Then and Now: Exploring how School and Life Experiences Have Changed for Children in America

Katie NelsonSugar Creek Elementary Summer 2011

Fred Hultstrand History in Pictures Collection, NDIRS-NDSU, Fargo.

Through this one week unit, students will explore how children’s lives have changed over time. They will explore schooling, housing, transportation and how a community was viewed in the past, as well as today. Students will then use critical thinking to compare life in the past to their lives today and predict how daily life will change for children in the future.

Overview/ Materials/Historical Background/LOC Resources/Standards/ Procedures/Evaluation/Rubric/Handouts/Extension

Overview Back to Navigation BarObjectives Students will:

evaluate photographs from the early 1900s and compare these situations to their life today

learn to look at photographs critically and evaluate the perspective of people/objects in each photo

compare and contrast past and present situations use their knowledge to predict what situations may

look like in the futureRecommended time frame 1 weekGrade level 2nd

Curriculum fit Social Studies, Language ArtsMaterials Perspective Writing

Venn Diagram Interview Questionnaire Future Prediction worksheet Crayons/Pencils

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SmartBoard and computer Easel paper and markers for class discussions Rubric

Illinois State Learning Standards Back to Navigation BarLanguage Arts:GOAL 3: Write to communicate for a variety of purposes.

3.A Use correct grammar, spelling, punctuation, capitalization and structure.

3.B Compose well-organized and coherent writing for specific purposes and audiences.

GOAL 4: Listen and speak effectively in a variety of situations.

4.A Listen effectively in formal and informal situations.

GOAL 5: Use the language arts to acquire, assess and communicate information.

5.B Analyze and evaluate information acquired from various sources.

5.C Apply acquired information, concepts and ideas to communicate in a variety of formats.

Social Studies: GOAL 16: Understand events, trends, individuals and movements shaping the history of Illinois, the United States and other nations. 16.A Apply the skills of historical analysis and

interpretation. 16.C Understand the development of economic

systems. 16.D Understand Illinois, United States and world

social history. GOAL 18: Understand social systems, with an emphasis on the United States.

18.C Understand how social systems form and develop over time.

Procedures Back to Navigation BarDay One: As a class, students will compose a narrative in a

journal format that details a typical school day in second grade. They will then individually write a journal entry that tells a typical day in their life

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before and after school. We will discuss the components that are common in

each child’s day and those that are different. We will create a list of objects and materials the students use throughout the day when engaged in these “typical” activities.

Students will watch a selection from the video on Iowa’s one room schoolhouses: http://www.iptv.org/iowastories/detail.cfm/schoolhouses

Day Two: Students and teacher will review the journal entries

and materials used from day one. Introduce the photographs that show past school

houses and children at school. Model how to think about and analyze each photo.

Think aloud with questions such as “I wonder why the children are all different ages”

Ask questions such as the following for each photo: What do you notice about this photograph?

How is it different from one of the photographs I took this week?

What do you see in this picture that reminds you of something we still do/have in school today?

Students will take home the Interview Questionnaire to interview a grandparent or older individual.

Day Three & Four: Review previous days’ discussions. Continue to analyze photographs of bicycles, desks,

comparing them to these materials how they look today.

Students choose one photograph and write from the perspective of a person in that picture. The class will write one perspective paragraph together before students complete their individual work.

Day Five: Review all major points from the week’s discussion.

Encourage students to share their perspective writings.

Students will choose one area: school, family or transportation and complete a Venn Diagram to compare this topic in the past vs. today.

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Evaluation Back to Navigation BarStudents will complete a Venn Diagram, which will be graded using the rubric included.

Extension Back to Navigation BarStudents will use their knowledge of schools in the past and present to describe how they feel schools will look and be conducted in the future.

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Historical Background Back to Navigation Bar

History of One Room Schoolhouses:

The one room schoolhouse is an icon of American education. We've probably seen one in pictures and perhaps even been inside of one. What was the education like? How might it compare with what we have today?

To answer these and other questions, I hiked across the road to visit my good friend Fred who as a child attended three such schools; one in Kansas, one in Colorado, and one in Wyoming.

There is nothing like the sage voice of experience.

While having coffee, we talked about the layout of a one room schoolhouse, the function in the community, and his experience with this part of American education.

Fred recalled with great fondness his days of one room schoolhouse education. It's something our present day generation won't experience, but you could sure tell that my good friend savored his recollections.

Here is what this Libertarian learned.

LayoutThe schoolhouses were basically a square building with a single entrance and exit on the face of the building. A flagpole for "old glory" was set out in front of the building not too far from the entrance. A wood or coal bin stuck out from one front corner to hold fuel for the stove inside.

Windows lined the sides of the building and the rear wall was a solid windowless wall where the blackboard was mounted. As you entered the building, a long entryway ran perpendicular to your path of entry, partitioned from the main classroom except for the doorway entrance.

On one side of the entryway was a coat rack and places for boots. On the other side was the internal portion of the wood or coal bin, allowing access to the fuel.

The classroom consumed the majority of the building on the other side of the entryway partitions. Windows on the side walls let in light to the interior.

Two rows of desks were lined up on either side of the central aisle from the entry door to the blackboard at the far side of the building. The teacher's desk was in a corner near the blackboard. Sometimes that end of the room was elevated as a type of platform, but otherwise it was just part of classroom floor space.

A heating stove was in one of the corners at the back of the room. Sometimes a wood stove, and sometimes a coal stove.

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An outhouse was also a feature of the schoolhouse, but outside of course, and a horse shed was part of the scene as well. Some of the kids rode horses to school while others walked or got a ride.

There was also a swing or swing set in the school yard for use during recess. A merry-go-round was also a common feature on the playground.

Teaching and LearningThere were typically two to ten children in the one room schoolhouse. Grades one through eight all took lessons in the same room. Everyone had their own lessons, and older kids helped younger kids with the assignments. It was a shared educational experience the likes of which I'm not familiar with.

Of course, reading, writing and arithmetic were standards. English composition and geography were also taught. Focus was on a basic foundational education. For some, this was all the education they would ever get, and perhaps ever need. The breadth and sophistication of the curriculum weren't what we have today, but when you learned a subject, you learned it well.

According to those who had a one room schoolhouse education, it was a fine education, even though the standards weren't what we have in place today. Imagine that! Seemingly lower expectations, but good results nevertheless.

Student InteractionsThere were two recesses, one in the morning and one in the afternoon. Outdoor play was determined in part by the weather, and included:

marbles mumbledy peg (pronounced: mum-bull-dee-peg) flying kites swinging riding on the merry-go-round tag

You'll probably not recognize mumbledy peg because it involves knives. In this game of skill, you drop or release your open pocket knife from various holds to get it to stick into the soil and stand upright.

I know, knives are no-no's at school today, but they didn't used to be. The rule of the day was if you're old enough to go to school and you're old enough to wear pants, then you're old enough to have a pocket knife. Have the times changed, or have we?

At the end of recess, the teacher would ring a hand-held bell and that signaled time to return to the classroom.

One Room Schoolhouse Lunch Program

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When kids came into the schoolhouse, they brought along their lunch as well. Imagine that! Parents fed their children back in those days. Come to think of it, that's how it was for me as well. I brought a sack lunch.

The schoolhouse also had it's own well. Water was pumped with a hand operated pitcher pump to fill a milking pail with water. The water pail was brought into the schoolhouse, and kids drank from the pail using a ladle - a community ladle.

No drinking fountains in the hall.

School as part of the CommunityThe one room schoolhouse also served as a place where folks would get together for social gatherings. A popular activity was a "box supper" where young women of the community would prepare a meal and place it in a box or picnic basket, and the men would bid on the meals.

The idea was that the men didn't know who had prepared the meals, but I'm certain some of that information leaked out somehow. Anyway, the man with the winning bid got to enjoy the meal in the company of the lady who had prepared it.

It was a nice and friendly competitive atmosphere, and what a wonderful way to show your affection for another - and get fed too.

Also, the school teacher wasn't necessarily a part of the community, but brought in from elsewhere to teach the children. Not being a permanent resident of the community, it was common to have the teacher reside with a family that lived nearby the school, whether that family had kids in school or not.

Comparison with TodayIt seems that our one room schoolhouse is quite different from today. Let's look at some of the differences.

We don't have children riding to school on a horse. We bus kids for many miles to get them to a central school.

Instead of a low pupil to teacher ratio, schools today can have more pupils in one classroom than the teacher in the one room schoolhouse ever saw in several years. Both my elementary school and middle school had more than 500 students. My high school had well over 1,000.

With such large facilities, the focus on learning would naturally shift to a focus on production.

Pocket knife games have yielded to "zero tolerance" where kids can't even draw a picture of a knife.

Older kids helping younger kids with studies isn't a part of anything I ever remember. All I remember was a class orientation where we had "upperclassmen" who apparently were better just because they were older, not because they really were any better.

And I've never heard of a teacher being such a close knit part of the community. The closest we ever came to that was a parent teacher

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association. I'll bet you those aren't nearly as meaningful as having the teacher reside with a family in the community.

History of the bicycle:There are several early but unverifiable claims for the invention of bicycle-like machines.

The earliest comes from a sketch said to be from 1493 and attributed to Gian Giacomo Caprotti, a pupil of Leonardo da Vinci. Hans-Erhard Lessing recently claimed that this last assertion is a purposeful fraud.[1][2] However, the authenticity of the bicycle sketch is still vigorously maintained by followers of Prof. Augusto Marinoni, a lexicographer and philologist, who was entrusted by the Commissione Vinciana of Rome with the transcription of da Vinci's Codex Atlanticus.[3]

Later, and equally unverifiable, is the contention that Comte de Sivrac developed a célérifère in 1791, demonstrating it at the Palais-Royal in France. The célérifère supposedly had two wheels set on a rigid wooden frame and no steering, directional control being limited to that attainable by leaning.[4] A rider was said to have to sat astride the machine and pushed it along using alternate feet. We now know a two-wheeled célérifère never existed (though there were four-wheelers) and it was a misinterpretation by the well known French journalist Louis Baudry de Saunier in 1891.[5][6]

1817 to 1819: the draisine or velocipede

Wooden draisine (around 1820), the earliest two-wheeler

Drais' 1817 design made to measure

The first verifiable claim for a practically-used bicycle belongs to German Baron Karl von Drais, a civil servant to the Grand Duke of Baden in Germany. Drais invented his Laufmaschine (German for "running machine") of 1817 that was called Draisine (English) or draisienne (French) by the press. Karl von Drais patented this design in 1818 which was the first commercially successful two-wheeled, steerable, human-propelled machine commonly called a velocipede, nicknamed hobby-horse or dandy horse.[7] It was initially manufactured in Germany and France. Hans-Erhard Lessing found from circumstantial evidence that Drais' interest in finding an alternative to the horse was the starvation and death of horses caused by crop failure in 1816 ("Eighteen Hundred and Froze to Death," following the volcanic eruption of Tambora).[8] On his first reported ride from Mannheim on June 12, 1817, he covered 13 km (eight miles) in less than an hour.[9] Constructed almost entirely of wood the draisine weighed 22 kg (48 pounds), had brass bushings within the wheel bearings, iron shod wheels, a rear-wheel brake and 152 mm (6 inches) of trail of the front-wheel for a self-centering caster effect. This design was welcomed by mechanically minded men daring to balance and several thousand copies were built and used, primarily in Western Europe and in North America. Its popularity rapidly faded when, partly due to increasing numbers of accidents, some city authorities

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began to prohibit its use. However in 1866 Paris a Chinese visitor named Bin Chun could still observe foot-pushed velocipedes.[10]

Denis Johnson's son riding a velocipede, Lithograph 1819.

The concept was picked up by a number of British cartwrights; the most notable being Denis Johnson of London announcing in late 1818 that he would sell an improved model.[11] New names were introduce when Johnson patented his machine “pedestrian curricle” or “velocipede,” but the public preferred nicknames like “hobby-horse,” after the children’s toy or, worse still, “dandyhorse,” after the foppish men who often rode them.[7] Johnson's machine was an improvement on Drais's, being notably more elegant: his wooden frame had a serpentine shape instead of Drais's straight one, this allowing the use of larger wheels without raising the rider's seat. During the summer of 1819 the "hobby-horse", thanks in part to Johnson's marketing skills and better patent protection, became the craze and fashion in London society. The dandies, the Corinthians of the Regency, adopted it, therefore the poet John Keats referred to it as "the nothing" of the day. Riders wore out their boots surprisingly rapidly, and the fashion ended within the year, after riders on sidewalks were fined two pounds.

Nevertheless, Drais' velocipede provided the basis for further developments: in fact, it was a draisine which inspired a French metalworker around 1863 to add rotary cranks and pedals to the front-wheel hub, to create the first pedal-operated "bicycle" as we today understand the word.

[edit] The 1820s to 1850s: an era of 3 and 4-wheelers

A smartly dressed couple seated on an 1886 Coventry Rotary Quadracycle for two.

McCall's first (top) and improved velocipede of 1869 - later predated to 1839 and attributed to MacMillan

Though technically not part of 2-wheel "bicycle" history, the intervening decades of the 1820s-1850s witnessed many developments concerning human-powered vehicles often using technologies similar to the draisine, even if the idea of a workable 2-wheel design, requiring the rider to balance, had been dismissed. These new machines had three wheels (tricycles) or four (quadracycles) and came in a very wide variety of designs, using pedals, treadles and hand-cranks, but these designs often suffered from high weight and high rolling resistance. However, Willard Sawyer in Dover successfully manufactured a range of treadle operated 4 wheel vehicles and exported them worldwide in the 1850s.[12]

The 1830s: the reported Scottish inventions

The first mechanically-propelled 2-wheel vehicle was believed to have been built by Kirkpatrick MacMillan, a Scottish blacksmith, in 1839. A nephew later claimed that his

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uncle developed a rear-wheel drive design using mid mounted treadles connected by rods to a rear crank, similar to the transmission of a steam locomotive. Proponents associate him with the first recorded instance of a bicycling traffic offence, when a Glasgow newspaper reported in 1842 an accident in which an anonymous "gentleman from Dumfries-shire... bestride a velocipede... of ingenious design" knocked over a pedestrian in the Gorbals and was fined five British shillings. However, the evidence connecting this with MacMillan isn't even circumstantial, since the artisan MacMillan wouldn't have been termed a gentleman, nor is the report clear on how many wheels the vehicle had. The evidence is unclear, and may have been faked by his son.

A similar machine was said to have been produced by Gavin Dalzell of Lesmahagow, circa 1845. There is no record of Gavin ever having laid claim to inventing the machine. It is believed that he copied the idea having recognised the potential to help him with his local drapery business and there is some evidence that he used the contraption to take his wares into the rural community around his home. A replica still exists today in the Glasgow Museum of Transport. The exhibit holds the honour of being the oldest bike in existence today.[13] The first documented producer of rod-driven 2-wheelers, treadle bicycles, was Thomas McCall, of Kilmarnock in 1869. The design was inspired by the French front-crank velocipede of the Lallement/Michaux type.[13]

1860s and the Michaux or "Boneshaker"

The first really popular and commercially successful design was a French one (an example of the style is held in the Museum of Science and Technology (Ottawa)). Initially developed around 1863, it sparked a fashionable craze briefly during 1868-70. Its design was simpler than the Macmillan bicycle; it used rotary cranks and pedals mounted to the front wheel hub. Pedaling made it easier for riders to propel the machine at speed, but the rotational speed limitation arising from stability and comfort concerns would lead to the large front wheel of the "penny farthing". It was difficult to pedal the wheel that was used for steering. The use of metal frames reduced the weight and provided sleeker, more elegant designs, and also allowed mass-production. Different braking mechanisms were used depending on the manufacturer. In England, the velocipede earned the name of "bone-shaker" because of its rigid frame and iron banded wheels that resulted in a "bone-shaking experience for riders."

The velocipede's renaissance began in Paris during the late 1860s. Its early history is complex and has been shrouded in some mystery, not least because of conflicting patent claims: all that has been stated for sure is that a French metalworker attached pedals to the front wheel; at present, the earliest year bicycle historians agree on is 1864. The identity of the person who attached cranks is still an open question at International Cycling History Conferences (ICHC). The claims of Ernest Michaux and of Pierre Lallement, and the lesser claims of rear-pedaling Alexandre Lefebvre, have their supporters within the ICHC community.

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The original pedal-bicycle, with the serpentine frame, from Pierre Lallement's US Patent No. 59,915 drawing, 1866

Bicycle historian David V. Herlihy documents that Lallement claimed to have created the pedal bicycle in Paris in 1863. He had seen someone riding a draisine in 1862 then originally came up with the idea to add pedals to it. It is a fact that he filed the earliest and only patent for a pedal-driven bicycle, in the USA in 1866. Lallement's patent drawing shows a machine which looks exactly like Johnson's draisine, but with the pedals and rotary cranks attached to the front wheel hub, and a thin piece of iron over the top of the frame to act as a spring supporting the seat, for a slightly more comfortable ride.

By the early 1860s, the blacksmith Pierre Michaux, besides producing parts for the carriage trade, was producing "vélocipède à pédales" on a small scale. The wealthy Olivier brothers Aimé and René were students in Paris at this time, and these shrewd young entrepreneurs adopted the new machine. In 1865 they travelled from Paris to Avignon on a velocipede in only eight days. They recognized the potential profitability of producing and selling the new machine. Together with their friend Georges de la Bouglise, they formed a partnership with Pierre Michaux, Michaux et Cie ("Michaux and company"), in 1868, avoiding use of the Olivier family name and staying behind the scenes, lest the venture prove to be a failure. This was the first company which mass-produced bicycles, replacing the early wooden frame with one made of two pieces of cast iron bolted together—otherwise, the early Michaux machines look exactly like Lallement's patent drawing. Together with a mechanic named Gabert in his hometown of Lyon, Aimé Olivier created a diagonal single-piece frame made of wrought iron which was much stronger, and as the first bicycle craze took hold, many other blacksmiths began forming companies to make bicycles using the new design. Velocipedes were expensive, and when customers soon began to complain about the Michaux serpentine cast-iron frames breaking, the Oliviers realized by 1868 that they needed to replace that design with the diagonal one which their competitors were already using, and the Michaux company continued to dominate the industry in its first years.

On the new macadam paved boulevards of Paris it was easy riding, although initially still using what was essentially horse coach technology. It was still called "velocipede" in France, but in the United States, the machine was commonly called the "bone-shaker". Later improvements included solid rubber tires and ball bearings. Lallement had left Paris in July 1865, crossed the Atlantic, settled in Connecticut and patented the velocipede, and the number of associated inventions and patents soared in the US. The popularity of the machine grew on both sides of the Atlantic and by 1868-69 the velocipede craze was strong in rural areas as well. Even in a relatively small city such as Halifax, Canada, there were five velocipede rinks, and riding schools began opening in many major urban centres. Essentially, the velocipede was a stepping stone that created a market for bicycles that led to the development of more advanced and efficient machines.

However, the Franco-Prussian war of 1870 destroyed the velocipede market in France, and the "bone-shaker" enjoyed only a brief period of popularity in the United States, which ended by 1870. There is debate among bicycle historians about why it failed in the

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United States, but one explanation is that American road surfaces were much worse than European ones, and riding the machine on these roads was simply too difficult. Certainly another factor was that Calvin Witty had purchased Lallement's patent, and his royalty demands soon crippled the industry. The UK was the only place where the bicycle never fell completely out of favour.

1870s: the high-wheel bicycleMain article: Penny-farthing

The high-bicycle was the logical extension of the boneshaker, the front wheel enlarging to enable higher speeds (limited by the inside leg measurement of the rider),[14][15][16][17] the rear wheel shrinking and the frame being made lighter. Frenchman Eugene Meyer is now regarded as the father of the High Bicycle by the ICHC in place of James Starley. Meyer invented the wire-spoke tension wheel in 1869 and produced a classic high bicycle design until the 1880s.

A penny-farthing or ordinary bicycle photographed in the Škoda museum in the Czech Republic

James Starley in Coventry added the tangent spokes and the mounting step to his famous bicycle named "Ariel." He is regarded as the father of the British cycling industry. Ball bearings, solid rubber tires and hollow-section steel frames became standard, reducing weight and making the ride much smoother. Depending on the rider's leg length, the front wheel could now have a diameter up to 60 in (1.5 m).

Starley's "Royal Salvo" tricycle, as owned by Queen Victoria

This type of bicycle was retronymed the "ordinary" (since there were then no other kind)[18] and was later nicknamed "penny-farthing" in England (a penny representing the front wheel, and a coin smaller in size and value, the farthing, representing the rear). They were fast, but unsafe. The rider was high up in the air and traveling at a great speed. If he hit a bad spot in the road he could easily be thrown over the front wheel and be seriously injured (two broken wrists were common, in attempts to break a fall)[19] or even killed. "Taking a header" (also known as "coming a cropper"), was not at all uncommon. The rider's legs were often caught underneath the handlebars, so falling free of the machine was often not possible. The dangerous nature of these bicycles (as well as Victorian mores) made cycling the preserve of adventurous young men. The risk averse, such as elderly gentlemen, preferred the more stable tricycles or quadracycles. In addition, women's fashion of the day made the "ordinary" bicycle inaccessible. Queen Victoria owned Starley's "Royal Salvo" tricycle, though there is no evidence she actually rode it.

Although French and English inventors modified the velocipede into the high-wheel bicycle, the French were still recovering from the Franco-Prussian war, so English entrepreneurs put the high-wheeler on the English market, and the machine became very popular there, Coventry, Oxford, Birmingham and Manchester being the centers of the

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English bicycle industry (and of the arms or sewing machine industries, which had the necessary metalworking and engineering skills for bicycle manufacturing, as in Paris and St. Etienne, and in New England).[20] Soon bicycles found their way across the English Channel. By 1875, high-wheel bicycles were becoming popular in France, though ridership expanded slowly.

In the United States, Bostonians such as Frank Weston started importing bicycles in 1877 and 1878, and Albert Augustus Pope started production of his "Columbia" high-wheelers in 1878, and gained control of nearly all applicable patents, starting with Lallement's 1866 patent. Pope lowered the royalty (licensing fee) previous patent owners charged, and took his competitors to court over the patents. The courts supported him, and competitors either paid royalties ($10 per bicycle), or he forced them out of business. There seems to have been no patent issue in France, where English bicycles still dominated the market. By 1884 high-wheelers and tricycles were relatively popular among a small group of upper-middle-class people in all three countries, the largest group being in England. Their use also spread to the rest of the world, chiefly because of the extent of the British Empire.

Pope also introduced mechanization and mass production (later copied and adopted by Ford and General Motors),[21] vertically integrated,[22] (also later copied and adopted by Ford), advertised aggressively[23] (as much as ten percent of all advertising in U.S. periodicals in 1898 was by bicycle makers),[24] promoted the Good Roads Movement (which had the side benefit of acting as advertising, and of improving sales by providing more places to ride),[25] and litigated on behalf of cyclists[25] (It would, however, be Western Wheel Company of Chicago which would drastically reduce production costs by introducing stamping to the production process in place of machining, significantly reducing costs, and thus prices.)[26] In addition, bicycle makers adopted the annual model change[27] (later derided as planned obsolescence, and usually credited to General Motors), which proved very successful.[28]

Even so, bicycling remained the province of the urban well-to-do, and mainly men, until the 1890s,[29] and was an example of conspicuous consumption.[30]

The 1880s and 1890s

The development of the safety bicycle was arguably the most important change in the history of the bicycle. It shifted their use and public perception from being a dangerous toy for sporting young men to being an everyday transport tool for men—and, crucially, women—of all ages.

Aside from the obvious safety problems, the high-wheeler's direct front wheel drive limited its top speed. Accordingly, inventors tried a rear wheel chain drive. Although Henry Lawson invented a rear-chain-drive bicycle in 1879 with his "bicyclette", it still had a huge front wheel and a small rear wheel. Detractors called it "The Crocodile", and it failed in the market.

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Bicycle in Plymouth at the start of the 20th Century

John Kemp Starley, James's nephew, produced the first successful "safety bicycle" (again a retrospective name), the "Rover," in 1885, which he never patented. It featured a steerable front wheel that had significant caster, equally sized wheels and a chain drive to the rear wheel.[31]

Widely imitated, the safety bicycle completely replaced the high-wheeler in North America and Western Europe by 1890. Meanwhile John Dunlop's reinvention of the pneumatic bicycle tire in 1888 had made for a much smoother ride on paved streets; the previous type were quite smooth-riding, when used on the dirt roads common at the time.[32] As with the original velocipede, safety bicycles had been much less comfortable than high-wheelers precisely because of the smaller wheel size, and frames were often buttressed with complicated bicycle suspension spring assemblies. The pneumatic tire made all of these obsolete, and frame designers found a diamond pattern to be the strongest and most efficient design.

The chain drive improved comfort and speed, as the drive was transferred to the non-steering rear wheel and allowed for smooth, relaxed and injury free pedaling (earlier designs that required pedalling the steering front wheel were difficult to pedal while turning, due to the misalignment of rotational planes of leg and pedal). With easier pedaling, the rider more easily turned corners.

The pneumatic tire and the diamond frame improved rider comfort but do not form a crucial design or safety feature. A hard rubber tire on a bicycle is just as rideable but is bone jarring. The frame design allows for a lighter weight, and more simple construction and maintenance, hence lower price.

1890s Hotchkiss Bicycle Railroad

With four key aspects (steering, safety, comfort and speed) improved over the penny farthing, bicycles became very popular among elites and the middle classes in Europe and North America in the middle and late 1890s. It was the first bicycle that was suitable for women, and as such the "freedom machine" (as American feminist Susan B. Anthony called it)[citation needed] was taken up by women in large numbers.

Bicycle historians often call this period the "golden age" or "bicycle craze." By the start of the 20th Century, cycling had become an important means of transportation, and in the United States an increasingly popular form of recreation. Bicycling clubs for men and women spread across the U.S. and across European countries. Chicago immigrant Adolph Schoeninger with his Western Wheel Works became the "Ford of the Bicycle" (ten years before Henry Ford) by copying Pope's mass production methods and by introducing stamping to the production process in place of machining, significantly reducing production costs, and thus prices.[26] His "Crescent" bicycles thus became affordable for working people, and massive exports from the United States lowered prices in Europe. The Panic of 1893 wiped out many American manufacturers who had not followed the

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lead of Pope and Schoeninger, in the same way as the Great Depression would ruin car makers who did not follow Ford.[33]

1897 ad, showing unskirted garment for women's bicycle riding

The impact of the bicycle on female emancipation should not be underestimated. The safety bicycle gave women unprecedented mobility, contributing to their larger participation in the lives of Western nations. As bicycles became safer and cheaper, more women had access to the personal freedom they embodied, and so the bicycle came to symbolise the New Woman of the late nineteenth century, especially in Britain and the United States. Feminists and suffragists recognised its transformative power. Susan B. Anthony said, "Let me tell you what I think of bicycling. I think it has done more to emancipate women than anything else in the world. It gives women a feeling of freedom and self-reliance. I stand and rejoice every time I see a woman ride by on a wheel...the picture of free, untrammeled womanhood." In 1895 Frances Willard, the tightly-laced president of the Women’s Christian Temperance Union, wrote a book called How I Learned to Ride the Bicycle, in which she praised the bicycle she learned to ride late in life, and which she named "Gladys", for its "gladdening effect" on her health and political optimism. Willard used a cycling metaphor to urge other suffragists to action, proclaiming, "I would not waste my life in friction when it could be turned into momentum." [1] In 1895 Annie Londonderry became the first woman to bicycle around the world.

Bicycle suit vs conventional clothing

The backlash against the New (bicycling) Woman was demonstrated when the male undergraduates of Cambridge University chose to show their opposition to the admission of women as full members of the university by hanging a woman in effigy in the main town square—tellingly, a woman on a bicycle—as late as 1897.[34]

Since women could not cycle in the then-current fashions for voluminous and restrictive dress, the bicycle craze fed into a movement for so-called rational dress, which helped liberate women from corsets and ankle-length skirts and other encumbering garments, substituting the then-shocking bloomers.

Bicycles for public use in a Netherlands national park

The 20th Century

Cycling steadily became more important in Europe over the first half of the twentieth century, but it dropped off dramatically in the United States between 1900 and 1910. Automobiles became the preferred means of transportation. Over the 1920s, bicycles gradually became considered children's toys, and by 1940 most bicycles in the United

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States were made for children. In Europe cycling remained an adult activity, and bicycle racing, commuting, and "cyclotouring" were all popular activities. In addition, specialist bicycles for children appeared before 1916.[35]

Bicycles continued to evolve to suit the varied needs of riders. The derailleur developed in France between 1900 and 1910 among cyclotourists, and was improved over time. Only in the 1930s did European racing organizations allow racers to use gearing; until then they were forced to use a two-speed bicycle. The rear wheel had a cog on either side of the hub. To change gears, the rider had to stop, remove the wheel, flip it around, and remount the wheel. When racers were allowed to use derailleurs, racing times immediately dropped.

At mid-century there were two predominant bicycle styles for recreational cyclists in North America. Heavyweight cruiser bicycles, preferred by the typical (hobby) cyclist,[36] featuring balloon tires, pedal-driven "coaster" brakes and only one gear, were popular for their durability, comfort, streamlined appearance, and a significant array of accessories (lights, bells, springer forks, speedometers, etc..). Lighter cycles, with hand brakes, narrower tires, and a three-speed hub gearing system, often imported from England, first became popular in the United States in the late 1950s. These comfortable, practical bicycles usually offered generator-powered headlamps, safety reflectors, kickstands, and frame-mounted tire pumps. In the United Kingdom, like the rest of Europe, cycling was seen as less of a hobby, and lightweight but durable bikes had been preferred for decades.[36]

In the early 1980s, Swedish company Itera invented a new type of bicycle, made entirely of plastic. It was a commercial failure.

Bicycle sales in North America

This racing bicycle has aluminum tubing, carbon fiber stays and forks, a drop handlebar, and narrow tires and wheels.

In the late 1960s, spurred by Americans' increasing consciousness of the value of exercise and later the advantage of energy efficient transportation led to the American bike boom of the 1970s. Annual U.S. sales of adult bicycles doubled between 1960 and 1970, and doubled again between 1971 and 1975, the peak years of the adult cycling boom in the United States, eventually reaching nearly 17 million units.[37] Most of the these sales were to new cyclists, who overwhelmingly preferred models imitating popular European derailleur-equipped racing bikes, variously called sports models, sport/tourers, or simply ten-speeds.[37][38] These lighter bicycles, long used by serious cyclists and by racers, featured dropped handlebars, narrow tires, derailleur gears, five to fifteen speeds, and a narrow 'racing' type saddle. By 1980, racing and sport/touring derailleur bikes dominated the market in North America.[37][39]

Recumbent bicycleTeaching with Primary Sources

Illinois State University

Main article: Recumbent bicycle

2008 Nazca Fuego short wheelbase recumbent with 20" front wheel and 26" rear wheel.

In 1934, the development of the bicycle was truncated by the Union Cycliste Internationale's banning of the recumbent bicycle from all forms of racing. This stemmed from discomfort at Francis Faure, a mere category 2 racer, humiliating many class 1 racers while riding Mochet's Velocar. The clear superiority of this frame geometry for level races made upright bicycle manufacturers (the sponsors of the Union Cycliste Internationale) uncomfortable, who lobbied for a ban. This motion was passed after a long and heated meeting, and by only a handful of votes in a near split decision. This resulted in the stagnation of the upright racing bike's frame geometry which has remained essentially unchanged for 70 years. This stagnation finally started to reverse with the formation of the International Human Powered Vehicle Association which holds races for "banned" classes of bicycle. One such vehicle currently holds the human powered speed record of 132 km/h (82 mph) on level ground.

BMX

BMX, a form of cycling on specially designed bicycles which usually have 16 to 24-inch wheels (the norm being the 20-inch wheel), originated in the state of California, United States in the early 1970s, when teenagers imitated their motocross heroes on their bicycles.[40] Children were racing standard road bikes off-road, around purpose-built tracks in the Netherlands.[41] The 1971 motorcycle racing documentary On Any Sunday is generally credited with inspiring the movement nationally in the US. In the opening scene, kids are shown riding their Schwinn Stingrays off-road. It was not until the middle of the decade the sport achieved critical mass, and manufacturers began creating bicycles designed specially for the sport.

It has grown into an international sport with several different disciplines.

Mountain bikes

Main article: History of the mountain bike and mountain biking

In 1981, the first mass-produced mountain bike appeared, intended for use off-pavement over a variety of surfaces. It was an immediate success, and examples flew off retailers' shelves during the 1980s, their popularity spurred by the novelty of all-terrain cycling and the increasing desire of urban dwellers to escape their surroundings via mountain biking and other extreme sports. These cycles featured sturdier frames, wider tires with large knobs for increased traction, a more upright seating position (to allow better visibility and shifting of body weight), and increasingly, various front and rear suspension designs.[42] By 2000, mountain bike sales had far outstripped that of racing, sport/racer, and touring bicycles.[citation needed]

Teaching with Primary Sources Illinois State University

The 2005 Giant Innova is an example of a typical 700C hybrid bicycle. It has 27 speeds, front fork and seat suspension, an adjustable stem and disc brakes for wet-weather riding.

Hybrid and commuter bicycles

In recent years, bicycle designs have trended towards increased specialization, as the number of casual, recreational and commuter cyclists have grown. For these groups, the industry responded with the hybrid bicycle, sometimes marketed as a city bike, cross bike, or commuter bike.[42] Hybrid bicycles combine elements of road racing and mountain bikes, though the term is applied to a wide variety of bicycle types. Hybrid bicycles and commuter bicycles can range from fast and light racing-type bicycles with flat bars and other minimal concessions to casual use, to wider-tired bikes designed for primarily for comfort, load-carrying, and increased versatility over a range of different road surfaces.[42] Enclosed hub gears have become popular again - now with up to 8, 11 or 14 gears - for such bicycles due to ease of maintenance and improved technology.

Other points of interest

While historically most bike frames have been steel, recent designs, particularly of high-end racing bikes, have made extensive use of carbon and aluminum frames.

Recent years have also seen a resurgence of interest in balloon tire cruiser bicycles for their low-tech comfort, reliability, and style.

In addition to influences derived from the evolution of American bicycling trends, European, Asian, and African cyclists have also continued to use traditional roadster bicycles, as their rugged design, enclosed chainguards, and dependable hub gearing make them ideal for commuting and utility cycling duty.[42]

The 21st Century

The 21st century has seen a continued application of technology to bicycles: in designing them, building them, and using them. Bicycle frames and components continue to get lighter and more aerodynamic without sacrificing strength largely through the use of computer aided design, finite element analysis, and computational fluid dynamics. Recent discoveries about bicycle stability have been facilitated by computer simulations.[43] Once designed, new technology is applied to manufacturing such as hydroforming and automated carbon fiber layup. Finally, electronic gadgetry has expanded from just cyclocomputers to now include cycling power meters and electronic gear-shifting systems.

Teaching with Primary Sources Illinois State University

Primary Resources from the Library of CongressBack to Navigation Bar

Replace this text with the resource table you generated while managing the primary resources used in this learning experience. You can do this by selecting the entire table at once and copying it to your computer’s temporary memory, (i.e., clipboard) then pasting it here.

Teaching with Primary Sources Illinois State University

Image Description Citation URLThe Osnabrock school, 1918.

Fred Hultstrand History in Pictures Collection, NDIRS-NDSU, Fargo.

http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/ngp:@field(NUMBER+@band(ndfahult+b359))

School children lined up in front of school.

Fred Hultstrand History in Pictures Collection, NDIRS-NDSU, Fargo.

http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/ngp:@field(NUMBER+@band(ndfahult+b362a))

Rural school near Osnabrock, North Dakota: Miss Netta Baker, teacher.

Fred Hultstrand History in Pictures Collection, NDIRS-NDSU, Fargo.

http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/ngp:@field(NUMBER+@band(ndfahult+b368))

The “Standard” Desk Advertising Ephemera Collection - Database #A0160Emergence of Advertising On-Line ProjectJohn W. Hartman Center for Sales, Advertising & Marketing HistoryDuke University Rare Book, Manuscript, and Special Collections Library.

http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/eaa:@field(DOCID+@lit(eaa000761))

Lillian Sivertsen and Esther Lane sitting side by side in school desks in a classroom.

DN-0069633, Chicago Daily News negatives collection, Chicago History Museum.

http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/cdn:@field(NUMBER+@band(ichicdn+n069633))

Teaching with Primary Sources Illinois State University

Children playing on two slides and a swing set in a playground.

DN-0006437, Chicago Daily News negatives collection, Chicago History Museum.

http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/cdn:@field(NUMBER+@band(ichicdn+n006437))

Smithsonian Institution interiors. Bicycle at Smithsonian Institution.

Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division, Theodor Horydczak Collection [please give the reproduction number, e.g., LC-H824-0224].

http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/horyd:@field(NUMBER+@band(thc+5a38488))

First Ford Car American Folklife CenterLibrary of Congress101 Independence Avenue SEWashington, D.C. 20540-4610

http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/ncr:@field(DOCID+@lit(ncr001283))

Teaching with Primary Sources Illinois State University

RubricBack to Navigation Bar

Name: _________________________ Topic: ___________________________

Criteria: Exceeds Expectations

Meets Expectations

Below Expectations

Did Not Attempt

Student creates at least 2 sentences in each section of the diagram

4 3 2 1

Each sentence is complete, grammatically correct and uses correct conventions

4 3 2 1

Student uses fact, not opinions, to compare situations

4 3 2 1

Student listened and participated in classroom discussions

4 3 2 1

________ Demonstrates solid understanding of the topic and uses correct writing conventions (14-16 points)

________Demonstrates some understanding of the topic and uses correct writing conventions on occasion (10-15 points)

________ Does not demonstrate accurate understanding of the content and writing is not acceptable for grade level (0-9 points)

Teaching with Primary Sources Illinois State University

HandoutsBack to Navigation Bar

Future _______________________ (school, bicycle, car)Name _____________________________

This is what a ___________________ looks like today, in 2011.

This is what I predict a _____________________ will look like in 2061.

Teaching with Primary Sources Illinois State University

Photograph PerspectiveName ________________________Your job is to choose one of the photographs we looked at today and imagine you are one of the people or objects in that picture. Think about how that person or object felt, what they saw and what their life was like. Write down any questions they might have had, what they were excited about, what made them worried, or what they would say if you could talk to them today. I chose ________________________________________.

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Teaching with Primary Sources Illinois State University

Interview Questionnaire

Interviewer: __________________________________________

I am interviewing __________________________________________.1. When did you attend elementary school? ___________________

2. What was your favorite part of school and why? __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. What did you do at recess? ___________________________________________________________________________________

4. What was the hardest thing for you? ____________________________________________________________________________

5. Did you have computers or calculators? __________________________________________________________________________

6. If someone got in trouble, what happened to them? ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

7. What did you have for homework? _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

8. How do you think your school life was different from my school life? ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Name ______________________

Past Present (Today)