..........................................................................624Historic.Case.of.Ammonia.Scrubber.Waste.Pollution.at.Schenectady,.NY........................................................................................624Modern.Remedial.Implications.of.Gas-Plant.Ammonia................................. 627

Solid.Wastes.That.May.Mimic.Tar.Residuals...................................................... 628Heavy.Metals................................................................................................... 628

Predictable.Gas-Yard.Sources.of.Site.Contamination............................................... 628Management.of.Condensation.and.Purification.Residuals................................... 628Condensers.and.Other.Fine-Particle.Removers.................................................... 629Coal.Gasification.Condenser.Residuals................................................................ 629Tar.Extractors.and.Separators.............................................................................. 629

Tar.Extractors.................................................................................................. 630Relief.Holders.as.a.Crude.Form.of.Tar.Separators.............................................. 631Water.Gas-Tar.Separators.and.Their.Overflow.................................................... 633Overflow.from.Washers.and.Washer.Scrubbers................................................... 633Tar.Wells............................................................................................................... 634Curious.Case.of.the.“Migrating”.Tar.Well,.Springfield,.MO.............................. 636The.Function.of.Tar.Wells.................................................................................... 638Tar.Wells.as.Discharge.Points.for.Residuals........................................................640Tar.Tanks.(Surface.and.Subsurface).....................................................................640Water-Gas.Wash-Box.and.Carburetted.Water-Gas.Wash-Box.Residuals............640Purifiers................................................................................................................ 641

Leaks,.Spills,.Drainages,.and.Direct.Discharges.as.Sources.of.Site.Contamination...........................................................................................................642

Contents xvii

Drainage.of.Tar.Residuals.and.Tar.Wastes...........................................................642Case.of.Lake.Station,.a.Central.Station.(aka.“Gasworks.Park”),.Seattle,.WA.(1906–1965)................................................................................................... 643

Gasworks.Piping.Leaks............................................................................................. 643Fluid.Leakage.from.Subsurface.Vessels.............................................................. 643Corrosion-Based.Leakage....................................................................................644Chemical.Corrosion.and.Pipe.Leaks....................................................................646Corrosion.of.Aboveground.Plate.Steel.Gasholder.Water-Seal.Tanks..................646Electrolytic.Corrosion.from.Stray.Trolley-Line.Currents.................................... 647Off-Site.Subsurface.Leaks....................................................................................648

Various.Coal-Tar.Operations.as.Sources.of.Contamination..................................... 651Recovery.of.Coke-Oven.By-Products.................................................................. 651

Collection.of.Coke-Oven.Gas.......................................................................... 651Primary.Cooler................................................................................................ 651By-Products.Building...................................................................................... 651Final.Cooler.and.Benzol.Washer..................................................................... 651Variations.in.Coke-Oven.Design..................................................................... 651Remediation.Implications.of.By-Product.Coke-Oven.Sites............................ 652

World.War.I.and.the.U.S..Government.Toluol.Plants........................................... 652Coal-Tar-Consuming.By-Product.Industries........................................................ 659Coal-Tar.Distilleries............................................................................................. 659Nature.of.the.Tar.By-Product.Distillation.Industry.............................................. 661Coal-Tar.Paints.and.Pipe.Dips.............................................................................. 662Coal-Tar.Pitch....................................................................................................... 662Coal.Tar.as.Solvent.and.Fabric.Waterproofing.....................................................664Coal.Tar.as.a.Marine.Preservative.......................................................................664Coal-Tar.Residuals.as.a.Fungicide/Pesticide.Base...............................................664Charcoal.Kilns.and.Wood-Distillation.Plants......................................................665

Charcoal.Kiln.Sites..........................................................................................665Wood.Distillation.Sites....................................................................................665

World.War.I.and.the.U.S..Government.Cellulose.Acetate.Plants........................666Wood-Tar.By-Products......................................................................................... 667Remedial.Implications.of.Wood-Tar.Sites............................................................ 667Incandescent.Mantle.Manufacturing.Residue.(Thorium).................................... 667The.Fine-Chemical.Tar.Industry.Plants...............................................................668Coal.Tar.as.a.Source.of.Color.Dyestuffs..............................................................668

Dye.Industry....................................................................................................669Medicinal.Tar.Compounds...................................................................................669Coal-Tar.Distilleries.as.Uncontrolled.Hazardous.Waste.Sites............................. 670Wood.Preservation.Facilities.as.Uncontrolled.Hazardous.Waste.Sites................ 670Early.American.Wood.Preservation.Techniques.by.Creosote............................. 670Tar.in.Wood.Preservation..................................................................................... 671Creosote................................................................................................................ 672Remedial.Implications.of.Creosote-Based.Wood-Treatment.Plant.Sites.............680Coal.Tar.as.a.Road.Improvement.Product............................................................680

Gas.Tars.in.Road.Construction........................................................................680Historic.Road-Tar.Developments.in.Europe......................................................... 683Historic.Road-Tar.Developments.in.America...................................................... 685Technical.Developmental.Aspects.of.Road-Tar.Usage......................................... 685Road.Paving.and.Surface.Treatment.by.Prepared.Coal.Tar................................. 687

xviii Contents

The.Coal-Tar.Specialty.Industry.Producing.Road.Tars.......................................687Application.of.Prepared.Coal-Tar.Road.Improvement.Products.......................... 689The.Final.Outcome:.Asphalt.vs..Road.Tar........................................................... 689

Historic.Operational.Nuisances.and.Damages.Associated.with.Manufactured.Gas.Plants.................................................................................................................. 689

State.of.Knowledge.Regarding.Gas-Manufacturing.Residuals.during.the.Gas-Production.Era.............................................................................................. 691

Summary................................................................................................................... 691

Chapter 8 Historic Technical Literature of Manufactured Gas........................................... 695

Introduction............................................................................................................... 695Dealing.with.the.Literature....................................................................................... 695

Types.of.Literature.Pertaining.to.Remediation.of.FMGP.Sites...........................696What.the.Literature.Reveals.of.Importance.to.Remediation...............................697Nature.and.Dissemination.of.Remediation-Relevant.Gas.Industry.Literature.... 698Levels.of.the.Technical.Literature........................................................................ 698

“Authority”.of.Literature........................................................................................... 698“Absolutes”.about.the.Literature..........................................................................704

Technical.Journals.....................................................................................................709Applicable.Journals.to.1960................................................................................. 709Effect.of.Emerging.Natural.Gas.Activity.............................................................709Effect.of.Post-1930.Shortages.in.Gas-Manufacturing.Feedstocks....................... 709

Making.Practical.Remedial.Use.of.the.Literature.................................................... 710Selected.Useful.Technical.Papers......................................................................... 710Handbooks.and.Textbooks................................................................................... 710Journals.of.the.Manufactured.Gas.Industry......................................................... 714Historic.Literature.in.Microform.and.Internet.Digital.Archival.Format............. 714Making.Use.of.the.American Gas-Light Journal................................................ 715Related.Sanitary.Engineering.Content.of.American.Journal.Papers................... 715Applicable.Governmental.Agency.Literature...................................................... 715

Other.Major.Types.of.Relevant.Technical.Literature................................................ 716Historic.Congresses.and.Expositions................................................................... 716Regional.and.National.Gas.Association.Proceedings.......................................... 716Federal.and.State.Engineering.Experiment.Stations............................................ 718Regional.Engineering.Associations..................................................................... 723Technical.Journals.of.Allied.Industrial.Fields..................................................... 723Commercial.Journals.of.Engineering.and.Applied.Science................................ 730Standard.Indices.to.Engineering.and.Science.Literature..................................... 730

Early.Directories.of.Gas.Companies............................................................... 730Brown’s.Directory.of.North.American.Gas.Companies................................. 731Gas.Record.“Pink.Directory”.......................................................................... 735

Gas.Utility.Company.Archives................................................................................. 736Internal.Literature.and.Documents...................................................................... 736Gas.Utility.Periodic.Operational.Reports............................................................ 736Gas.Utility.Annual.Reports.and.Employee/Public.Relations.Magazines............ 736Gas.Utility.Operational.Documents..................................................................... 738Annual.Reports.of.Corporate.Internal.Departments............................................ 741Annual.Reports.to.Stockholders.and.to.U.S..Government................................... 743General.Manager.Annual.Reports....................................................................... 743Plant.Financial.Records.of.Income.and.Expenditures......................................... 743

Contents xix

Maps.of.Generation.and.Distribution.Systems..................................................... 743Maps.of.Real.Property.at.Individual.Stations...................................................... 743Contour.Maps.and.Boring.Logs.for.Proposed.Station.Development................... 744Layout.Maps.of.Individual.Gas.Plants.and.District.Stations............................... 744Contract.Specifications.and.Drawings.for.Plant.Components............................. 745Charts.of.Corporate.History................................................................................. 750Charts.of.Corporate.Organizational.Management............................................... 750Charts.of.Corporate.Executive.Responsibility..................................................... 750Charts.of.Properties.Owned.and.Controlled........................................................ 752Biographic.Details.of.Key.Personnel................................................................... 752Corporate.Photographic.Archives........................................................................ 752Stock.Certificate.Art.of.Manufactured.Gas......................................................... 752Environmental-Era.Corporate.Historical.Assessments........................................ 756In-House.Conclaves.............................................................................................. 756Utility.Industry.Public.Information...................................................................... 756Role.of.Universities.in.Gas.Industry.Education.and.Technology.Exchange........ 756

Public.Utility.Regulatory.Agencies.......................................................................... 756State.Public.Utility.Regulatory.Commissions.(PUCs)......................................... 759Other.State.Regulatory.Agencies......................................................................... 765City.Ordinances.(American.Franchising)............................................................ 766Congressional.Anti-Trust.Hearings.and.Reports.................................................. 766Historical.Summaries.to.the.Federal.Power.Commission................................... 767Corporate.Histories.and.Monographs.of.the.Newcomen.Society........................ 767Commercial.Public.Utility.Finance,.Investment.Literature................................. 767Fire.Insurance.and.Detailed.Real-Estate.Plat.Maps............................................. 767Dealing.with.Sanborn.Maps.Today...................................................................... 775Public.Sector.Sanborn.(and.Other.Related.Map).Coverage................................. 775Private-Sector.Sanborn.Fire.Insurance.Maps...................................................... 776Plat.Maps.............................................................................................................. 777Bird’s-Eye.Views.................................................................................................. 777Record.Keeping.................................................................................................... 777Reports.of.Consultants.in.Manufactured.Gas.and.Coke...................................... 778Engineering Valuation and.Appraisals................................................................. 779Content.of.a.Typical.Historic.Consulting.Engineering.Report............................ 780Methods.of.Compilation.of.Valuation.Reports.................................................... 781Companies,.Personalities,.Consultants,.and.Experts........................................... 781Municipal.Boosterism.......................................................................................... 783Gray.Technical.Literature.................................................................................... 783Drawing.Deductions.from.the.Gas.Literature...................................................... 783

Financial.Failures............................................................................................ 783Explosions.and.Fires.at.Gas.Plants.................................................................. 784

Ill-Kempt.Gas.Plants............................................................................................ 784Historical.Photographs......................................................................................... 784Specialty.Libraries................................................................................................ 785Survival.of,.and.Access.to,.the.Technical.Literature........................................... 786Dealing.with.Gas.Literature.Problems................................................................. 786

Newspapers............................................................................................................... 788Modern.Literature..................................................................................................... 788

U.S..Environmental.Protection.Agency............................................................... 788U.S..Department.of.Energy.................................................................................. 790State.Environmental.Agencies.............................................................................790

xx Contents

Utility.Industry.....................................................................................................790Contributions.from.the.Gas.Side..........................................................................790Agencies.of.the.American.Gas.Association.........................................................790The.AGA.Technical.Library................................................................................. 791Institute.of.Gas.Technology.................................................................................. 791Gas.Research.Institute.......................................................................................... 792Institute.of.Gas.Technology.................................................................................. 792Contributions.from.the.Electric.Side.of.the.House.............................................. 792Edison.Electric.Institute....................................................................................... 792Electric.Power.Research.Institute......................................................................... 793United.Kingdom................................................................................................... 794

Summary................................................................................................................... 794

Part II the remediation Process

Chapter 9 Site and Waste Characterization for Coal-Tar Contamination.......................... 797

Expecting.and.Predicting.the.Presence.of.Former.Gas.Plants.................................. 798Status.of.American.State.Agency.FMGP.Remediation.Activities............................ 801

History.of.American.Activities.in.Locating.and.Remediating.FMGPs............... 801Legal.Bases.under.Which.Gasworks.Are.Remediated........................................ 801Historic.Emphases.on.Gasworks.Remediation.................................................... 801Basis.for.USEPA.Concern.for.Former.Gasworks.and.Related.Coal-Tar.Sites.......802A.Word.about.“Coal-Tar”.Sites,.as.Related.to.the.RCRA.Appendix.VIII.PAHs......................................................................................................... 802Historic.Flaws.in.CERCLIS.Screening................................................................802

Research.Access.to.CERCLIS.FMGP.Sites..............................................................803Identification.of.FMGP.Sites.via.Internet............................................................803Gaining.Access.to.FMGP.Site.Environmental.Records......................................803

Proper.Importance.of.NFRAP..................................................................................803Original.USEPA.Rationale.for.NFRAP’ing.........................................................804Fate.of.NFRAP’d.FMGPs....................................................................................804

Other.Forms.of.Terminating.Remedial.Action.........................................................805Public.Utilities.as.Responsible.Parties......................................................................807Risk.Assessment.as.Applied.to.FMGPs....................................................................808Coal-Tar.Impacts.on.State.Transportation.Departments...........................................808

State.DOT.Experience..........................................................................................808What.the.Transportation.Advisory.Agencies.Have.to.Say...................................809Example.Circumstances.under.Which.Certain.FMGPs.Were.First.Discovered........................................................................................................ 809

Importance.of.Accurate.Site.and.Waste.Characterization........................................809Chronologic.Assessment.of.Coal-Tar.Operations.....................................................809

Guide.to.Competent.Historic.Assessment............................................................ 812Areas.for.Document.Discovery............................................................................ 814Publications,.Formal.and.Informal...................................................................... 815Analyzing.Site.Operational.Chronology.............................................................. 815Framework............................................................................................................ 815Factoring.in.the.Utility.Holding.Companies........................................................ 815

Contents xxi

Planning.and.Conduct.of.Site.and.Waste.Characterization...................................... 816Analysis................................................................................................................ 819Evaluation............................................................................................................. 819

Chemical.Characterization.of.Historic.Gas-Manufacturing.Wastes........................ 823Let.the.Coal.Tar.Speak.for.Itself.......................................................................... 823Dealing.with.the.EPA.RCRA.Appendix.VIII.Coal-Tar.PAHs............................. 827Conditions.of.Expected.Coal-Tar.Loss................................................................. 827Conditions.of.Expected.Coal-Tar.Recovery......................................................... 827Source.Areas........................................................................................................ 828Disposal................................................................................................................828Gasholders.as.Sources.of.Residuals..................................................................... 830A.Rationale.for.Analyzing.Gasholder.Locations................................................. 831Fate.of.Gasworks.Residuals.and.Wastes.............................................................. 832Fate.of.Surface.Disposal....................................................................................... 833Evaporation........................................................................................................... 833Weathering.and.Degradation................................................................................ 834Migrated.Contamination...................................................................................... 834Detection.of.Coal-Tar.Residuals........................................................................... 834

Phenols.as.Indicators....................................................................................... 834Pyrene.as.an.Indicator..................................................................................... 835

Guidelines.for.Prediction.of.DNAPL.Movement................................................. 836Seven.Intrinsic.Geologic.Parameters.Controlling.Migration............................... 837

Porosity............................................................................................................ 839Permeability.(to.Coal-Tar.Residuals)............................................................... 839Tortuosity.(of.Flow.Channels)......................................................................... 839Saturation.Percent............................................................................................ 839Heterogeneity.(of.Sedimentary.Character)...................................................... 839Entry.Pressure.(of.Infiltrating.Groundwater)................................................... 839Capillary.Pressure.(of.Opposing.Capillary.Fringe).........................................840Sum.Total.of.PAH.Migration.Forces...............................................................840

Gross.Estimation.of.Source-Volume.Extent.........................................................840Utilization.of.Geologic.Factor.Assessment.......................................................... 843Coal-Tar.Residuals.in.Groundwater..................................................................... 843

Historic.Events.as.Disruptors.of.Gasworks............................................................... 843Erroneous.Dismissal.of.PAHs.at.Undetected.Coal-Tar.Sites.................................... 843

Livingston,.Montana.Rail.Yards.......................................................................... 843Case.of.the.Former.Atlas.Powder.Works,.near.Joplin,.MO................................. 845

Geologic.Complexities.in.MGP.Site.Characterization.............................................. 847Standard.of.Care.in.Site.Characterization................................................................848Respecting.and.Utilizing.Site.Technical.History......................................................848Essential.Format.for.the.Site.Characterization.Report............................................. 851

Essential.Focuses.of.a.Comprehensive.Site.and.Waste.Characterization............ 853Regulatory.Consent.Orders.and.Decrees............................................................. 854

Remediation.Planning.and.Selection.of.Consultant.................................................. 854Evaluation.of.Consultants..................................................................................... 855All.Consultants.Are.Not.in.Fact.Equal................................................................ 857Priced-Competition.Is.a.Method.of.Consultant.Selection.................................... 857Breadth.of.Experience.......................................................................................... 857Local.vs..National.Experience............................................................................. 858FMGP.Consultant.Selection.Process.................................................................... 858

xxii Contents

Budgeting.............................................................................................................. 858Contracting........................................................................................................... 859Managing.the.Consultant..................................................................................... 859Integration.of.Legal.Counsel................................................................................ 859Work.Plans............................................................................................................ 859

Gasworks.Contamination..........................................................................................860Gas.Plant.Source.Areas........................................................................................ 861Gasyard.Corrosion.as.a.Source.of.Leaked.Residuals........................................... 861Waste.Disposal.Bodies.(Dumps).......................................................................... 863The.Gasworks.Dump............................................................................................ 863Box.Wastes,.in.General........................................................................................ 865Migrated.Wastes................................................................................................... 867Iteration.of.Incoming.Field.Data.......................................................................... 867Use.of.Laboratory.Testing.................................................................................... 867“Fingerprinting”.of.Tar.Affinity.and.Likely.Origin.............................................868

Risk.Assessment........................................................................................................ 870Usual.Purpose.for.Making.Risk.Assessments.of.FMGPs.................................... 870ATSDR.Participation............................................................................................ 871Assessment.by.Responsible.Parties...................................................................... 871Potential.Errors.in.Risk.Assessment.................................................................... 871

Errors.and.Contentious.Issues.in.FMGP.Characterization....................................... 872Site.Conceptual.Geologic.Model.......................................................................... 872Errors.and.Erroneous.Concepts............................................................................ 873Erroneous.Concepts.............................................................................................. 873Contentious.Issues................................................................................................ 873Need.to.Employ.Multiple.Working.Hypotheses................................................... 875Assumptions......................................................................................................... 875Issues.of.Waste.Presence...................................................................................... 875Issues.of.Fate.and.Transport................................................................................. 876Chemically.Based.Excuses.for.No-Action........................................................... 876Issues.of.Misidentification.................................................................................... 876Shortfalls.in.Scope.of.Work.for.Remedial.Investigations.................................... 877Legitimate.Questions............................................................................................ 877Gray.Issues,.Ghosts,.Hearsays,.and.Fables........................................................... 878

Summary................................................................................................................... 879

Chapter 10 Selection and Construction of Remedy: A Commendation to the “RPM”...... 881

Introduction............................................................................................................... 881Practical.Effects.of.the.Voluntary.Cleanup.Program.Movement.in.America...... 881

Practical.Technological.Imperatives.of.Coal-Tar.Site.Remediation......................... 883Basic.Coal-Tar.Site.Remediation.Steps.....................................................................886Documentary.History.of.American.Coal-Tar.Cleanup............................................. 887

Programmatic.FMGP.Cleanup.in.the.United.States............................................ 887Historic.Role.of.the.U.S..Environmental.Protection.Agency.in.FMGP.Cleanup...................................................................................................887

Toxic.Gas-Manufacturing.Residual.and.Compounds.as.a.Base.Reference.in.Remedy.Selection...................................................................................................... 894

Conventions.for.Notation.of.PAH.Contaminant.Concentration........................... 894Coal-Tar.Compounds.Viewed.from.the.Standpoint.of.Public.Health.................. 894Dealing.with.Cyanogens......................................................................................899

Contents xxiii

Reference.Information.on.Popularity.of.Particular.FMGP.Remediation.Technologies..............................................................................................................899

Typical.Remediation.Alternatives.for.Consideration.at.FMGPs.......................... 899U.S..EPA.Records.of.Decision.for.FMGPs..........................................................899

Selection.of.Remedy..................................................................................................922Establishing.the.Site-Knowledge.Basis.for.Selection.of.Remedy........................922Broad.Influences.on.Selection.of.Remedy............................................................922Actual.Process.of.Coal-Tar.Cleanup.in.North.America.......................................923Examples.of.Actual.North.American.Cleanup.Actions.......................................923Post-Remediation.Land.Use.of.Central.Station.FMGP.Sites...............................923Special.Attention.to.Historic.Structures.Located.over.Gasworks.Toxics............924

Remedial.Technologies.Particularly.Applicable.to.FMGP.Sites..............................926Regulatory.Classification.of.Coal-Tar.Wastes...........................................................927Types.of.Gasworks.Contaminants.Subject.to.Remedial.Action...............................927

Tars.in.and.about.the.Gasworks...........................................................................928Dealing.with.the.Multitude.of.PAH.Tar.Compounds...........................................928

Basic.Questions.to.Be.Answered.for.Identified.Box.Waste.Disposal.Locations.........................................................................................................929Observations.Related.to.Gasworks.Cyanogens...............................................930

Potential.Risks.Associated.with.Coal-Tar.Residuals................................................ 931Selection.of.Action.Levels......................................................................................... 931Developing.Remedial.Objectives.............................................................................. 935

Presumptive.Remedies......................................................................................... 935Air.Emissions....................................................................................................... 935Sediment............................................................................................................... 937Sheen.................................................................................................................... 938Surface.Water....................................................................................................... 939Groundwater......................................................................................................... 939By.Receptor.......................................................................................................... 939

Compounds.of.Concern............................................................................................. 939Risk-Associated.Chemical.Makeup.of.Coal-Tar.Residuals..................................940Air.Emissions.as.a.Remediation.Concern............................................................ 941Potential.Subsurface.Releases.to.Groundwater.................................................... 941Cancer.Risk.as.a.Means.of.Evaluating.Specific.Coal.Tars.................................. 941Chronic.vs..Carcinogenic..................................................................................... 942Cancer-Based.Risk.Estimation............................................................................. 942The.Unfortunate.Case.History.of.the.Taylorville,.IL,.FMGP.............................. 943

Selection.of.Remedial.Actions.................................................................................. 943Selection.of.Cleanup.Level................................................................................... 943

Risk-Based.Selection.of.Remedies............................................................................944RBCA.Applied.to.Leaking.Underground.Petroleum.Tank.Sites......................... 945RBCA.as.Promoted.beyond.Leaking.Underground.Petroleum.Tanks................. 947Misapplication.of.RBCA.to.FMGPs.and.Other.Coal-Tar.Sites............................ 947Reality.of.Coal-Tar.Residuals.as.Related.to.Presumptive.Risk.Assumptions...... 947

Rational-Basis.Selection.of.Remedy.for.FMGPs.and.Other.Coal-Tar.Sites............. 947Addressing.FMGP.Residuals.in.Selection.of.Remedy......................................... 947Liquid.Gas.Plant.Residuals.and.Wastes...............................................................948Origin.of.Gas.Plant.Impurities.as.Today’s.Hazardous.Waste.............................. 949Hazardous.Residuals.and.Wastes.of.Coke.Works.and.Tar.Distilleries................ 950What.We.Learn.from.the.Historic.Gas.Industry.Literature................................. 950What.We.Need.for.Selection.of.Remedy.............................................................. 950

xxiv Contents

Remediation.Imperatives.for.Accurate.Site.and.Waste.Characterization............ 951Avoiding.“Junk.Science”.in.Characterizing.FMGPs........................................... 951

Selection.of.Remedy.................................................................................................. 952Selection.of.Action.Level..................................................................................... 952In.Consideration.of.Intended.Future.Land.Use.................................................... 953By.Exposure.Scenario.......................................................................................... 953By.Risk-Based.Corrective.Action......................................................................... 953

Remedial.Alternative.Options.for.Coal-Tar.Sites...................................................... 954Traditional.FMGP.Actions................................................................................... 954

No.Action......................................................................................................... 954Institutional.Controls....................................................................................... 954Surface.Water.Controls.................................................................................... 955Groundwater.Controls..................................................................................... 955Containment.................................................................................................... 956Excavation........................................................................................................ 957Land.Burial...................................................................................................... 958Resource.Recovery.......................................................................................... 963Direct.Treatment..............................................................................................964Thermal.Treatment..........................................................................................964Thermal.Treatment..........................................................................................965Modern.Chemical.Reprocessing.of.Gas-House.Wastes..................................966Solidification/Stabilization.and.Land.Burial................................................... 967

A.Word.about.Coal.Tar.as.a.Contamination-Remediation.Target............................968Indirect.Treatment.of.FMGP.Residuals.and.Wastes.................................................968

Pump.and.Treat....................................................................................................968Soil.Vapor.Capture...............................................................................................968Bioremediation..................................................................................................... 970

Innovative.Technologies............................................................................................ 971Construction.of.the.Remedy...................................................................................... 971

General.North.American.Status.of.FMGP.Constructed.Remedy........................ 971Remediation.Literature.in.General....................................................................... 971

British.FMGP.and.Coal-Tar.Remediation.Literature...................................... 972American.FMGP.and.Coal-Tar.Remediation.Literature................................. 972

Other.Government.Entities................................................................................... 973Utility.Industry.Groups........................................................................................ 974Environmental.Consultants.................................................................................. 974Open.Literature.................................................................................................... 974

FMGP.Remedial.Contract.Documents..................................................................... 975Specifications.and.Drawings................................................................................ 975Unit-Item.Bidding................................................................................................. 975Lump-Sum.Bidding.............................................................................................. 975Sweat-Equity.Remedial.Contracts........................................................................ 976Scheduling............................................................................................................ 976Contingencies....................................................................................................... 976Emission.Control.................................................................................................. 976Temporary.Structures...........................................................................................977

Sometimes.Contentious.Remedial.Contract.Issues...................................................977Site.Unknowns...................................................................................................... 978Indemnification..................................................................................................... 978Bid-Award.Process............................................................................................... 978Quality.Control.and.Quality.Assurance............................................................... 979

Contents xxv

Oversight.of.Remedial.Construction.................................................................... 979Regulatory-Agency.Interfacing............................................................................ 979Mediation/Arbitration........................................................................................... 979Management.of.Construction.Claims................................................................... 979

Summary...................................................................................................................980

Chapter 11 FMGP.Regulatory.and.Legal.Considerations.for.Remedial.Engineers.and.Scientists............................................................................................................. 981

Introduction............................................................................................................... 981Remediation.Laws.and.Their.Implementing.Regulations......................................... 981

General.Parties.to.Site.Remediation..................................................................... 981Secondary.Parties.to.Site.Remediation................................................................ 982Premise.for.Understanding.Remedial.Regulations.............................................. 982

General.Magnitude.of.Gasworks.Cleanup.under.National.Law............................... 982General.Number.of.Gasworks.and.Coal-Tar.Sites.in.North.America.................. 983Prominent.Gasworks.Responsible.Parties.in.North.America.............................. 983Gasworks.Responsible.Parties.in.the.United.Kingdom........................................ 983

Remediation.Tracks.in.General................................................................................. 983General,.Predictable.Sequence.of.FMGP.Remediation..................................... 1002

Gasworks.Remediation.in.the.United.States........................................................... 1003Remediation.Influenced.by.RCRA.(1976,.as.Amended)....................................1004Remediation.Influenced.by.CERCLA.(SUPERFUND;.1980,.as.Amended).....1004

CERCLA.National.Priority.List.(NPL).........................................................1004Removal.Site.Evaluations.(RSEs)..................................................................1009The.CERCLIS.................................................................................................1011Brownfield.Sites............................................................................................. 1012Voluntary.Cleanup.Programs.(VCPs)............................................................ 1012State-.or.Federal-Lead.Cleanups................................................................... 1013NFRAP’d.Federal.CERCLIS.Sites................................................................ 1013Potential.for.Third-Party.Plaintiff.Suits.over.Closed.Sites............................1014

Advantages.of.RP.Compliance.under.Superfund................................................1014Long-Term.Stewardship...................................................................................... 1015

Gasworks.Remediation.in.the.United.Kingdom......................................................1016Statutory.Recognition.of.Gasworks.in.the.United.Kingdom..............................1017Issue.of.“Orphaned”.UK.Gas.and.Coal-Tar.Sites.............................................. 1019UK.Commitment.to.Consensus.and.Local.Authority.Participation................... 1020Scottish.Executive.Moves.to.Streamline.Its.Guidance.(2005)........................... 10202006.as.a.Year.of.Change.for.Gasworks.Remediation.in.the.United.Kingdom...............................................................................................1021

Resident.Discovers.Coal.Tar.at.Bawtry,.Yorkshire....................................... 1021Relevant.Applicability.of.the.UK.Environmental.Act.(1990)....................... 1021Enter.the.Local.Authority.at.Bawtry............................................................. 1022Defining.the Knowing.Permitter................................................................... 1022Recovery.of.Reasonable.Remediation.Costs................................................. 1022Stipulation.of.the.Knowing.Parties................................................................ 1022NGG.Objects.to.the.Assessed.Contribution.................................................. 1023Counter.Arguments.to.the.Position.of.NGG................................................. 1023High.Court’s.Conclusions.of.Precedent......................................................... 1023

Trial.Lawyer.(Barrister).Comments.on.the.NGG.Case.Impact......................... 10242009.and.the.Corby.Borough.Decision.............................................................. 1025

xxvi Contents

Remediation.under.American.Law......................................................................... 1025Twenty-First.Century.Legal.Flaws.in.Worldwide.Coal-Tar.Site.Remediation....... 1026Funding.Remediation.............................................................................................. 1026

Late.and.Present.Utility.Industry.Dilemma....................................................... 1027Achieving.Economy.in.FMGP.Site.Remediation............................................... 1027Cost.Estimation.for.Remedial.Planning.of.FMGP.Sites.................................... 1031Underlying.Factors.Influencing.Cost.Spreads.for.Remediation.of.North.American.FMGP.Sites....................................................................................... 1032Political.Situation.Facing.Utility.Owners.of.FMGP.Sites.................................. 1032

Historic.Changes.in.North.American.Utility.Companies............................. 1032Coming.of.the.Environmental.Era................................................................ 1036Enter.the.British.to.North.American.Gas.Properties.................................... 1036

Cost.Recovery.as.a.Means.of.Funding.Gasworks.Remediation......................... 1037Coal-Tar.Riders.on.Utility.Rates................................................................... 1037Coal-Tar.Site.Remediation.Cost.Factors........................................................ 1040

FMGP.Litigation.under.American.Environmental.Law......................................... 1043General.Causes.of.Modern.Gasworks.Litigation............................................... 1043General.Prevalence.of.Modern.Gasworks.Litigation......................................... 1043Remedial.Cost.Claims.against.General.Liability.Insurance.Coverage.............. 1045

General.Liability.Notice.Impact.of.the.“March.1984.Letter”....................... 1045Insurance.Recovery.Impact.of.the.March.1984.Letter.................................. 1045Response.of.the.Insurance.Industry.............................................................. 1066

Usual.Technical.Topics.of.Contention.Gasworks.Insurance.Coverage.Litigation............................................................................................................ 1067

Seeking.Site.“Truths”.in.the.Context.of.Remediation.and.of.Related.Litigation.............................................................................................1068

Consideration.of.Historic.Waste.Management.Practices................................... 1068Basic.Truths.about.Historic.Gasworks.Operational.Practices........................... 1068Judging.the.Truth.Content.of.FMGP.Site.Characterization............................... 1070

Remediation.Roles.for.Professional.Scientists.and.Engineers................................ 1070Hallmarks.of.a.Profession.................................................................................. 1071Understanding.Employer.Interests.as.Relative.to.the.Law................................. 1071

Litigation.Factors.Impacting.the.Roles.of.Professional.Engineers.and.Scientists.Involved.in.Coal-Tar.Site.Remediation................................................... 1072

Conduct.of.Adequate.Site.Historical.Research.................................................. 1072Expert.Witnesses.and.Litigation.Consultants..................................................... 1072Ethics.of.Expert.Technical.Engineering.and.Science.Testimony...................... 1074Situations.in.Which.the.Expert.Chooses.to.Compromise.the.Truth.................. 1074Examination.of.Opposing.Expert’s.Previous.Testimony................................... 1075Expert.Qualification.Responsibilities.of.the.Court.and.Other.Parties.to.the.Case.............................................................................................................. 1075Modern.Court-Room.Meanings.Related.to.Expert.Testimony.on.Discharges.of.Gasworks.Residuals.and.Wastes................................................. 1075

Commentary.on.the.General.Roles.of.Parties.to.Compelled.Coal-Tar.Site.Remediation............................................................................................................ 1076

Role.of.Government.Agencies............................................................................ 1076American.Utility.Industry.(Post-1980).as.FMGP.RPs....................................... 1078True.Impact.of.RP.Recalcitrance.over.CERCLA.Provisions............................. 1079Injured.Residents,.Neighbors,.and.Visiting.Citizens.......................................... 1080Citizens.Calling.for.Gasworks.Remediation...................................................... 1080Some.Projections.toward.Future.Gasworks.Litigation....................................... 1081

Contents xxvii

Some.Engineering.and.Scientific.Aspects.of.Redevelopment.of.Coal-Tar.Sites.... 1081Summary................................................................................................................. 1083Acknowledgments................................................................................................... 1083

Appendix A: History of Manufactured Gas and Related Technologies: Major Chronological Events in the History of Manufactured Gas................................................... 1085

Appendix B: Historic Glossary of Manufactured Gas and Allied Technologies...................1117

Appendix C: Historic Gas Industry Personalities................................................................... 1201

Appendix D: Locations of Manufactured Gas Plants Worldwide......................................... 1215

Appendix E: American Gas Utility Companies Associated with FMGPs—Yesteryear’s Holding Companies and Today’s Utilities................................................................................ 1267

Consolidated References............................................................................................................ 1287

Index............................................................................................................................................. 1321