Assessment of solar thermal power generation potential in India

Chandan Sharma, Ashish K. Sharma, Subhash C. Mullick, Tara C. Kandpal n

Centre for Energy Studies, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, Hauz Khas, New Delhi 110016, India

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:Received 12 July 2014Received in revised form9 September 2014Accepted 20 October 2014

Keywords:Solar thermal power generationConcentrated Solar PowerPotential Estimation for India

a b s t r a c t

Realistic assessment of utilization potential of solar energy for thermal power generation and identification ofniche areas/locations for this purpose is critically important for designing and implementing appropriatepolicies and promotional measures. This paper presents the results of a detailed analysis undertaken forestimating the potential of solar thermal power generation in India. A comprehensive framework is developedthat takes into account (i) the availability of wastelands (ii) Direct Normal Irradiance (DNI) (iii) wastelands thatare habitat to endangered species and/or tribal population and/or that is prone to earthquakes and (iv)suitability of wasteland for wind power generation. Finally, using an approach developed for the allocation ofwastelands suitable for solar power generation between thermal and photovoltaic routes, the potential of solarthermal power generation is assessed for two threshold values of DNI – 1800 kW h/m2 and 2000 kW h/m2.With all the wastelands having wind speeds of 4 m/s or more allocated for wind power generation, theestimated potential for solar thermal power generation is 756 GW for a threshold DNI value of 1800 kW h/m2

and 229 GW for a threshold DNI value of 2000 kW h/m2. Results obtained can be used for identification of bestsuited areas for solar thermal power generation in India.

& 2014 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9032. Review of CSP system requirements as reported in literature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 903

2.1. Direct Normal Irradiance (DNI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9032.2. Land requirement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9042.3. Water requirement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9042.4. Availability of transmission and supporting infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9052.5. Potential for auxiliary supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 905

3. Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9053.1. Identification of wastelands in the country . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 905

3.1.1. Description of wastelands considered suitable for solar power generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9053.2. Estimation of DNI and other climatic parameters for locations with wastelands. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9053.3. Identifying wastelands with acceptable annual value of DNI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9053.4. Accounting for the need to safeguard endangered species, wellbeing of tribal population etc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9053.5. Accounting for potential of wind and PV power generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 906

4. Results and discussion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9064.1. Availability of wasteland (for a particular threshold value of DNI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9074.2. Accounting for wasteland with large tribal population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9074.3. Accounting for wasteland with habitat of critically endangered species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9074.4. Excluding wasteland under seismic zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9084.5. Exclusion of land with higher slopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9084.6. Accounting for the land suitable for wind and PV power generation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9084.7. Ground water availability in potential locations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9094.8. Potential for solar thermal power generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 910

5. Concluding remarks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 910

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.10.0591364-0321/& 2014 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

n Corresponding author. Tel.: þ91 11 26591262.E-mail address: tarak@ces.iitd.ac.in (T.C. Kandpal).

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 42 (2015) 902–912

Acknowledgment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 910Appendix A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 910Appendix B. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 910Appendix C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 911References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 911

1. Introduction

To meet increasing global energy demand in an environmentallysustainable manner, greater emphasis is being given to the develop-ment and dissemination of renewable energy technologies. Solarenergy is an important renewable energy source that is expected toplay a significant role in the future energy supply mix [1–4].Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) technology is an important optionfor harnessing solar energy that has been receiving increasing atten-tion during past several decades [5–8]. Many CSP plants are opera-tional across the world and new plants are coming up. Currently fourcandidate CSP technologies appear to have achieved reasonable levelof technological maturity [9,10]. These are parabolic trough, powertower, linear Fresnal reflector and parabolic dish. With the launch ofthe Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission (JNNSM) by the Govern-ment of India in January 2010, activities towards establishing CSPbased solar thermal power generation in the country gatheredconsiderable momentum [11]. The mission aims to create an enablingpolicy framework for the deployment of 20,000MWof solar power bythe year 2022 [12]. Such an initiative necessitates identification ofareas suitable for CSP based solar electricity generation and alsoestimation of its overall potential. A detailed potential estimation forthe whole country and identification of niche area shall be of greathelp for the policy makers, researchers and project developers.

Efforts have been made towards assessing the potential of CSPin some countries of the world. Trieb et al. [13] have estimated thepotential of CSP on a global scale. They identified Africa, Australia,China, South America, India and Middle East countries as potentialareas for CSP installations. Breyer and Knies [14] commented thatCSP has immense potential to become a major source of globalelectricity supply and less than 3% of global CSP based energysupply potential can cater to the global electricity demand. Bravoet al. [15] estimated the potential of renewable energy technolo-gies (including CSP) for Spain. Similarly potential assessment forthe state of Arizona in USA was carried out by Pletka et al. [16]. Inthe United States, potential assessment for other areas was under-taken by Dahle et al. [17], Karstaedt et al. [18], and Kirby et al. [19].Similar attempts to estimate the potential of CSP in North Africa,South Africa, Serbia, Australia, Algeria, Brazil, Canada, China andTurkey have also been reported in the literature [20–30].

In context of India, while several researchers have made qualita-tive statements regarding the potential of CSP [31–35], a recent study[36] has presented quantitative estimates of CSP based powergeneration potential for northwestern India (the states of Rajasthanand Gujarat). Though this study takes into account the availability ofwastelands and solar resource, it does not consider the possibility ofwind power generation at some of the locations suitable for solarthermal power. Also distribution of wastelands between photovoltaic(PV) power and solar thermal power has not been considered in thestudy. Another recent study [37] presents district wise potential ofCSP and solar PV in India using remotely sensed annual average GHIand DNI values in Geographical Interface System (GIS) environment.While this study considers all the categories of wastelands as suitablefor solar power generation, it does not consider possibility of windpower generation on the same wastelands and several other aspectsthat may restrict the use of wastelands for solar thermal powergeneration.

Results of a preliminary study towards identification of suitableareas for solar thermal power generation in India and estimation ofcorresponding potential have been presented in this paper. Besidesthe primary considerations of land and solar resource availability, anattempt has also been made to consider (i) the availability restric-tions caused by the habitat of endangered species and tribal popula-tion on the identified wastelands, (ii) wastelands under seismiczones, and (iii) the potential suitability of the same wasteland forwind power generation. Finally the wastelands that can be allocatedfor solar power generation have been allocated between solarthermal power generation and photovoltaic generation on the basisof the number of hours during the year the ambient temperature ofthe location exceeds a pre-defined value.

2. Review of CSP system requirements as reported in literature

2.1. Direct Normal Irradiance (DNI)

Unlike Solar photovoltaic systems that make use of direct aswell as diffuse components of solar radiation, CSP systems canutilize only direct component with the need for high DirectNormal Irradiance for efficient functioning. The locations havinghigh annual DNI availability are best suited for CSP installation.Threshold values of annual DNI for solar thermal power generationas suggested by some researchers are presented in Table 1. As an

Table 1Threshold values of annual DNI suggested by some researchers.

Researcher (s) Threshold value of annualDNI (kW h/m2/year)

Reference

Dawson and Schlyter, 2012 1800 [38]Breyer and Knies, 2009 2000 [14]Purohit and Purohit, 2010 1800 [32]Ummadisingu and Soni, 2011 2000 [9]

Table 2Reported land requirement for different CSP technologies.

Technology Land requirement(m2/MW)

Remark Reference

Parabolic trough 40,000 Including power block [39]40,000 [32]25,505 Including power block [40]20,000 [38]18,000 [41]

Power tower 83,600 [39]50,000 1 h storage [41]45,000 [41]

Linear Fresnal 19,166 1 h storage [41]34,000 Wet cooling [41]25,555 1 h storage [41]

Parabolic dish 16,000 [39]40,460 [41]45,854 Closed loop cooling [41]

C. Sharma et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 42 (2015) 902–912 903

example, out of 23 solar thermal power plants of cumulativeinstalled capacity 1086 MW in Spain and USA, at most of thelocations, the annual DNI is more than 2000 kW h/m2. Relevantdetails of some of these plants are presented in Appendix A.

2.2. Land requirement

CSP plants require large areas of land for deployment of solarfield, power block and storage component. Requirement of landmay vary according to the CSP technology used and the extent ofstorage with the plant. The land requirement for various CSP

technologies as reported in the literature is given in Table 2. Therequired land is expected to be available in abundance (andperhaps at reasonable cost) in arid and semi-arid areas of thecountry with high DNI.

2.3. Water requirement

Since majority of CSP plants operate on Rankine cycle, waterrequirement for a solar thermal power plant is expected to be similarto that of coal based power plants of equivalent capacities (adjustedfor lower capacity credit of CSP systems). Of the total waterrequirement, 90% of water is for cooling and remaining 10% is formirror washing and other purposes [38]. Availability of water couldbe a challenge in some of the arid areas and, if feasible, dry coolingtechnologies may have to be used at such locations with somecompromise on efficiency of power block. Water requirements as

Fig. 1. Schematic representation of methodology adopted for estimation of potential of solar thermal power generation in India.

Table 4Wasteland categories considered suitable for solar thermal power generation.

Category Description Area (km2)

1 Gullied and/or Ravinous land 61453 Land with dense scrub 86,9794 Land with open scrub 93,03317 Sands – desert sand 393419 Sands semi-stabilized to stabilized dome 15–40 m 14,273

Total 204,364

Table 3Water requirement for various CSP technologies.

Technology Water requirement(L/MWh)

Remark Reference

Parabolic trough 3000–3500 Wet cooling [38]2900–3500 [39]3270 [42]3180 [43]2900–3500 [32]300 Dry cooling [44]

Power tower 2300 Wet cooling [38]2800 [39]2240 [43]

Linear Fresnal reflector 4000–4500 Wet cooling [38]2900–3500 [39]2800 [32]

C. Sharma et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 42 (2015) 902–912904

reported in the literature for various CSP technologies are presentedin Table 3.

2.4. Availability of transmission and supporting infrastructure

CSP systems would require appropriate transmission infrastruc-ture for evacuation of electricity produced. During construction andsubsequent operation of plants, suitable roads are required so thatheavy construction and maintenance machinery can reach the site.Remote locations having higher DNI may sometimes not be preferreddue to non-availability of required infrastructure.

2.5. Potential for auxiliary supply

Though CSP systems can be designed as standalone systems, inmany situations, arrangement of an auxiliary back up may benecessary. Availability and cost of fuel used in the auxiliary systemwould also be considered in decision making in such cases.

3. Methodology

Details of a methodology developed for identification of poten-tial areas for solar thermal power generation in India is presentedin the following paragraphs (Fig. 1).

3.1. Identification of wastelands in the country

The Department of Land Resources, Ministry of Rural Develop-ment (Government of India) has identified 23 categories of waste-land across India in the Wasteland Atlas 2011 [45]. Wastelandcategories considered as suitable in the present study for deploy-ment of solar thermal power plants and the corresponding areasare presented in Table 4.

3.1.1. Description of wastelands considered suitable for solar powergeneration

In the present study, the following 5 categories out of a total of23 different categories of wastelands are considered suitable forsolar power generation.

3.1.1.1. Gullied and/or Ravinous land. Gullies are tiny waterchannels with few centimetres of depth. These are formed as aresult of heavy rainfall and wearing action of run-off generated asthe first stage of excessive land dissection. Ravines are extensivesystem of gullies developed along river courses. Approximately1.5% of total available wasteland belongs to this category.

3.1.1.2. Land with scrub – dense. These wastelands possess shallowsoils. In this case, the soil may be chemically degraded, severelyeroded and may have excessive aridity with scrub dominating thelandscape. In dense scrub wastelands, vegetable cover is oftenmore than 15% and these are associated with moderate slopes inplains and foothills and are generally surrounded by agriculturallands. These wastelands are approximately 22% of the totalwastelands.

3.1.1.3. Land with scrub – open. This category is similar to the densescrub wastelands with the difference that these possess sparsevegetation, generally less than 15% or devoid of scrub. This type ofwasteland is generally prone to deterioration due to erosion andhas a thin soil cover. Approximately 23% of the total wastelands inIndia belong to this category.

3.1.1.4. Sands – deserts sand. These wastelands are confined to aridenvironment where the rainfall is scanty. These lands arecharacterized by accumulation of sand developed in situ ortransported by Eolian processes. Out of total available wastelandsin the country, this category of wastelands is approximately 1%.

3.1.1.5. Sands – semi-stabilized to stabilized dune. These are activedunal areas with semi stabilised to shifting sands dunes that aremore than 40 m high. There shapes and sizes vary depending uponthe prevailing wind conditions. These wastelands rarely supportany vegetation. They constitute 3.5% of total available wastelands.

The above mentioned categories of wastelands cannot be usedfor agricultural purposes and are far away from habitat thushaving little or no competition with industrial, commercial orresidential requirements. Hence in the present analysis thesecategories are assumed suitable for solar power generation.

3.2. Estimation of DNI and other climatic parameters for locationswith wastelands

Direct Normal Irradiance (DNI) values were obtained for eachdistrict headquarter (defined by their respective latitudes andlongitudes). Two data sources were used: (i) website of NASA –

SSE which is satellite based [46] and (ii) the website of the SolarEnergy Centre (SEC) of the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy(MNRE), Government of India [47]. A brief summary of these solarradiation data sources is presented in Table 5.

It is possible to retrieve DNI values for any desired locationfrom these data sources, hence these were used in the presentanalysis. As an example, Table 6 presents wastelands, DNI valuesand other climatic conditions for various districts in the state ofRajasthan. Similar exercise was carried out for each state of thecountry.

3.3. Identifying wastelands with acceptable annual value of DNI

Two scenarios were considered for this purpose. The first oneconsidered locations having DNI more than 2000 kW h/m2/yearwhile in the second scenario, locations having DNI more than1800 kW h/m2/year were considered. A review of the DNI valuesgiven by SEC, MNRE and NASA reveals that there is considerablevariation in the two values with the NASA data giving highervalues of DNI in most of the cases. The variation can be as high as35%. To obtain conservative estimates of the solar thermal powergeneration potential, in the present analysis, DNI values given bySEC, MNRE were used.

3.4. Accounting for the need to safeguard endangered species,wellbeing of tribal population etc.

For this purpose, districts having more than 50% of populationbelonging to tribal category as specified by Ministry of TribalAffairs, Government of India [48], were excluded from the waste-lands identified in Section 3.3 above. Similarly, the locations withendangered species as specified by the Ministry of Environment

Table 5Details of NASA – SSE and SEC – MNRE radiation data sources.

Parameter NASA – SSE SEC – MNRE

Source Satellite derived Satellite derivedRegion Worldwide IndiaResolution 10 km�10 km 10 km�10 kmData GHI, DNI, Ta, wind speed etc. GHI and DNIValues Monthly, yearly MonthlyTime period July 1983–June 2005 January 2002–December 2008

C. Sharma et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 42 (2015) 902–912 905

and Forests, Government of India [49], were also excluded. Inaddition, the districts that are known to be prone to earthquakes[50] were not included in the potential estimation. Also thewastelands located in Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh,Uttarakhand and the seven North Eastern states were excludedas most of the terrain has high slopes and thus may not be suitablefor CSP installation.

3.5. Accounting for potential of wind and PV power generation

Prioritization of wasteland allocation amongst wind, PV andCSP systems is quite involved. In this study, as a preliminarymeasure, districts having annual average wind speeds more than athreshold value are excluded (even though the locations may alsohave high DNI values) as the same may preferably be used ofinstallation of wind power plants. To decide the threshold value,wind speeds at the potential locations as identified by MNRE andC-WET [51] were examined (Appendix B).

Keeping in view the range of wind speeds presented inAppendix B, a threshold value of 4 m/s has been selected andthe wastelands that have annual average wind speeds more thanthe threshold value were excluded for installation of wind powerplants.

To allocate wastelands between solar PV and solar thermalpower (after accounting for wastelands suitable for wind powergeneration), hourly temperature at all the relevant locations wasexamined as performance of commercially available PV panelsdegrades at higher operating temperatures. To accomplish this,Typical Meteorological Year 3 (TMY 3) files were generated fromMeteonorm 7 software that provides temperature for 8760 h foreach selected location along with other parameters. This exercise

was carried out for all the remaining wastelands identified indifferent states with the district headquarter assumed to representthe entire district for the purpose of ambient temperature. Todistribute the remaining wastelands among PV power and solarthermal power, for each district, the number of hours in a year theambient temperature is more than 25 1C and GHI is more than120 W/m2 was estimated by developing a program in Matlab. As afirst approximation, in the present study, it is proposed that ifnumber of such hours in a year at the chosen location is more than3000, then the location is suitable for solar thermal powergeneration or else the location is suitable for PV power generation.Following this approach, the potential of solar thermal powergeneration was estimated for two different threshold values ofannual DNI. The land requirement (0.04 km2/MW) for the para-bolic trough technology was assumed as reference being a com-mercially proven and mature technology [39]. The availability ofsurface and/or ground water for the selected locations was alsoanalyzed.

Anticipating some uncertainty in the reported values of DNI bydifferent solar radiation data sources, a more conservative esti-mate of solar thermal power generation potential in the countryhas been obtained for each location by using 10% lower values ofDNI than those provided in the data source given by SEC, MNRE.A mathematical framework for estimation of wastelands suitablefor solar thermal power generation is presented in Appendix C.

4. Results and discussion

Based on the above approach, calculations have been made toestimate district wise potential of solar thermal power generation

Table 6Wasteland and climatic conditions for the state of Rajasthan.

District Wasteland(km2) Latitude(1N) Longitude(1E) DNI Wind speeds(m/s) Temp.(1C)

NASA (kW h/m2/day) SEC (kW h/m2/day)

Ajmer 1683 26.45 74.7 5.7 5.76 3.63 24.6Alwar 592 27.56 76.63 5.36 5.13 3.17 24.1Banswara 348 23.5 74.4 5.65 5.74 3.43 26.3Baran 528 25.08 76.55 5.45 5.44 3.29 25.6Barmer 2886 25.75 71.41 5.63 5.79 5.02 26.3Bharatpur 413 27.25 77.5 5.32 4.62 3.08 24.5Bhilwara 2231 25.35 74.66 5.62 5.82 3.66 25Bikaner 6840 28.01 73.36 5.67 5.46 3.85 24.5Bundi 419 25.45 75.68 5.55 5.54 3.29 25.3Chittorgarh 1159 24.9 74.7 5.7 5.93 3.66 25.5Churu 439 28.31 75.01 5.4 5.19 3.28 23.7Dhaulpur 514 26.77 77.88 5.39 5.09 3.22 25Duasa 264 26.9 76.36 5.42 5.44 3.25 24.9Dungarpur 950 23.83 73.83 5.83 5.57 3.96 26.7Ganganagar 1253 26.81 73.76 5.81 5.68 4.3 25Hanumangarh 285 29.58 74.35 5.44 4.67 3.43 23.8Jaipur 1238 26.91 73.36 5.56 5.56 4.3 25Jaisalmer 16,762 26.91 70.95 5.72 5.78 4.89 25.9Jalore 768 25.36 72.96 5.74 5.88 5.15 26.2Jhalawar 1084 24.6 76.15 5.55 5.53 3.28 25.9Jhunjhunu 394 28.1 75.33 5.38 5.31 3.28 23.7Jodhpur 3661 26.3 73.06 5.77 5.68 4.3 25Karauli 436 26.5 77.06 5.37 5.31 3.22 25Kota 510 25.16 75.86 5.53 5.55 3.29 25.3Nagaur 973 27 73.66 5.79 5.64 4.09 24.8Pali 1627 25.76 73.88 5.73 5.89 4.41 25.1Rajsamand 1448 25.07 73.88 5.69 5.99 4.41 25.1Sawaimadhopur 427 25.96 76.05 5.51 5.49 3.29 25.6Sikar 552 27.6 75.25 5.56 5.61 3.27 23.9Sirohi 1012 24.88 72.86 5.62 6.15 5.16 26.5Tonk 658 26.18 75.83 5.51 5.41 3.28 24.6Udaipur 2784 27.7 75.55 5.69 6.16 3.27 23.9Total 55,138

C. Sharma et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 42 (2015) 902–912906

for the entire country. The results obtained are summarized in thissection.

4.1. Availability of wasteland (for a particular threshold valueof DNI)

The estimated values of total wastelands in different states ofthe country in the five categories as identified in Table 4 arepresented in Table 7. Also the wastelands in various states havingDNI more than two different threshold values are presented in thistable. In the case of considering locations with annual average DNIof more than 2000 kW h/m2/year for CSP plants, (or annual dailyaverage DNI of 5.47 kW h/m2/day) a total of 84,229 km2 of waste-lands spread across 14 states of the country was identified. Asexpected, for a threshold DNI value of 1800 kW h/m2/year (orannual daily average DNI of 4.93 kW h/m2/day), a total of170,845 km2 of wasteland spread across 19 states of the countrywas identified.

4.2. Accounting for wasteland with large tribal population

Wastelands in the districts having more than 50% of theirpopulation as tribal is presented in Table 8. Accounting for the

unavailability of tribal population dominated wastelands for solarthermal power generation (or for harnessing renewable energyusing large systems), the revised values of wasteland are78,753 km2 and 158,942 km2 respectively for threshold DNI valuesof 2000 kW h/m2/year and 1800 kW h/m2/year.

4.3. Accounting for wasteland with habitat of critically endangeredspecies

As per the Ministry of Environment and Forest, Government ofIndia [49], only one critically endangered animal species

Table 8Wastelands inhabited by large tribal population in various states (data consolidateddistrict wise).

State Wasteland (km2)

With DNI41800 kW h/m2/year

With DNI42000 kW h/m2/year

Chhattisgarh 1528 1041Gujarat 397 323Himachal Pradesh 259 157Jammu & Kashmir 975 720Jharkhand 824 0Madhya Pradesh 2370 1937Mizoram 1949 0Orissa 2303 0Rajasthan 1298 1298Total 11,903 5476

Table 9Wastelands highly prone to earthquakes in various states.

State Wasteland (km2)

With DNI41800 kW h/m2/year

With DNI42000 kW h/m2/year

Gujarat 7357 7357Himachal Pradesh 1379 0Jammu & Kashmir 34 0Uttarakhand 619 419Total 9389 7776

Table 10Estimated wasteland area having wind speeds more than 4 m/s in different states.

State Wasteland (km2) with wind speed44 m/s

Threshold DNI1800 kW h/m2/year

Threshold DNI2000 kW h/m2/year

Andhra Pradesh 6758 0Goa 287 0Gujarat 1442 1442Karnataka 1506 272Kerala 819 11Maharashtra 5078 0Punjab 30 0Rajasthan 31,628 31,628Tamil Nadu 929 118Total 48,477 33,471

Table 7List of states in India having wasteland with DNI more than threshold value.

State Geographical area (km2) Wasteland availability (km2)

Total With DNI41800 kW h/m2/year With DNI42000 kW h/m2/year

Andhra Pradesh 275,068 16,767 15,907 1438Bihar 94,171 2581 270 0Chhattisgarh 135,194 4002 4002 1041Goa 3702 287 287 0Gujarat 196,024 16,484 16,484 15,092Himachal Pradesh 55,673 3669 2549 873Jammu & Kashmir 101,387 4071 3263 720Jharkhand 79,706 5495 3496 0Karnataka 191,791 5678 5673 1335Kerala 38,863 1626 931 11Madhya Pradesh 308,252 23,948 23,488 15,167Maharashtra 307,690 24,784 24,784 3208Mizoram 21,081 2731 1949 0Orissa 155,707 7154 5473 0Punjab 50,362 605 82 52Rajasthan 342,239 55,138 54,440 43,775Tamil Nadu 130,058 5100 5100 322Uttarakhand 53,483 1752 1744 887Uttar Pradesh 240,928 3810 923 308Total 2,781,379 185,682 170,845 84,229

C. Sharma et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 42 (2015) 902–912 907

(Mammals) namely – Kondana Rat is found in the identifiedpotential areas for solar power generation. The location is nearPune (Maharashtra). Excluding district of Pune, the potential areafor solar power generation in the country further reduces to78,753 km2 (for threshold DNI of 2000 kW h/m2/year) and to155,895 km2 (for threshold DNI of 1800 kW h/m2/year).

4.4. Excluding wasteland under seismic zone

As per the National Disaster Management Authority, Govern-ment of India [50], few districts in various states are in the seismiczone – V and highly prone to earthquakes (Table 9). Excludingwastelands in these areas, revised estimates of suitable wastelandavailability for solar power generation reduces to70,977 km2

(threshold DNI 2000 kW h/m2/year) and to 146,506 km2 (thresh-old DNI 1800 kW h/m2/year).

4.5. Exclusion of land with higher slopes

As mentioned earlier, due to unavailability of flat land, locationsin the states of Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, and Uttarak-hand were not considered while estimating the potential for solarpower generation. As a result, total available wasteland area is

revised to 69,793 km2 (threshold DNI 2000 kW h/m2/year) and to142,216 km2 (threshold DNI 1800 kW h/m2/year).

4.6. Accounting for the land suitable for wind and PV powergeneration

Ministry of New and Renewable Energy Sources (MNRE) andCentre for Wind Energy Technology (C-WET) have identified 233potential sites for wind power projects in India [51]. All these

Table 11Allocation of land for wind power, PV power and solar thermal power (DNI more than 1800 kW h/m2 and wind speed more than 4 m/s).

State Available wasteland (km2) Wasteland allocated in (km2) for

Wind power with Solar PV power with Solar thermal power withv44 m/s TaZ25 1C for less than 3000 h TaZ25 1C for more than 3000 h

(1) (2) (3) (1)�(2)�(3)

Andhra Pradesh 15,907 6758 0 9149Bihar 270 0 60 210Chhattisgarh 2474 0 1344 1130Goa 287 287 0 0Gujarat 8730 1442 0 7288Jharkhand 2672 0 2672 0Karnataka 5673 1506 2708 1459Kerala 931 819 0 112Madhya Pradesh 21,118 0 21,118 0Maharashtra 21,737 5078 12,055 4604Orissa 3170 0 2047 1123Punjab 82 30 52 0Rajasthan 53,142 31,628 19,405 2109Tamil Nadu 5100 929 1084 3087Uttar Pradesh 923 0 923 0Total 142,216 48,477 63,468 30,271

Table 12Allocation of land for wind power, PV power and solar thermal power (DNI more than 2000 kW h/m2 and wind speed more than 4 m/s).

State Available wasteland (km2) Wasteland allocated in (km2) for

Wind power with Solar PV power with Solar thermal power withv44 m/s TaZ25 1C for less than 3000 h TaZ 25 1C for more than 3000 h

(1) (2) (3) (1)�(2 )�(3)

Andhra Pradesh 1438 0 0 1438Gujarat 7412 1442 0 5970Karnataka 1335 272 1063 0Kerala 11 11 0 0Madhya Pradesh 13,230 0 13,230 0Maharashtra 3208 0 2793 415Punjab 52 0 52 0Rajasthan 42,477 31,628 9690 1159Tamil Nadu 322 118 0 204Uttar Pradesh 308 0 308 0Total 69,793 33,471 27,136 9186

Fig. 2. Allocation of wastelands between PV power and CSP for threshold DNI1800 kW h/m2.

C. Sharma et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 42 (2015) 902–912908

locations have annual average wind speeds more than 4 m/s.Therefore, in this study, wastelands having annual average windspeed of more than 4 m/s are prioritized for wind power genera-tion and thus excluded from the potential wastelands that can beused for solar power generation. The values obtained are pre-sented in Table 10 with the wind speed data taken from NASAwebsite [46]. On accounting for the wastelands suitable for windpower generation, the wasteland available for solar power gen-eration is revised to 36,322 km2 (threshold DNI 2000 kW h/m2/year) and to 93,739 km2 (threshold DNI 1800 kW h/m2/year).

As explained in Section 3.5, wastelands allocated for windpower generation, PV power generation and solar thermal powergeneration are presented in Tables 11 and 12. Figs. 2 and 3 presentthe allocation of wasteland (in the form of a bar chart) suitable forsolar power generation between PV and CSP modes for twothreshold values of DNI. It is to be noted that in Fig. 2, the barshown as other states includes the states of Bihar, Chhattisgarh,Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala, Orissa, Punjab, Tamil Nadu and UttarPradesh. In Fig. 3, the bar shown as other states includes the statesof Karnataka, Punjab, Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh.

4.7. Ground water availability in potential locations

As per the Central Ground Water Board, Government of India[52], the stage of ground water development in the country is 61%.The status of ground water development is very high in the statesof Punjab and Rajasthan (more than 100%) implying that, in thesestates, annual ground water consumption is more than annualground water recharge. So except these two states, ground watercan fulfill the water requirement for CSP systems. In Rajasthan,Indira Gandhi canal can meet the water requirement as it isalready doing in the CSP projects sanctioned under JNNSMphase-1.

Fig. 3. Allocation of wastelands between PV power and CSP for threshold DNI2000 kW h/m2.

Table 13Potential for solar thermal power generation in various states.

State Potential for solar thermal power generation (GW)

Threshold DNI1800 kW h/m2/year

Threshold DNI2000 kW h/m2/year

Andhra Pradesh 229 36Bihar 5 0Chhattisgarh 28 0Gujarat 182 149Karnataka 36 0Kerala 3 0Madhya Pradesh 0 0Maharashtra 115 10Orissa 28 0Rajasthan 53 29Tamil Nadu 77 5Total 756 229

Fig. 4. CSP potential in various states with annual threshold DNI of 1800 kW h/m2 (figures in brackets denotes CSP potential with annual threshold DNI of 2000 kW h/m2).

C. Sharma et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 42 (2015) 902–912 909

4.8. Potential for solar thermal power generation

Considering parabolic trough as a reference technology, havingland requirement of 0.04 km2/MW [39], the estimated potentialfor solar thermal power generation for the two threshold values ofDNI is presented in Table 13. It is worth mentioning that thefootprint (land area per MW) has been considered to be the samefor the two chosen values of threshold DNI. With higher DNI, forthe same land area, power output and capacity utilization factorare expected to be more compared to their corresponding valuesfor the case with lower DNI. State wise potential is shown on themap of India in Fig. 4 and also in the form of a bar chart in Fig. 5.

A more conservative estimate of solar thermal power generationpotential was also attained with a reduction of 10% in the DNIvalues as provided by the data source used for each of the locationsconsidered in the analysis as expected, with lower values of DNI theestimated potential for solar thermal power generation reducesconsiderably (as compared to the potential estimated with the useof DNI values provided by SEC, MNRE). For example, solar thermalpower generation potential of 756 GW in the base case (annual DNI1800 kW h/m2, annual average wind speed 4 m/s) reduces to229 GW for the same values of threshold DNI and wind speed.

5. Concluding remarks

The estimated potential for solar thermal power generation is756 GW for a threshold DNI value of 1800 kW h/m2 and 229 GWfor a threshold DNI value of 2000 kW h/m2 (with all the waste-lands having wind speeds of 4 m/s or more allocated for windpower generation). From the results it is also noted that on areasonably large area of wastelands in India, potential exists forboth wind and solar power generation. It is therefore necessary todevelop appropriate methods for prioritization of one over theother mode of power generation so as to avoid any potentialconflict between wind and solar power projects (wind turbinesinstalled in the vicinity of solar power plants may cause shadingand thus affect their performance).

It is worth mentioning that the estimates arrived in the presentstudy are based on simplifying assumptions regarding relative shareof wind, PV and solar thermal routes of electricity generation andfurther elaborate studies are needed to identify niche locations. Toassess the values of DNI, wind speed and ambient temperature, datasources (NASA and SEC, MNRE) that were available in the publicdomain were used. Estimated potential shall have a significant

bearing on the accuracy of data sources used for analysis. Thoughthe economics of solar thermal power generation and its relativecompetitiveness with photovoltaic electricity is directly affected bythe value of available DNI, the actual realizable potential may alsodepend upon market conditions and other factors.

Acknowledgment

Chandan Sharma gratefully acknowledges the permissiongranted by the Department of Technical Education, Governmentof State of Rajasthan and the administration of GovernmentEngineering College Ajmer to undertake doctoral research at theIndian Institute of Technology Delhi.

Appendix A

See Table A1.

Appendix B

See Table B1.

Table B1State wise number of potential locations for wind power installations and range ofannual average wind speed.(Source: http://www.cwet.tn.nic.in/Docu/233_potential_stations_as_on_31.05.11.pdf).

State No. of potentiallocations

Range of annual average windspeed (m/s)

AndhraPradesh

32 4.97–6.42

Gujarat 40 4.33–6.97Karnataka 26 5.19–4.52Kerala 17 4.41–8.42Maharashtra 39 4.31–6.44Rajasthan 8 4.02–5.73Tamil Nadu 45 4.47–7.32

0

50

100

150

200

250

Andhra Pradesh

Gujarat Maharashtra Rajasthan Tamilnadu Other states

Pote

ntia

l in

GW

CSP Potential (in GW) in various states

Threshold DNI 1800 kWh/m2 Threshold DNI 2000 kWh/m2

Fig. 5. CSP potential in various states (other states include Bihar, Chhattisgarh,Karnataka, Kerala and Orissa).

Table A1Details of some operational solar thermal power plants in Spain and USA.(Source: http://www.nrel.gov/csp/solarpaces/by_status.cfm).

Plant name Country Capacity (MW) Annual DNI (kW h/m2/year)

Andasol-1 Spain 50 2136Andasol-2 Spain 50 2136La Dehesa Spain 50 2200La Florida Spain 50 2193Extresol-1 Spain 50 2168Extrasol-2 Spain 50 2168Alvarado I Spain 50 2174Manchasol-I Spain 50 2208Palma del Rio II Spain 50 2291Puertollano Spain 50 2061Solnova 1 Spain 50 2012Solnova 3 Spain 50 2012Solnova 4 Spain 50 2012Nevada Solar 1 USA 64 2606SEGS USA 372 2725

C. Sharma et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 42 (2015) 902–912910

Appendix C

See Table C1.

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Table C1Framework for estimation of wastelands for solar thermal power generation.

S. no. Description Value

1. Total wasteland available in the country TWL2. Fraction of total wasteland that is suitable for installation of RET based power generation fsret3. Fraction of wastelasnd at S. no. 2 (¼ fsret TWL) having DNI more than the threshold value fthDNI4. Fraction of wasteland at S. no. 3 (¼ fsret fthDNI TWL) that is habitat for tribal population, endangered species, under seismic

zones and has hilly terrainsftesh

5. Fraction of remaining wasteland at S. no. 4 [¼ fsret fthDNI TWL(1– ftesh)]having wind speed more than 4 m/s fthwind

6. Fraction of remaining wasteland at S. no. 5 [¼ fsret fthDNI TWL(1� ftesh)(1� fthwind )] having ambient temperature more than25 1C for less than 3000 h in a year

fthtemp

Wasteland suitable for solar thermal power generation (WLsstp)¼¼ fsret fthDNI TWL(1� ftesh)(1� fthwind )(1� fthtemp )

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