Report on the economic assessment of substitution trajectories

SCRREENCoordination and Support Action (CSA)

This project has received funding from the EuropeanUnion's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme

under grant agreement No 730227.

Start date : 2016-11-01 Duration : 38 Monthswww.scrreen.eu

Report on the economic assessment of substitution trajectories

Authors : Mrs. Marjaana KARHU (VTT), John Bachér (VTT), Elina Yli-Rantala (VTT), Elina Huttunen Saarivirta (VTT), PabloNieves Cordones (ICCRAM-UBU), Sonia Martel Martin (ICCRAM-UBU), Maite del Corte Sanz (ICCRAM-UBU)

SCRREEN - D5.3 - Issued on 2019-02-26 16:20:44 by VTT


SCRREEN - Contract Number: 730227Solutions for CRitical Raw materials - a European Expert Network Bjorn Debecker

Document title Report on the economic assessment of substitution trajectories

Author(s)Mrs. Marjaana KARHU, John Bachér (VTT), Elina Yli-Rantala (VTT), Elina Huttunen Saarivirta(VTT), Pablo Nieves Cordones (ICCRAM-UBU), Sonia Martel Martin (ICCRAM-UBU), Maitedel Corte Sanz (ICCRAM-UBU)

Number of pages 108

Document type Deliverable

Work Package WP5

Document number D5.3

Issued by VTT

Date of completion 2019-02-26 16:20:44

Dissemination level Public

Summary

Report on the economic assessment of substitution trajectories

Approval

Date By

2019-03-06 15:06:07 Dr. David GARDNER (KTN)

2019-03-07 17:09:33 Mr. Stéphane BOURG (CEA)


SCRREEN Coordination and Support Actions (Coordinating) (CSA-CA)

Co-funded by the European Commission under the Euratom Research and Training Programme on Nuclear

Energy within the Seventh Framework Programme Grant Agreement Number: 730227

Start date: 2016-11-01 Duration: 38 Months

REPORT ON THE ECONOMIC ASSESSMENT OF SUBSTITUTION TRAJECTORIES

AUTHORS:

JOHN BACHÉR (STATISTICAL ECONOMIC DATA ANALYSES), ELINA YLI-RANTALA

(ACCUMULATORS, CATALYTIC CONVERTERS), ELINA HUTTUNEN SAARIVIRTA

(ALLOYS, ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS) - VTT TECHNICAL RESEARCH CENTRE OF

FINLAND LTD

PABLO NIEVES CORDONES, SONIA MARTEL MARTIN, MAITE DEL CORTE SANZ (PERMANENT MAGNETS) - ICCRAM-UBU

This project has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement No 730227

SCRREEN D5.3|Report on the economic assessment of substitution trajectories |Rev.0| 1

CONTENT

1 Introduction and substitution trajectories ...................................................................................................... 3

2 Methodology ................................................................................................................................................... 5

3 Accumulators .................................................................................................................................................. 7

3.1 Economic analysis of accumulator value chain ..................................................................................... 11

Statistical data ............................................................................................................................................... 11

Actors in the value chain ............................................................................................................................... 16

3.2 Substitution solutions for CRM in accumulators ................................................................................... 19

3.3 Summary of the accumulator value chain............................................................................................. 22

3.4 References ............................................................................................................................................. 24

4 Alloys ............................................................................................................................................................. 26

4.1 Economic analysis of alloys value chain ................................................................................................ 32


Actors in the value chain - Automobile ......................................................................................................... 40

4.2 Substitution solutions for CRMS in alloys.............................................................................................. 42

Substitites in automobile applications .......................................................................................................... 42

Substitutes in aircraft applications ................................................................................................................ 47

4.3 References ............................................................................................................................................. 50

5 Catalytic converters ...................................................................................................................................... 52

5.1 Economic analysis of catalytic converter value chain ........................................................................... 54





5.2 Substitution solutions for CRM in catalytic converters ......................................................................... 59

5.3 Summary of the catalytic converter value chain ................................................................................... 62

5.4 References ............................................................................................................................................. 64

6 Electronic components ................................................................................................................................. 68

6.1 Economic analysis of electronic component value chain ...................................................................... 73



6.2 Substitution solutions for CRM in electronic components ................................................................... 80

6.3 References ............................................................................................................................................. 82

7 Permanent magnets. Energy sector – Application: Wind turbine................................................................. 83

7.1 Economic analysis of wind turbine value chain..................................................................................... 84


Actors in the value chain - wind turbine ....................................................................................................... 87

7.2 Substitution solutions for CRM in wind turbines .................................................................................. 88

7.3 References ............................................................................................................................................. 96

8 Permanent magnets. Transport sector – Application: Electric vehicles ........................................................ 98

8.1 Economic analysis of electric vehicle value chain ............................................................................... 100

Statistical data ............................................................................................................................................. 100

Actors in the value chain - Electric vehicle .................................................................................................. 104

8.2 Substitution solutions for CRM in Electric vehicles ............................................................................. 104

8.3 References ........................................................................................................................................... 107



1 INTRODUCTION AND SUBSTITUTION TRAJECTORIES

This report provides an overview of substitution trajectories assessment in economic terms in order to identify the relevance of CRMs substitution for the European economy and future opportunities for European actors. The economic assessment is based on an application-led/value chain approach (as opposed to material-led). The work presented in this report follows the logic of previous work performed in CRM_InnoNet project.

Substitution trajectories are selected based on knowledge gained in SCRREEN project on current and future use

of CRMs, CRMs’ applications and their substitutability. The trajectories selected for economic assessment are the

following ones:

o Accumulators in electric cars and stationary energy storage applications

o Alloys in transportation sectors in automobile and aircraft applications

o Catalytic converters in vehicles application

o Electrical components in

o Permanent magnets in energy sector in wind turbine application and in transport sector in

electric vehicles application

Selected trajectories are analysed through their value chains, the approach is shown detailed in Figure 1. The

following aspect are analysed for each trajectories:

CRM availability: CRMs used in the application and does their availability pose a risk for the European

economy

Economic relevance: Statistical economic data analysis over the value chain and the main actors

(companies) identifying in the value chain

Availability of substitution solutions: Substitution solutions and their effect on the economic value chain



Figure 1. Approach used for economic assessment.

Depending on the applications, like shown in Figure 2, the value chain is widening both to raw material end as

well as to industrial sector end.

Figure 2. Raw materials, application, industry sectors chains.



2 METHODOLOGY

For all trajectories, literature review has been used as main tool for gathering the data for CRM availability and

substitution solutions combined to experts’ own knowledge.

In the examination of European economic importance, information from Eurostat’s PRODCOM database [1] has

been used. At first, a structural composition of each trajectory/application had to be produced where CRM

containing components, parts and materials are listed. After this the trajectories/applications, components and

materials identified were ‘matched’ with the most relevant group/product according to PRODCOM’s

classification system. In some cases, there is not an obvious match and an application might be spread across

many several PRODCOM groups. Where multiple PRODCOM groups are relevant to a particular application, those

groups are aggregated. An example of the structural composition with corresponding PRDOCOM groups has been

presented Table 1.

Table 1. Structural composition of catalytic converter with PRODCOM codes and names

Application Component Sub component

Materials Prodcom code and name

Automobile

29103000 Motor vehicles for the transport of <= 10 persons 29102100 Vehicles with only spark-ignition engine of a cylinder capacity <= 1 500 cm³ 29102230 Motor vehicles with only petrol engine > 1 500 cm³ (including motor caravans of a capacity > 3 000 cm³) (excluding vehicles for transporting >= 10 persons, snowmobiles, golf cars and similar vehicles) 29102230 Motor vehicles with only petrol engine > 1 500 cm³ (including motor caravans of a capacity > 3 000 cm³) (excluding vehicles for transporting >= 10 persons, snowmobiles, golf cars and similar vehicles) 29102330 Motor vehicles with only diesel or semi-diesel engine > 1 500 cm³ but <= 2 500 cm³ (excluding vehicles for transporting >= 10 persons, motor caravans, snowmobiles, golf cars and similar vehicles)

Exhaust silencer

29323063 Silencers and exhaust pipes; parts thereof

Platinum catalyst

24413070 Platinum catalysts in the form of wire cloth or grill

PGM 24413030 Platinum, palladium, rhodium, iridium, osmium and ruthenium, unwrought or in powder form 24413050 Platinum, palladium, rhodium, iridium, osmium and ruthenium, in semimanufactured forms (excluding unwrought or in powder form)



The information form PRODCOM database were examined through economic status figure (import-production-

export) for year 2017 and through production indicator (production/(production + import)) figure from last three

years (Figure 3).

Figure 3. Example of the economic status figure (left) and production indicator figure (right).

In some cases there are some similar elements and product groups used in the chains which means that the

graphs can partly similar since the value of a product/application specific component or material cannot be

differentiated. However, this is not seen as a restriction since the relevance of a value chain phase for European

manufacturing (industry) is the key outcome of the analysis.

In next sections, trajectories assessment are reported one by one.



3 ACCUMULATORS

The general term accumulator refers to a device for energy storage. Devices accepting, storing and releasing

energy through electrochemical reactions are called batteries. This report concentrates on the value chain of

rechargeable batteries, or secondary batteries, in electric cars and stationary energy storage applications, and

on the substitutability of the critical raw materials these types of batteries contain. The study mainly covers

lithium ion (Li-ion) batteries as a battery technology and the critical raw materials involved with this technology,

namely cobalt (Co), natural graphite and to some extent, silicon (metal). However, nickel metal hydride (NiMH)

batteries are also shortly discussed due to the employment of critical rare earth elements (REEs), namely

lanthanum (La), cerium (Ce), praseodymium (Pr) and neodymium (Nd) in this technology. [1], [2]

For battery-driven electric vehicles, the most critical factor is specific energy and therefore Li-ion battery is used

in these vehicles. For hybrid electric vehicles, however, more important is the continuous charging/discharging

cycle and ability to release power. Therefore, a NiMH battery is more suited for hybrid vehicles. [3] Due to this

preference, the use of Li-ion batteries in vehicles is expected to outnumber that of NiMH batteries so that the

share of batteries based on Li-ion technology will be more than 90% in all types of electric vehicles by 2020 [4].

It has also been estimated that EVs will make up the majority of new car sales worldwide by 2040, rising from

the 3% share to be seen in 2020. In number of cars this translates to an estimated increase from a couple of

million vehicles sold in 2020 to over 60 million new EVs sold in 2040. [5] Thus, the demand for Li-ion batteries

during the next couple of decades is expected to be immense.

The increasing use of renewable energy sources raises the need to even out the modulating energy production

from time to time and integrating the energy sources into the grid smoothly and safely. Balancing the electricity

generation and demand between daytime and night time is also a significant aspect in optimised grid utilization.

Therefore, a large-scale energy storage system (ESS) is an increasingly important means to shift electrical energy

from peak to off-peak periods. A number of potential technologies have been proposed for ESS, but the

secondary battery technique is one of the most promising means for storing electricity on a large-scale because

of flexibility, high energy conversion efficiency and simple maintenance. The major parameters of stationary

batteries for ESS are significantly different from those of power batteries used in EVs. Long cycle life, low cost,

and high safety are the most important parameters. [6]

Li-ion batteries have dominated and are anticipated to dominate in future also in ESS applications, whereas NiMH

batteries will only have a negligible share. The whole stationary battery market is estimated to see a significant

expansion, as the global battery storage capacity in stationary applications is estimated to rise from 11 GWh

(2017) to 100-170 GWh by 2030, which means a considerable increase in Li-ion battery demand. [6]–[8] Due to

the above-mentioned reasons, this report emphasis the value chain study and substitution solutions of Li-ion

batteries over those of NiMH batteries.

The battery technologies are first presented before discussing the statistical data and value chain related to the

automotive and stationary energy storage applications relying on these technologies.



LI-ION BATTERIES

Development of high-energy-density Li-ion battery started in the 1970s. Current Li-ion batteries do not contain

metallic lithium and are therefore much safer than the earlier primary lithium-metal design of cell. In Li-ion

batteries, lithium ions travel between anode and cathode during charge and discharge processes, [9] as

illustrated in the following figure.

Figure 1. The principle of a lithium ion cell. Figure: Argonne National Laboratory.

The cathode material is typically lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO2) or lithium manganese oxide (LiMnO2), but other

metal oxide based materials are also used, such as LiMn2O4, LiFePO4 , and LiNi1−x−y MnxCoyO2. [9]

Currently, natural or synthetic graphite-based materials are used on the anode side. The electrolyte is composed

of an organic-based solvent and dissolved salt (such as LiPF6, LiBF4, or LiClO4), and a microporous polymer sheet

works as the separator between the positive and negative electrode. [9]

The most important advantages of the Li-ion cell are high energy density, from 150 to 200 Wh/kg (250-530 Wh/l),

high voltage (3.6 V), good charge-discharge characteristics, and relatively long cycling life with acceptable self-

discharge (less than 10% per month). Comparing with Ni-based secondary batteries, Li-ion battery shows no

memory effect, as well as better high-rate charging performance. The major disadvantage for Li-ion battery is

the high price. There also must be a controlled charging process, as overcharging or heating above 100°C causes

the decomposition of the positive electrode and the electrolyte with liberation of gas. [9] Despite these currently

predominant drawbacks, Li-ion and post Li-ion chemistries are considered the most promising and relevant

chemistries for electrochemical energy storage in the time frame up to 2030. [1]



NI-MH BATTERIES

NiMH battery was first studied in the 1960s and was commercially introduced in 1989. Since then, NiMH cells

have become a dominant commercial rechargeable battery system in high-volume production for multiple

consumer applications. In recent years, the application of NiMH battery has expanded from portable applications

to hybrid vehicle use [9], such as the one presented in next figure.

Figure 2. An example of an automotive NiMH battery. Figure: Public domain.

In NiMH battery, the negative electrode is a hydrogen-storing alloy, while the positive electrode is β-NiOOH,

which also contains Co and Zn. The electrolyte is aqueous KOH solution containing some LiOH. The overall process

consists in the reversible transfer of a proton from an electrode to the other [9], as illustrated in the next figure.

Figure 3. The principle of a nickel metal hydride battery. Figure: Sebang Global Battery.

The negative electrode materials are either AB5 or AB2 type alloys, such as LaNi5 or ZrV2. The advantages of both

types of alloys cover wide operating temperature range, high capacity, long cycle life, and high hydrogen diffusion

rate. [9] In average, REEs account for more than 30 wt% of a NiMH battery [2].



In the LaNi5 alloy, using a naturally occurring mixture of rare-earth elements, La, Nd, Pr, and Ce, instead of pure

La, enhances the resistance to alkali and reduces costs [9]. A typical mischmetal, designated with A in electrode

alloys, is La5,7Ce8,0Pr0,8Nd2,3 [3]. Nickel in LaNi5 can be partially substituted by Co, Mn, and Al. AB5 type alloys show

capacities of about 300 mAh/g, which is less than those exhibited by AB2 type alloys (A: Zr, Ti; B: V, Ni plus minor

amounts of Cr, Co, Mn, Fe). However, AB5 alloys show better performance in wider working temperature range

with demanding discharge rates. AB5 alloys are also less susceptible to self-discharge and, as they are cheaper

and easier to use, are still preferred especially in automotive applications. [3], [9]

In optimized NiMH cells, the energy density can approach 100 Wh/kg and 300 Wh/l. The drawback of NiMH

batteries is that long-term storage at high temperatures causes permanent damages to seals and separator

resulting in reduced cycle life. [9]

VALUE CHAIN

The value chain of Li-ion and NiMH batteries used in EVs and stationary energy storage is presented in Figure 4.

Figure 4. Value chain of Li-ion and NiMH batteries used in EVs and stationary energy storage.

Primary raw material

•Primary producers of Co and REEs

•Natural graphite producers

Sub-component

•Anode manufacturers

•Cathode manufacturers

Component

•Lithium ion and NiMH battery manufacturers

Application (assembly)

•Battery pack manufacturers

•Stationary energy storage system providers

Recycling

•Battery recyclers



3.1 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF ACCUMULATOR VALUE CHAIN

STATISTICAL DATA

The economic analysis based on statistics (Eurostat, PRODCOM-data base) of the batteries value chain is

presented next. For the analysis, the structural composition of the application has been produced in the table

below. Based on these divisions, the schematic economic value chain description has been produced and

presented separately in the next section.

Table 1. Structural composition of battery with PRODCOM codes and names.

Application Component Sub component Materials Prodcom code and name

Battery

27202300 Nickel-cadmium, nickel metal, hydride, lithium-ion, lithium polymer, nickel-iron and other electric accumulators

Battery Cell

27201100 Primary cells and primary batteries 27201200 Parts of primary cells and primary batteries (excluding battery carbons, for rechargeable batteries)

Cathode/Anode/Electrolyte

27202400 Parts of electric accumulators including separators

Inductor

27115080 Inductors (excluding induction coils, deflection coils for cathode-ray tubes, for discharge lamps and tubes)

Plates, films, sheets…

22214230 Non-cellular plates, sheets, film, foil, strip of condensation or rearrangement polymerization products, polyesters, reinforced, laminated, supported/similarly comb. with other materials)

Anodizing metal

25612250 Anodizing of metals

Co 20121930 Cobalt oxides and hydroxides; commercial cobalt oxides

Graphite 20132130 Carbon (carbon blacks and other forms of carbon, n.e.c.)

23991400 Artificial graphite, colloidal, semicolloidal graphite, and preparations

REE (La) 20132300 Alkali or alkaline-earth metals; rare-earth metals, scandium and yttrium;

mercury 20136500 Compounds of rare-earth metals, of yttrium or of scandium or mixtures of these metals

Li 20121950 Lithium oxide and hydroxide; vanadium oxides and hydroxides; nickel oxides

and hydroxides; germanium oxides and zirconium dioxide


SCRREEN D5.3| REPORT ON THE ECONOMIC ASSESSMENT OF SUBSTITUTION TRAJECTORIES |Rev.0|

13

The battery value chain composes of 10 groups which can be divided roughly to four stages which are materials,

sub-components, components/parts and end applications. More detailed division together with PRODCOM

codes and names can be seen in Table 1. In Figure 5 the relationship between production, import and export

based on the statistical data has been presented. The positive values present how much value has been either

generated and imported to Europe while the negative value present how much leaves as export from Europe.

Figure 5. Relationship between production, import and export values for batteries, components and

materials in Europe 2017. Note that the values present the whole industry volume not specific

to batteries. [10]

The overview of battery value chain describes that the value which is produced, imported and exported is on a

higher level in the component/part and end application stages compared on raw materials with exception of

graphite. For the batteries significant share of the value is imported which supports the general perception of

battery manufacturing focusing outside Europe [1]. However, there is still production in Europe but the demand

of batteries in different end applications and products exceeds the production. For the battery cell in component

stage, the seems to be some production as well as import. However, since battery manufacturing is mostly

located outside the Europe, the battery cell markets can be somewhat limited. This can reflect also to the sub-

component groups. Regarding anodizing metal group there is no statistical data on import and export which

appears in single production bar.

For materials stage the graphite distinguishes from the other materials clearly. For it the production and export

values are somewhat on the same level while the import has slightly larger ones. It should be noticed that

graphite do not present the mined natural graphite but so called artificial graphite which is already a semi-

-3 000

-2 000

-1 000

0

1 000

2 000

3 000

4 000

5 000

6 000

Val

ue

[mill

ion

€]

Economic status of battery value chain 2017

Production Import Export



14

manufactured material which explains the difference compared with the outcome in CRM-list 2017 which states

heavy import reliance [11]. A great share (~65 %) of graphite is utilized in refractories for steelmaking and for

foundries [11] at which time the value related to batteries value chain is in reality less. For other materials the

values are notably lower. Cobalt has diverse distribution of the value with a relatively large production share.

The PRODCOM-group for Cobalt compose of oxides and hydroxides so it describes the situation for processed

materials not mined concentrates. In addition, reliability of statistical data on cobalt has been raised since trade

figures might be on a rather coarse level [11]. Therefore, precaution should be considered when doing further

conclusions. Even though lithium is not on the Critical Raw Materials list, it has been presented in the analysis

since it is relevant material for battery industry. In this regard the values are significantly lover compared to other

groups in the value chain. In addition, it should be noticed that in the PRODCOM-group of lithium there is also

other materials such as vanadium oxides and hydroxides; nickel oxides and hydroxides; germanium oxides and

zirconium dioxide which affects the trade figures.

The relation between production and import in Figure 6 expresses how dependent Europe is of import compared

to the production. If the production is larger than import the indicator gets positive bar in Figure 6. It can be

noticed that there is rather much fluctuation in the production-import relation entire value chain and no distinct

pattern or trend in terms of production clustering within Europe can be identified. For some groups such as

cobalt, plates and cathode there the indicator shows fairly high figures while for lithium and batteries the figures

are lower. Rest of the groups receive figures around 0.5 indicating somewhat similar size of import and

production values. It should be noted that Anodizing metal group has been left out from since no data on import

has been completed in the statistics.

For cobalt figures there has been reported concerns on the statistical data as was discussed earlier. This might

appear in unnecessary positive figures and therefore should be regarded with a critical viewpoint. As for plates,

films and sheets there is rather strong production in Europe. However, in this group especially it should be noted

that the products are not solely connected to the batteries but also to other industries. As a result plates and

films utilized in other end applications are also counted in the figures which most likely increases the values.

Cathode, anodes and electrolytes belong to the PRODCOM-group of Parts of electric accumulators including

separators at which time the figures might contain some other part as well. Even though, the positive indicator

value indicate that there is seem to be some markets for the parts. However, it should be noted that the overall

values of production, import and export for this group is quite low (Figure 5).

Low production indicator value for batteries indicate rather heavy reliance on import which is fairly logical since

the PRODCOM-group contains many different type of batteries which are used in different end application and

large amount of battery manufacturers are situated outside Europe. For lithium, other type of oxides and

hydroxides (e.g. vanadium, nickel, germanium, zirconium) are included in the PRODCOM-group which may affect

and change the indicator value.



15

Figure 6. Production indicator (prod / imp + prod) for battery value chain in 2015, 2016 and 2017. [10]

The production/import share has for many groups remained to some extent on same level during the three years.

Some fluctuation can be detected for carbon electrode, cathode and battery cells groups, however, the changes

are not major. In addition, for lithium and indicator group there is a trend of decrease in the indicator during the

last three years. In both cases the production has stayed at the same level while the import has increased which

has resulted in the decrease in the indicator figure.

FUTURE PERSPECTIVES ON THE MARKET

The forecasted market balance for cobalt, covering all applications until 2020, indicates that supply matches

demand within 1 %. Longer term projections for penetration of electric vehicles up to 2050 show that the

cumulative demand for cobalt would require all the resources known today, even considering its relatively high

recycling rate in the battery sector. However, this estimation is based on the assumption that the Li-ion

technology relying on cobalt continues to be widely used up to 2050, which is unlikely as gradual introduction of

other cobalt-free chemistries is expected to be seen during this time-frame (see section 3.2). [1]

The high purity of artificial graphite makes it desirable choice for Li-ion battery applications, but it is also more

expensive [12]. Only moderate increase is expected to be seen in the demand of natural graphite because new

applications rely more on artificial graphite. However, the price will decrease fast because the supply is abundant.

There is already over supply in China and a lot of new projects in China and Canada are under way. [13]

The cathode materials market is in the state of becoming more scattered with more and more companies

entering the market and providing a share of the global supply [1]. In addition, many of the major battery cell

0,0

0,1

0,2

0,3

0,4

0,5

0,6

0,7

0,8

0,9

1,0

Battery value chain production indicator

2015 2016 2017



16

manufacturers such as Panasonic, LG Chem and BYD have started to develop their own in-house cathode

materials production in order to better control the quality of the cathode material. [8] The average price of

cathode active materials is likely to fall as manufacturers work toward replacing high cost cobalt metal with low

cost nickel and manganese metals. [12]

ACTORS IN THE VALUE CHAIN

The main actors related to the value chain of Li-ion batteries used in EVs and ESS are discussed in this section.

NiMH batteries are left out of this scope due to their smaller significance in vehicle and stationary energy

applications. Some notes related to the geography of manufacturing of each part of the value chain are given

first, followed by a list (Table 2) compiling the key companies.

RAW MATERIAL PRODUCTION

Production of cobalt is highly concentrated. Democratic Republic of Congo is the world's leading source of mined

cobalt with 51% of the cobalt market volume, while China, Russia, Canada and Australia each have a share of

about 5%. However, over 90% of cobalt import into the EU comes from Russia. [1]

Natural graphite is extracted from mines and exists in three forms including amorphous, crystalline and flake

types. Flake type is the one used in Li-ion batteries. [12] Production of natural graphite is highly concentrated in

China, which produces 66% of the natural graphite market volume. Other important producer countries are India

(14%) and Brazil (7%). The majority of natural graphite import into the EU comes from China (57%) followed by

Brazil (15%) and Norway (9%). [1]

Silicon metal and silicon alloys are emerging as anode active materials for Li-ion battery cells, but at present their

share is negligible compared to other applications [1]. Therefore, silicon metal producers are not included in the

accumulator value chain study.

COMPONENT MANUFACTURING

The production of anode active materials has long been dominated by Japan and China. EU-based companies

such as SGL (DE), Imerys (CH) and Heraeus (DE), as well as US-based 3M, DuPont, Dow, Dow Corning, and Envia

have also recently shown interest in the anode active materials market for Li-ion batteries, but they do not

possess a significant share of the global supply yet. [1]

Production of cathode active materials is also dominated by Asia: of the total amount of cathode materials (by

weight) in 2015, China produced 39%, Japan 19% and South Korea about 7%. EU-headquartered suppliers,

Umicore and Johnson Matthey, together produced approximately 13% (by weight) of the global supply of

cathode materials in 2015. [1] Umicore and Johnson Matthey are planning to further expand their production

capacities of cathode materials (NCM, LFP and LCO) in Asia in order to tap into the demand from EV and consumer

electronics applications [12].



17

Companies such as BASF (DE), Dow (US), 3M (US), DuPont (US), Mitsubishi (JP) and LG Chem (KR) have recently

shown interest or made acquisitions on installations to enter the cathode market but do not play a significant

role in the global supply of the cathode active materials yet. [1]

CELL MANUFACTURING

Cell manufacturing for automotive applications is concentrated in Japan, South Korea and China, which haves

significantly increased their manufacturing capacities even further in recent years. China plans further expansion

of its manufacturing capacity for Li-ion battery cells and has announced construction of extra 19.3 GWh

manufacturing capacity in addition to its 30.4 GWh. The manufacturing capacity of USA increased almost tenfold

from 2014 to 2016 thanks to the construction of Tesla Gigafactory. [1]

In Europe the Li-ion cell manufacturing capacity has been moderate, but new facilities are under construction or

have been announced. The expected evolution of manufacturing capacity in the EU is presented in Figure 7. The

largest installation is announced by NorthVolt (SE), which plans to expand its production from 8 GWh (2020) to

even 32 GWh in 2023. [8]

Figure 7. Expected progress of production capacity (in GWh) of Li-ion cells for mobility and stationary

storage applications in the EU. Note: The representation is excluding the announcement

made by TESLA, as the location was not revealed. Adopted from [8].

BATTERY PACK MANUFACTURING

Different strategies exist among car manufacturers in whether to invest and develop the required pack

manufacturing capacity in-house or to outsource it. For example, GM (US) has completely outsourced the cell

and pack manufacturing to LG Chem (KR), whereas other US-based company Tesla is planning to shift the

manufacturing of cells, pack design and manufacturing in-house. Also joint venture type approaches are used:



18

for example, Automotive Energy Supply Corporation (AESC) is jointly owned by Nissan and the Japanese

electronics firm NEC. [1]

RECYCLING

At present recycling of Li-ion batteries is mainly limited to portable batteries since still there are no big volumes

of battery waste originating from vehicles or ESS that have reached their end-of-life. Spent Li-ion (and NiMH)

batteries are industrially recycled in many regions globally. [1]

The actors in the above-described parts of the Li-ion battery value chain are summarised in Table 2.

Table 2. Main actors in the value chain of Li-ion and NiMH batteries in EV and ESS use. Country code in

parentheses represents the country of the headquarters of the company. The columns titled Europe and Rest of

world refer to a significant presence of production facilities in these geographical regions. [1], [12]–[14]

Part of the value chain Europe Rest of world

Raw material production Cobalt: Glencore (CH), China Molybdenum (CN), Fleurette Group (NL), Vale (BR), Gécamines (CD), Nornickel (RU), ERG (LU)

Triton Minerals (AU), Hexagon Resources (AU), Focus Graphite (CA)

Sub-component production (anode and cathode materials)

Umicore (BE), Johnson Matthey (GB), BASF (DE)

Graphite anode: BTR (CN), Mitsubishi Chemicals (JP), Hitachi Chemicals (JP), Nippon Carbon (JP)

NMC: Umicore (BE), Nichia (JP), Ningbo ShanShan (CN), Xiamen Tungsten (CN)

NCA: Sumimoto (JP), Toda Kogyo (JP)

LFP: Pulead Technology Industry (CN), Johnson Matthey (GB)

LMO: Mitsui (JP), POSCO Chemtech (KR), JGC (JP)

Component manufacture (Li-ion cells)

Samsung SDI (KR), Nissan (JP), Bolloré (FR), Leclanche (CH)

Sanyo-Panasonic (JP), Samsung SDI (KR), LG Chem (KR), BYD (CN), AESC (JP), GS Yuasa (JP), Li Energy Japan (JP), Wanxiang (CN), Lishen Tianjin (CN), Toshiba (JP)

Application assembly (battery packs for EVs, ESS)

Johnson Matthey Battery Systems (GB), Deutche ACCUMOTIVE (DE), Kreisel Electric (AT)

In-house/Joint venture: BYD (CN), Nissan (JP), Mitsubishi Motors (JP), Tesla (US), AESC (JP), Lithium Energy Japan (JP)

Outsourced: Samsung SDI (KR), LG Chem (KR)



19

Recycling (battery) Umicore Battery Recycling (BE), Accurec Recycling (DE), Glencore (CH), Valdi (FR)

Glencore (CH), Retriev Technologies (CA), AERC Recycling Solutions (US), GEM (CN), JX Nippon Mining and Metals (JP), Hunan BRUNP (CN)

3.2 SUBSTITUTION SOLUTIONS FOR CRM IN ACCUMULATORS

There are many material options for both anode and cathode side of the Li-ion batteries, enabling various battery

designs. The same applies to the cathode side of NiMH batteries. However, the currently used material

combinations almost exclusively employ CRMs at least on either electrode. The use of CRMs in Li-ion and NiMH

batteries is summarised in the following table.

Table 3. Summary of the CRMs found in currently used Li-ion and NiMH battery designs.

Anode side Cathode side

Li-ion Graphite Cobalt

NiMH Cobalt Vanadium / REEs

3.2.1 SUBSTITUTIVE ELEMENTS

IN LI-ION BATTERIES

In the case of Li-ion batteries, substitution of CRMs is not the only driver for seeking alternative materials, but

also the insufficient capacity, high cost, and toxicity of current commercial electrode materials. [9]

As for the anode, graphite-based carbons are the dominant active materials in EV applications. When high power

is needed, lithium titanate Li4Ti5O12 (LTO) is used as the anode material. Another possible substitution solution

for graphite is the use of tin-based oxides (SnO and SnO2). Promising results regarding high-power applications

have been achieved especially by the combination of tin oxides with various carbon nanostructures. [9], [14] So

far commercial examples of tin-based anode materials exist in portable applications [14].

Silicon (Si) has been considered as one of the most attractive anode materials for lithium-ion batteries because

it has the highest gravimetric capacity among anodes. However, it has to be noted that silicon metal is on the

EU’s list of CRMs, although elsewhere in the world silicon is considered abundant. [9], [11] The drawback of the

material is that it more than triples its volume when lithium ions are intercalated to form the alloy on the anode.

This causes dramatic mechanical stress and a capacity fading during the discharge-charge process. To overcome

this issue, many approaches have been applied to develop novel Si electrodes with high electrochemical

performance, such as by designing the morphology of Si in the nanoscale or by surface coating. [9], [14] The use

of silicon or carbon-silicon anodes are expected to characterise the future generation battery designs [1], [15].

Complex transition metal oxides and phosphates are currently the main cathode active materials used in Li-ion

battery cells. These include: lithium cobalt oxide (LCO), lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC), lithium



20

nickel cobalt aluminium oxide (NCA), lithium manganese oxide (LMO) and lithium iron phosphate (LFP). [1] There

are four principal cathode materials used today for automotive applications: all of the above-mentioned except

for LCO, which is more suitable for low-power applications [9]. Some state-of-the art Li-ion cells and their

electrode material combinations used in EVs on the market in 2018 are presented in the next table.

Table 2. Manufacturers and users of Li-ion batteries employed in EVs [9].

Cell maker Anode Cathode User company Vehicle model

AESC Graphite LMO-NCA Nissan Leaf

LG Chem Graphite LMO-NMC GM Volt

Li-Tec Graphite NMC Daimler Smart

Li Energy Japan Graphite LMO-NMC Mitsubishi i-MiEV

Samsung Graphite NMC-LMO Fiat 500

Lishen Tianjin Graphite LFP Coda EV

Toshiba Graphite NMC Honda Fit

Panasonic Graphite NCA Tesla Model S

One of the most promising lithium-ion battery cathode materials is LFP (LiFePO4), as a substitute to LCO [14],

especially for large-scale Li-ion batteries, such as for electric and hybrid vehicles and stationary ESS. The

substitutive material combination is based on environmentally friendly, low cost, abundant raw materials. The

drawback of the material is its very low electronic conductivity at room temperature, which means it can only

achieve its theoretical capacity at a very low current density or at elevated temperatures. Various approaches to

improve the poor conductivity have been used, such as coating LiFePO4 with different conducting materials. [9]

Several companies have commercialized lithium-ion batteries based on LiFePO4 cathode [14], thus the solution

is already on the market.

The replacement of cobalt has also succeeded on a laboratory scale by a lithium-rich cathode design, Li5FeO4.

The design is advantageous not only because of cobalt substitution, but because oxygen also participates in the

electrochemical reaction, increasing the capacity of the cell significantly. [16], [17]

IN NI-MH BATTERIES

A small amount of cobalt may be used on the anode of a NiMH battery, but the criticality studies usually

concentrate on the use of REEs on the cathode side. For instance, the LaNi5 alloy in NiMH batteries could be

replaced by a REE-free titanium-iron alloy. However, currently there is no price incentive to do this because

cerium and lanthanum, which form the largest part of the material combination, are inexpensive materials. [3],

[18]

3.2.2 SUBSTITUTIVE TECHNOLOGIES

With the energy density of the Li-ion technology approaching its maximum, the research has proceeded to post-

Li-ion systems [19]. It is assumed that in the short term, sodium-ion and lithium-sulphur battery technologies are

the best candidates to reach sufficient technology maturity for wider commercial deployment. [20]



21

SODIUM-ION BATTERIES

Compared with lithium, sodium (Na) has similar physical and chemical properties. However, Na is very abundant

and low cost. However, the gravimetric and volumetric densities of Na-ion battery would not exceed those of its

Li analogue because of the relatively heavier and larger Na atom and less-reducing potential of Na. On the other

hand, as energy density is not a critical issue for stationary energy storage systems, developing room-

temperature Na-ion batteries for this application is still a reasonable alternative. [21]

The electrode materials for Na-ion batteries are not yet established and there is a lot of variety on the researched

materials. On the cathode side, layered transition metal oxides, tunnel-type oxides and phosphates have gained

attraction, whereas on the anode side, carbon-based compounds, oxides and sulphides have been examined, to

name a few. [21] Some of these alternatives employ cobalt.

The technology has already reached early commercialization stage, with a few efforts led by Aquion and

Sumitomo Electric for stationary grid storage [20].

LI-AIR BATTERIES

Lithium-air systems, more precisely lithium-oxygen systems, are the most promising lithium batteries in terms of

energy density, since the cathode active mass is not included in the battery system. Li-air batteries have the

potential to achieve over an order of magnitude higher energy density than that of Li-ion batteries. Moreover, if

the oxygen supplied is not included in the calculation, Li-air cells offer an energy density of about 11,000 Wh/kg.

This value is approaching to the value for gasoline (octane) at 13,000 Wh/kg if the external oxygen supply is also

neglected. Therefore, unlike other battery technologies, Li-air is competitive with liquid fuels. [9]

There are two types of Li-air batteries: aqueous and non-aqueous, and both types involve the reduction of O2. In

non-aqueous Li-air battery, the solid Li2O2 accumulates in the pores of the porous substrate cathode on

discharge. Various catalysts have been utilized in order to reduce the voltage separation in this Li-air battery

type, but, if a catalyst is used, controlling its size, morphology, and distribution within the pores is a challenge.

Some of the tested catalysts employ cobalt, but it can be assumed that the needed amounts of cobalt in the

catalyst would be significantly smaller than the amounts used in Li-ion battery cathodes. Moreover, there is a

number of potential non-CRM based catalysts available, such as manganese oxides. Another challenge in non-

aqueous Li-air batteries is to identify electrolyte materials that satisfy all the requirements of solubility,

wettability, and stability. In addition, if the cell is to operate in ambient air, the penetration of CO2 and H2O must

be avoided, allowing only O2 to enter the cell. [9]

For aqueous Li-air battery, the system can only function with a solid electrolyte layer, which should be an ionic

conductor, covering the lithium anode, since lithium reacts violently with water. Although the benefit of the

aqueous system is that H2O does not have to be excluded from the cathode, it is necessary to exclude CO2 to

avoid formation of Li2CO3 instead of LiOH. Therefore, aqueous Li-air battery faces many challenges similar to the

non-aqueous Li-air battery for practical implementation. [9]



22

LITHIUM-SULPHUR BATTERIES

Due to the abundance and low cost of elemental sulphur, lithium-sulphur (Li-S) battery has been considered as

an advantageous choice for post-Li-ion systems. Sulphur is expected to deliver a specific capacity of 1675 Ah/kg

and an energy density of 2600 Wh/kg, which are 3–5 folds higher than those of state-of-art Li-ion batteries. [19]

Li-S batteries are also environmentally safe when compared to toxic cobalt oxide cathodes, which are currently

used in Li-ion batteries [20]. In this battery construction, lithium forms the anode, whereas sulphur and carbon

are used on the cathode side. [19]

Key applications of Li-S are transportation, military and defense, and stationary grid batteries. Current market

for Li-S is in the pilot stage: a few pilot tests have already been done or planned (Sion, Oxis), and a pilot-scale

manufacturing process designed (Polyplus). [20] Li-S technology is assumed to gain momentum by 2025 due to

the high energy density and cycle life it can provide. The lack of technical know-how and sophistication related

to the technology likely prevents its earlier adoption. [12]

It is estimated that both Li-air and Li-sulphur batteries will be commercially available after 2030 [20].

LIQUID ORGANIC HYDROGEN CARRIERS

With the transition of the energy system toward a higher share of renewable energy, hydrogen is often

considered a very capable future energy storage and transport medium as it can be produced with renewable

energy via electrolysis. However, due to the limitations related to the storage of hydrogen and the considerable

investment costs that are necessary to establish a sufficient distribution infrastructure for hydrogen, researchers

work on future concepts for the storage and transport of hydrogen in chemically bound forms, referred to as

energy carrying compounds. [22]

One example of energy carrying compounds is liquid organic hydrogen carrier (LOHC), where hydrogen is

covalently bound to a liquid carrier substance via hydrogenation. When needed, hydrogen can be released for

energy use via dehydrogenation. The storage medium itself is not consumed but can be reloaded with hydrogen

in further cycles. Various substances have been studied as potential hydrogen carrier media. Among the best

understood LOHC systems with convenient material properties for the application as an energy carrier are

heterocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. [22]

LOHC is so far rather unrecognised technology in wider perspective, but in various scenarios LOHC could be used

in long-distance transport of energy or for stationary energy storage, and therefore it could replace Li-ion

batteries. It could also be used as energy storage in fuel cell vehicles using hydrogen, similarly as batteries are

used for storing electrical energy in EVs. [23]

3.3 SUMMARY OF THE ACCUMULATOR VALUE CHAIN

The value chain of Li-ion batteries is quite heavily concentrated in Asia, namely in China, Japan and South Korea.

However, Umicore and Johnson Matthey are strong players in the field of cathode material manufacture, and



23

there are some active European companies also in the assembly of battery packs. Recycling sector of batteries is

rather diversely spread out between Europe, North America and Asia.

Cobalt, used in the cathode material of Li-ion batteries, is identified as the most critical material to be substituted,

and there is also commercial incentive for this because of cobalt’s high price. There are already cobalt-free

cathode material options on the market, but the best functionality is so far achieved with cobalt-bearing options,

especially with nickel cobalt manganese complexes (NCM). This material is however continuously being

developed to contain less cobalt. [12] There is less motivation to substitute (natural) graphite on the anode side,

as there is no similar price incentive.

The substitutive solutions on the element and technology level (technologies beyond Li-ion) attached to a

timeline of expected commercialisation are summarised in Figure 8.

Figure 8. The estimated beginning of commercialisation for cathode, anode and electrolyte materials in

current-type Li-ion batteries and post Li-ion technologies. Adopted from [24].



24

3.4 REFERENCES

[1] N. Lebedeva, F. Di Persio, and B.-B. Lois, “Lithium ion battery value chain and related opportunities for Europe,” Petten, 2016.

[2] Y. Yao, N. F. Farac, and G. Azimi, “Recycling of Rare Earth Elements from Nickel Metal Hydride Battery Utilizing Supercritical Fluid Extraction,” ECS Meet. Abstr., vol. MA2018-01, no. 4, pp. 617–617, Apr. 2018.

[3] L. Grandell, A. Lehtilä, M. Kivinen, T. Koljonen, S. Kihlman, and L. S. Lauri, “Role of critical metals in the future markets of clean energy technologies,” Renew. Energy, vol. 95, pp. 53–62, Sep. 2016.

[4] S. Research, “LiBs for EV applications: technology issues and market forecast (2011-2020),” 2013.

[5] Bloomberg, “Electric Vehicles Outlook: 2018,” Bloomberg New Energy Finance.

[6] “Stationary Battery Storage Market Forecast Industry Size Report 2030,” Global Market Insights, 2018.

[7] Frost & Sullivan, “Global Battery Management Systems Market, Forecast to 2024,” Global Energy & Environment Research Team, 2018.

[8] Tsiropoulos I, Tarvydas D, and Lebedeva N, “Li-ion batteries for mobility and stationary storage applications - Scenarios for costs and market growth,” JRC Science for policy report, 2018.

[9] P. K. Shen, C.-Y. Wang, S. P. Jiang, X. Sun, and J. Zhang, Electrochemical Energy: Advanced Materials and Technologies. Chapman and Hall/CRC, ProQuest Ebook Central, 2018.

[10] Eurostat, “Statistics on the production of manufactured goods (PRODCOM NACE Rev. 2),” 2018. [Online]. Available: https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/prodcom/data/database. [Accessed: 08-Jan-2019].

[11] European Commission, “Study on the review of the list of Critical Raw Materials Critical Raw Materials Factsheets,” Luxembourg, 2017.

[12] Frost & Sullivan, “Global Analysis of Battery Materials Market, Forecast to 2023,” 2018.

[13] M. Sanders, “Lithium-Ion Battery Raw Material Supply and Demand 2017-2025,” Advanced Automotive Battery Conference 2017. Avicenne Energy.

[14] D. Saxman, “Lithium batteries: Markets and materials,” BCC Research, 2016.

[15] Frost & Sullivan, “Advancements in Battery Materials – High-Tech Materials TechVision Opportunity Engine,” 2017.

[16] C. Zhan et al., “Enabling the high capacity of lithium-rich anti-fluorite lithium iron oxide by simultaneous anionic and cationic redox,” Nat. Energy, vol. 2, no. 12, pp. 963–971, Dec. 2017.

[17] Frost & Sullivan, “Innovations in Automotive Remote Diagnostics, Tire Monitoring, SoC AI-powered Autonomous Cars, Lithium-iron-cobalt Batteries, Fuel cell Buses, Self-healing Corrosion-resistant Coatings, Stereoscopic Cameras, Autonomous Delivery of Goods, and Hype,” 2018.



25

[18] K. Binnemans and P. T. Jones, “Rare Earths and the Balance Problem,” J. Sustain. Metall., vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 29–38, Mar. 2015.

[19] S. S. Zhang, “Liquid electrolyte lithium/sulfur battery: Fundamental chemistry, problems, and solutions,” J. Power Sources, vol. 231, pp. 153–162, Jun. 2013.

[20] Frost & Sullivan, “Post Li-ion Battery R&D Trends - Sodium-ion Battery is the Most Viable Alternative for Lithium Ion Battery in the Near Future,” 2017.

[21] H. Pan, Y.-S. Hu, and L. Chen, “Room-temperature stationary sodium-ion batteries for large-scale electric energy storage,” Energy Environ. Sci., vol. 6, no. 8, p. 2338, Jul. 2013.

[22] D. Teichmann, W. Arlt, and P. Wasserscheid, “Liquid Organic Hydrogen Carriers as an efficient vector for the transport and storage of renewable energy,” Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, vol. 37, no. 23, pp. 18118–18132, Dec. 2012.

[23] P. T. Aakko-Saksa, C. Cook, J. Kiviaho, and T. Repo, “Liquid organic hydrogen carriers for transportation and storing of renewable energy – Review and discussion,” J. Power Sources, vol. 396, pp. 803–823, Aug. 2018.

[24] IEA, “Global EV Outlook 2018. Towards cross-model electrification,” 2018.



26

4 ALLOYS

This chapter will concentrate on the economic assessment of substitution trajectories for CRMs used in metal

alloys in transportation sector in two applications: automobiles and aircrafts.

Transportation is defined by the movement of people and goods over distances by vehicles travelling in land,

water and air [1]. The transport sector provides products, i.e., vehicles, and services, e.g., transportation services

or mobility-as-a-service gateways. As the focus of the research is on materials, particularly critical raw materials

(CRMs) included in alloys, this study will concentrate on the products in transportation sector: the vehicles,

especially on the alloys included in them. Additionally, given that the whole value chain of the CRMs and their

substitution will be covered in this research, the attention will be put on two key categories of vehicles:

automobile and aircraft. Indeed, substitution of CRMs in the transportation sector is an urgent demand due the

extreme conditions of temperature, wear and corrosion that are frequent in transportation application [2].

Table 1 summarises the most important alloy categories with CRMs used in the selected two transportation

applications: automobile and aircraft.

Table 1. The main alloy categories with CRMs included in automobile and aircraft.

Vehicle Alloy category Alloy type Use, estimated amount

CRM included Importance/ amount

Automobile Ferrous alloys Advanced high-strength steels (AHSS, HSLA)

Body, drivetrain

Nb, V Nb 100 g/car

Stainless steels

Stainless steels Exthaust system

Nb Nominal

Aluminium alloys

2000 series (Cu+Mg) 5000 series (Mg+Mn), 6000 series (Mg+Si) 7000 series (Zn+Mg)

Drivetrain, heat exchangers

Mg Mg 3 kg/car,

3/4 of this amount is included in aluminium alloys

Magnesium alloys

Wrought and cast alloys

Suspension [3]

Mg Mg 3 kg/car,

1/4 in magnesium alloys

Cobalt based alloys

Stellite Exthaust valves of internal combustion engine, valve seats, valves

Co, (W) Co 42 g/car

Lead alloys, tin alloys

White metal, PbSnSb Bearings in the motor

Sb Nominal



27

Copper alloys Copper beryllium alloys

Wire harnesses and connectors

Be Nominal

Nickel alloys Ni-P Plating P Nominal

Aircraft Nickel-based superalloys

Engines, turbine blades

Co, Nb, V, Ta, …

Significant

Titanium alloys

Ti-Nb, Ti-Nb-Zr, Ti-Nb-Zr-Ta, Ti-Al-Nb, Ti-Al-V

Airframe, engine parts

V (Nb, Ta) Significant

Aluminium alloys

2000 series (Cu+Mg) 5000 series (Mg+Mn), 6000 series (Mg+Si) 7000 series (Zn+Mg)

Fuselage, lower wing and upper wing skins

Mg, Sc Significant

Magnesium is included in automobiles both as an base alloy and as an alloying element included in aluminium alloys. On average, automobiles involve 3 kg of magnesium [3]. Most of the magnesium in automobiles falls within the suspension subsystem, while also drivetrain, closures and body contain some of the magnesium [3]. In general, the most common magnesium alloy applications in automobiles include gearboxes, steering column and driver’s airbag housing, steering wheels, seat frames and fuel tank covers. Most of the magnesium alloy components in the automobiles are manufactured by die casting [4]. In aerospace applications, magnesium is included in aluminium alloys as an alloying element, but according to Grilli et al. [2], this is one of the most significant applications of magnesium in engineering field. Magnesium is a critical raw material with the second highest economic importance to EU and with a high risk of supply. Magnesium has been listed as a critical raw material for the EU since the original assessment in 2010 [5]. Magnesium is a relatively common element: eight most abundant element in the Earth’s crust and the third most abundant element in solution in seawater. Magnesium exists in different minerals, such as dolomite, CaMg(CO3)2,

magnesite, MgCO3, and carnalite, KClMgCl26H2O, which are primarily (by 87%) supplied by China. There is no production of pure magnesium in EU, thus EU relies 100% in import. However, semi-finished products of magnesium, particularly magnesium alloys and aluminium alloys involving magnesium, are manufactured in Europe, followed by their utilisation in various end uses, Figure. 1. In EU, transportation covers 58% of the magnesium end use. The substitution index of magnesium is 0.91 (the substitution index varies between 0..1, with 1 being the least substitutable) [5]. Magnesium in cast alloys and alloying elements in aluminium alloys can be partially substituted, mainly by composite materials, e.g., carbon-fibre reinforced plastics, titanium alloys and steel, but the substitution is then comprimised by higher costs and/or weight. In aerospace applications, where the strength-to-density ratio is of key importance, the Al-Mg-Zn alloys can be substituted by, e.g., Al-Li alloys (called also the third generation of Al-Li alloys) yet these often contain some Mg, up to 0.8 wt.% [2].



28

Figure 1. Simplified European value chain for magnesium [5]. Niobium is used in automobiles in small quantities in a large number of alloying applications. The more concentrated masses are however mainly found in certain high-strength steel applications, although to in varying amounts depending on the car model and specification. The conventional low-specified midsize car (CML): the largest mass of critical materials is represented by niobium (63.39 g). The high niobium content is mostly due to the its use as an alloying agent in high-strength steel and nickel alloys used in Body Structure, Engine System and in structural components of the seats in the subsystem Seating. The conventional high-specified midsize car (CMH), the second largest mass of critical materials is represented by niobium (81.42 g) used in nickel and high-strength steel alloys. The largest portions of the mass can be found in the subsystem Engine System where metallurgical use in the exhaust treatment system contributes the most. The subsystems Seating and Body Structure also contain substantial amounts of niobium alloyed high-strength steel. The midsized hybrid car (HMM) studied has a powertrain with a combination of a diesel engine and an electric motor with Li-ion battery. The largest concentrations of niobium are found in high-strength steel alloys in the subsystems Exhaust Cold End and Body Structure, similar to the use in CML and CMH but with additional mass found in alloying applications in the exhaust system. The large conventional medium specified car (CLM) has an automatic gearbox, a diesel engine and FWD. The largest mass of the materials studied is represented by niobium (89.81g), mainly used as high-strength steel and nickel alloys in Seating and Engine System.[1] In aircraft application, niobium is icluded as an alloying element included in nickel-based superalloys primarily employed in gas turbines. Niobium has been listed as a critical raw material for the EU since the original assessment in 2010 (European Commission 2010, 2014c, 2017b). Most of the World’s niobium resources are located in Brazil, with 95% of World’s niobium production. Niobium is mostly mined as a primary product of carbonatite- and/or granite-hosted deposits. The British Geological Survey listed niobium as one of the materials that will most likely be in short supply globally in the future (BGS 2015). The substitutability of niobium has been assessed by the substitution index of 0.94 for supply risk and 0.91 for economic importance. Niobium is principally imported into the EU in the form of ferroniobium and niobium unwrought metal, alloy, and powder, thus EU does not contribute to the processing of niobium ore in the value chain, Figure. 2. Globally, 90% of the niobium production is used to produce ferro-niobium, which is used in the production of high-strength low-alloy (HSLA) and advanced high-strength steels (AHSS). Indeed, EU holds plenty of steel production, directed both to automotive and other end use sectors of HSLA and AHSS. Through the use of HSLA and AHSS in automobiles and other vehicles, roughly 30 % of the niobium ends up in automotive industry.



29

Figure 2. Simplified European value chain for niobium [5].

Cobalt is included in the automobiles in small amounts, with estimates of 42 g per car [3]. Most of the cobalt, more than 75% by mass, is included in drivetrain, with minor contribution by suspension, heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) and electrical systems. In aircraft applications, cobalt is included as an alloying element associated with nickel-based superalloys, which find use primarily in gas turbines.

Cobalt exists at relatively low quantities in Earth’s crust, approximately 27 parts per million. It appears as mineral

deposits, included in cobaltite, CoAsS, skutterudite, (Co,Ni)As3-x, and erythrite, Co3(AsO4)28H2O. Cobalt may be found at economic concentrations in sediment-hosted deposits (e.g., in Democratic Republic of Congo), hydrothermal and volcanogenic deposits (e.g., Finland, Sweden, Norway) and magmatic sulphide deposits (e.g., Russia, Canada, Australia). Cobalt is mainly extracted as a by-product of co-product of nickel or copper production and, therefore, the cobalt beneficiation is dependent on the exploitation of nickel and cobalt base metals [5]. Cobalt is characterized by the substition index of 1.0, which means it is not really substitutable. According to U.S. Geological Survey, substitution for cobalt would results in a loss in product performance [6]. Such substitutes as iron, iron-cobalt-nickel, nickel, cermets or ceramics (cutting and wear-resistant materials) and nickel-based alloys or ceramics (elevated-temperature applications) are proposed [6]. Small quantities of cobalt are mined in the EU, more precicely in Finland, corresponding roughly to 1 % of global cobalt mine production. However, concerning refined cobalt, EU covers 18%, with 13% contribution by Finland and 5% by Belgium. Thus, the EU value chain covers all steps in cobalt utilization, Figure. 3. Worldwide, about 40% of cobalt is used in metal applications, with chemicals corresponding to 60% and battery chemicals being the most important end use.



30

Figure 3. Simplified European value chain for cobalt [5]. Vanadium has been included in the EU critical raw materials list since 2017. Vanadium is typically obtained as a by-product in steel production. The most common vanadium.-bearing minerals include patronite, VS4,

vanadinite, Pb5(VO4)3Cl, and carnotite, K2(UO2)2(VO4)23H2O, but vanadium may also found in phosphate, bauxite and iron ores. When bound to iron ores, vanadium may be enriched in vanadium slag, from which V2O5 and V2O3 may be produced and further refined into metallic V [5].

Most of the vanadium (about 80%) produced worldwide is used as ferrovanadium or as a steel additive in high-

strength low-alloy steels (HSLA, AHSS). Mixed with aluminium in titanium alloys is used in jet engines and high

speed air-frames, and steel alloys are used in axles, crankshafts, gears and other critical components. In 2003,

the contribution of other alloys than steels, cast irons and superalloys to the end use of vanadium was

approximately 6%. Vanadium alloys are also used in nuclear reactors because vanadium has low neutron-

adsorption abilities and it does not deform in creeping under high temperatures. No acceptable substitute for

vanadium is currently available in aerospace titanium alloys [6], with substitution indexes of 0.94 (supply risk)

and 0.91 (economic importance).

Global vanadium production between 2010 and 2014 amounted annually to 71 kt. The only reported producers

of vanadium in the form of vanadium oxides are China (53%), South Africa (25%), Russia (20%) and Kazakhstan.

Thus EU is fully reliant on the vanadium ore import, Figure. 4, but later steps in the value chain are efficiently

covered.



31

Figure 4. Simplified European value chain for vanadium [5].

Tantalum is the key alloying element in nickel-based superalloys used for the most critical, high-temperature rotor-blase applications in aircraft turbine engines [7]. Among the World consumption of tantalum by application, 22% was consumed to superalloys. The annual production of tantalum in 2017 was 1300 tonnes [6]. Most tantalum occurs in the ores of niobium, tin or lithium, and it is systematically obtained as a co-product from the extraction of these elements ([5]. Tantalum has been included as a EU Critical Raw Materials list in 2011 and 2017, with a substitution index of 0.95. It is stated that the following materials can be substituted for tantalum in high-temperature applications, but usually with less effectiveness: hafnium, iridium, molybdenum, niobium, rhenium and tungsten [6]. However, among these suggested substitutes, most are CRMs (hafnium, iridium, niobium, tungsten) similarly to tantalum. There is no tantalum mining in Europe. World annual production of tantalum is about 1 800 tonnes, of which Rwanda accounts for 31%, Congo for 19% and Brazil for 14%. However, majority (81%) of tantalite concentrates is traded to EU from Nigeria. Nevertheless, EU has plenty of manufacturing employing tantalum, Figure. 5. Overall, 22% of the end use of tantalum falls into the realm of superalloys.

Figure 5. Simplified European value chain for tantalum [5].



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4.1 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF ALLOYS VALUE CHAIN

STATISTICAL DATA

For the economic analysis based on statistics (Eurostat, PRODCOM-data base) of the alloy value chain, the

analysis has been divided to automobile and aeroplane value chain separately. There are some similar elements

and product groups used in both chains which means that the graphs are partly similar since the value of a

product/application specific component or material cannot be differentiated. However, this is not seen as a

restriction since the relevance of a value chain phase for European manufacturing (industry) is the key outcome

of the analysis. For the analysis, the structural composition of both applications has been produced in the tables


presented separately in the next two sections.



33

Table 2. Structural composition of automobile with PRODCOM codes and names.


Materials PRODCOM code and name

Automobile


Bodies

29201030 Bodies for motor cars and other motor vehicles principally designed for the transport of persons (including for golf cars and similar vehicles) (excluding those for transporting >= 10 persons) 29201050 Bodies for lorries, vans, buses, coaches, tractors, dumpers and special purpose motor vehicles including completely equipped and incomplete bodies, vehicles for the transport of >= 10 persons

Chassies

29104400 Chassis fitted with engines, for tractors, motor cars and othermotor vehicles principally designed for carrying people, goods vehicles and special purpose vehicles including for racing cars

Gear boxes

29323033 Gear boxes and their parts

Drive axels

29323036 Drive-axles with differential, non-driving axles and their parts

HSLA steels

24312050 Sections, of alloy steel other than stainless, cold finished or cold formed (e.g. by cold-drawing)

Light metal casting

24531010 Light metal castings for land vehicles excluding for locomotives or rolling stock, construction industry vehicles 24531020 Light metal castings for transmission shafts, crankshafts, camshafts, cranks, bearing housings and plain shaft bearings (excluding for bearing housings incorporating ball or roller bearings)



34

Al alloy

24421153 Unwrought aluminium alloys in primary form (excluding aluminium powders and flakes) 24421154 Unwrought aluminium alloys (excluding aluminium powders and flakes) 24421155 Unwrought aluminium alloys in secondary form (excluding aluminium powders and flakes)

Mg 24453025 Magnesium and articles thereof (excluding waste and scrap), n.e.c.

Ta 24453023 Tantalum and articles thereof (excluding waste and scrap), n.e.c.

Nb 24453055 Beryllium, chromium, germanium, vanadium, gallium, hafnium ("celtium"), indium, niobium ("columbium"),

rhenium and thallium, and articles of these metals, n.e.c.; waste and scrap of these metals (excluding of beryllium, chromium and thallium)

Table 3. Structural composition of aeroplane with PRODCOM codes and names.


Materials PRODCOM code and name

Aeroplane

30303200 Aeroplanes and other aircraft of an unladen weight <= 2000 kg, for civil use 30303300 Aeroplanes and other aircraft of an unladen weight > 2000 kg, but <= 15000 kg, for civil use 30303400 Aeroplanes and other aircraft of an unladen weight > 15 000 kg, for civil use

Aircraft engines

30301100 Aircraft spark-ignition internal combustion piston engines, for civil use 30301200 Turbo-jets and turbo-propellers, for civil use 30301300 Reaction engines, for civil use (including ramjets, pulse jets and rocket engines) (excluding turbojets, guided missiles incorporating power units)

Parts of aircraft engines

30301500 Parts for aircraft spark-ignition reciprocating or rotary internal combustion piston engines, for use in civil aircraft 30301600 Parts of turbo-jets or turbo-propellers, for use in civil aircraft 30305090 Parts for all types of aircraft excluding propellers, rotors, under carriages, for civil use

Ferro alloys

24101290 Other ferro alloys n.e.c.



35

Light metal casting

24531010 Light metal castings for land vehicles excluding for locomotives or rolling stock, construction industry vehicles 24531020 Light metal castings for transmission shafts, crankshafts, camshafts, cranks, bearing housings and plain shaft bearings (excluding for bearing housings incorporating ball or roller bearings)

Al alloy

24421153 Unwrought aluminium alloys in primary form (excluding aluminium powders and flakes) 24421154 Unwrought aluminium alloys (excluding aluminium powders and flakes) 24421155 Unwrought aluminium alloys in secondary form (excluding aluminium powders and flakes)

Mg 24453025 Magnesium and articles thereof (excluding waste and scrap), n.e.c.


Nb, V 24453055 Beryllium, chromium, germanium, vanadium, gallium, hafnium ("celtium"), indium, niobium ("columbium"),

rhenium and thallium, and articles of these metals, n.e.c.; waste and scrap of these metals (excluding of beryllium, chromium and thallium)

W 24453013 Tungsten (wolfram) and articles thereof (excluding waste and scrap), n.e.c.



36

The automobile value chain composed of 12 groups which can be divided roughly to four stages which are

materials, sub-components, components/parts and end applications. More detailed division together with

PRODCOM codes and names can be seen in Table 2. In Figure 6 the relationship between production, import

and export based on the statistical data has been presented. The positive values present how much value has

been either generated and imported to Europe while the negative value present how much leaves as export

from Europe.

Figure 6. Relationship between production, import and export values for automobiles, components and


to automobiles. [8]

The overview of automobile alloy value chain describes that large production exists especially in the

component/part and end application stages. It should be noted that the scale for passenger vehicles on the right

is different than for the other groups. The vehicle manufacturing industry is very significant industry which seems

to generate also notable manufacturing upstream in the value chain. Beside the high manufacturing value,

significant share of vehicles are also exported from Europe. On the other hand vehicle markets are global which

makes the import values substantial. It should be noticed, that not all manufactured vehicles are exported, but

re-export of imported vehicles may occur which explains the large value of export. In addition, exported figure

may contain also older vehicles which are sold outside Europe as second-hand car.

As for the component/part stage manufacturing generates significant value for Europe. In this stage, there is

some export but not as much as in the end application stage. It seems to be that a great share of manufactured

components and parts are utilized within Europe, which is logical due to the massive end application industry. In

addition, service market may also consume components and parts.

-15 000

-10 000

-5 000

0

5 000

10 000

15 000

20 000

25 000

Val

ue

[mill

ion

€]

Economic status of alloy value chain (automobile) 2017


-400 000

-300 000

-200 000

-100 000

0

100 000

200 000

300 000

400 000

500 000

600 000



37

The results for sub-component stage shows discrepancy between the groups. For Aluminium alloys there is

rather significant manufacturing but for HSLA-steels and Light metal casting the manufacturing is remarkable

lower.

For the materials, the values are substantially lower compared to other groups downwards on the value chain.

This rather logical since the margin and value of a product within a value chain increases when moving towards

the end application.


to the production. If the production is larger than import the indicator gets positive bar in Figure . For Automobile

alloy value chain it can be noticed that in overall reliance on import decreases when moving downwards on the

value chain. Especially component and part stage has strong production within Europe providing parts to the end

application industry. Since the markets of end applications are global, consumers are aware of high-end products

and competing markets which may increase the import in relation to production. Even though the share of import

increases when moving upward to the materials in the value chain, it can be noticed that there is still some

production in Europe.

Figure 7. Production indicator (prod / imp + prod) for automobile alloy value chain in 2015, 2016 and

2017. [8]

When observing the time variations in the production indicator, no enormous changes has occurred. However,

some indications such as increase in production and at the same time decrease in the import of tantalum has

taken place. It should be noticed that tantalum PRODCOM group compose of tantalum and articles thereof (excl.

waste and scrap), not of ore or concentrate which has been presented in the recent CRM-list 2017 to be totally

reliant on import. The production of tantalum is most likely originated from manufacturing industry which utilizes

0,0

0,1

0,2

0,3

0,4

0,5

0,6

0,7

0,8

0,9

1,0

Automobile alloy value chain production indicator

2015 2016 2017



38

goods containing tantalum and produces so called “pre-consume” scrap [5]. In addition, the total values and

quantities for tantalum in PRODCOM data base are low at which time changes may have larger effect. Another

some what considerable change has occurred for niobium which production has decreased while import

increased. It should be noticed that PRODCOM group for niobium contains also other elements such as beryllium,

chromium, germanium, vanadium at which time the indicator doesn’t tell solely the situation for niobium.

According to CRM-list 2017, there has been increase in ferroniobium export from Canada to EU which could

partly explain the changes [5].

The aeroplane value chain composed of 11 groups which can be divided roughly to four stages which are


PRODCOM codes and names can be seen in Table 5. In Figure Figure 8 the relationship between production,

import and export based on the statistical data has been presented. The positive values present how much value

has been either generated and imported to Europe while the negative value present how much leaves as export

from Europe.

Figure 8. Relationship between production, import and export values for aeroplanes, components and


to aeroplanes. [8]

The overall value chain figure resembles rather well automobile value chain where positive value through import

and production increase towards the end of value chain. However, it seems to be that especially in the aeroplane

value chain the aircraft engine parts group produces significant value. As for the end application, remarkable

amount of aeroplanes are exported even though production is low. This can be partly explained through the

export of used aeroplanes. For example, Finland has export of large aeroplanes even though there is no

-4 000

-2 000

0

2 000

4 000

6 000

8 000

10 000

12 000

14 000

16 000

18 000

Mg Ta Nb, V W Ferroalloys

Lightmetal

casting

Al alloy

Val

ue

[mill

ion

€]

Economic status of alloy value chain (aeroplane) 2017

Production Import Export Air

craf

t en

gin

ep

arts

Air

craf

t en

gin

e

Ae

rop

lan

es

-80 000

-30 000

20 000

70 000

120 000

170 000



39

production. Airliners sell their old fleet which generates export without production. As for the materials stage

the values are remarkable lover than for the groups at the end of the value chain.

The relation between production and import in FigurFigure 9 expresses how dependent Europe is of import

compared to the production. If the production is larger than import the indicator gets positive bar in Figure 9.

For Aeroplane alloy value chain it can be noticed that fluctuation on the import dependency exists throughout

the value chain. It seems to be that even though the aeroplane manufacturing industry is significant in Europe

producing notable amount (12-19 billion €) of value, there is also considerable amount of import. Aeroplanes are

large investments which makes the markets very competitive and global.

In component and part stage high demand of engine parts by the manufacturers and service work seems to

generate “local” demand in the form of European production. As for alloys Europe is more dependent import on

ferrous alloys in which Asian actors are strong especially on the bulk side.

For the materials stage, similar elements are in relevance for aeroplanes as for automobiles. One difference is

tungsten for which rather high production indicator can be identified. According to the CRM-list 2017 material

fact sheet, there may be some uncertainties in the origin data entries within statistics [5], which may reflect as a

positive indicator value.

Figure 9. Production indicator (prod / imp + prod) for aeroplane alloy value chain in 2015, 2016 and

2017. [8]

Beside variations in the time series discussed for tantalum and niobium in previous section, also tungsten has

fluctuation without a trend. This might originate from statistical uncertainties which was discussed previously.

As for the groups at the end of value chain, fluctuation seems to exist for the aircraft engine and its part. For the

0,0

0,1

0,2

0,3

0,4

0,5

0,6

0,7

0,8

0,9

1,0

Mg Ta Nb, V W Ferro alloys Al alloy Aircraftengine parts

Aircraftengine

Aeroplanes

Aeroplane alloy value chain production indicator

2015 2016 2017



40

engine parts there is a sudden increase in the import and export values in 2016 while the production value has

stayed or increased slightly on steady base. This might indicate of statistical issue with data entries and therefore

the fluctuation should be viewed rather critically. For aircraft engines the production has started to decrease

during the recent two years while for import and export the decrease has not been as intense. As for the

aeroplanes the trend of increasing production share originates from an increase in the production value after it

had dropped in 2015 as well as fluctuation in import.

ACTORS IN THE VALUE CHAIN - AUTOMOBILE

The main industrial actors in the automobile value chain are compiled in Table 4. The information concerning the

actors of the value chain and their geographical presence is gathered from [9] [10] and from the websites of the

companies.

Magnesium and Niobium show highest contents of CRMs in automobiles as shown in Table 1. There is no

production of pure magnesium in EU, thus EU relies 100% in import. However, semi-finished products of

magnesium, particularly magnesium alloys and aluminium alloys involving magnesium, are manufactured in

Europe, followed by their utilisation in various end uses. In EU, transportation covers 58% of the magnesium end

use. Niobium is principally imported into the EU in the form of ferroniobium and niobium unwrought metal, alloy,

and powder, Globally, 90% of the niobium production is used to produce ferro-niobium, which is used in the

production of high-strength low-alloy (HSLA) and advanced high-strength steels (AHSS). World largest

ferroniobium producers are from Brazil and Canada. Indeed, EU holds plenty of steel production, directed both

to automotive and other end use sectors of HSLA and AHSS. Through the use of HSLA and AHSS in automobiles

and other vehicles, roughly 30 % of the niobium ends up in automotive industry.

Frost & Sullivan forecast [9] that exterior and body-in-white (BIW) components are likely to witness more of

metal-metal substitution in automobiles in the future. Aluminium remains the leading material of choice for

exterior body panels, whereas for BIW structures, AHSS is expected to replace lower grade steels. Automotive

metals market is mainly dominated by global conglomerates such as Arcelor-Mittal; POSCO; US Steel; Alcoa;

Alcan; US Magnesium; and Dead Sea Magnesium. However, besides providing the basic raw material, some

companies also process and mold these materials for the end users, which comprises tier-I suppliers and

automotive OEMs. Automotive metals markets are also populated by alloy makers, die-casters and molders,

which function as a conduit between the raw material supplier and the tier-I manufacturer/OEM. In terms of

number of competitors, the automotive metals market has approximately 55 to 100 key suppliers (including both

manufacturers and die-casters.



41

Table 4. Main actors in the value chain of automobiles - Mg and Nb perspective. Country in parentheses

represents the headquarters of the company.

Part of the value chain Europe Asia and North America

Sub-component production

Aluminium alloys: 2000, 5000, 6000,7000-series

AMAG Austria Metall AG (Austria), Constellium (Holland), Norsk Hydro (Norway), Trimet Aluminium (Germany), Raffmetal (Italy)

Alcoa (USA), Alcan (Canada), Aleris (USA), Arconic (USA), RUSAL (Russia), Balexco (Kingdom of Bahrain), ARSLAN ALÜMİNYUM (Turkey), Zahit (Turkey), AL JABER (UAE)

Mg alloys: Wrought and cast alloys

Luxfer MEL Technologies US Magnesium (USA), Dead sea Magnesium (Israel)

AHSS/HSLA steels Arcelor-Mittal (Luxembourg),SSAB, (SWE) , Ovako (SWE)

POSCO (South Korea), U.S. STEEL (USA), Tata Steel (India), Leeco Steel

Component production

Drivetrain Robert Bosch GmbH (Germany), Continental AG (Germany), ZF Friedrichshafen AG (Germany), BASF SE (Germany), Valeo SA (France)

Magna International Inc (Canada), Aisin Seiki Co. (Japan), Hyundai Mobis (Korea)

Bodystructure, chassis Robert Bosch GmbH (Germany) Continental AG (Germany), Friedrichshafen AG (Germany), BASF SE (germany), Valeo SA (France)

Magna International Inc (Canada), Aisin Seiki Co. (Japan), Hyundai Mobis (Korea)

Application manufacturing (Automobile)

Volkswagen (Germany), Renault

(France), BMW (Germany),

Peugeot (France), Fiat, Daimler AG

GM (USA), Ford (USA), Nissan,

Honda (Japan), Toyota (Japan)



42

4.2 SUBSTITUTION SOLUTIONS FOR CRMS IN ALLOYS

SUBSTITITES IN AUTOMOBILE APPLICATIONS

Overall use of materials in automobiles is presented in Figure 1, based on analyses conducted for three year 2013

car models (Ford Fiesta, Ford Focus, Ford Fusion) and covering all vehicle components. Concerning alloys, iron

and steel corresponded to the dominant materials included in passenger cars, on average 800 kg per car,

followed by aluminium (125 kg) and copper (31 kg). Among CRMs, magnesium was included at the amount of 3

kg per passenger car, niobium was present at 100 g/car and Co at 42 g/car. Light REEs include lanthanum, cerium,

praseodymium, neodymium, promethium and samarium, the total average content of which was 76 g/car.

However, these light REEs are treated separately in the Chapter dealing with Magnets, as magnets are their

primary end use application. Additionally, tantalum is a CRM, which is used in passenger cars, on average, at the

amounts of 6 g/car.

Figure 10. Overall materials content in cars. Values for all listed elements are expressed in grams [3].

Steels that are extensively used in automotive sector are high-strength low alloy (HSLA) steels, relying on high

strength and lightweight (high strength-to-weigh ratio). The recent development versions of HSLA are called as

advanced high-strength steels (AHSS), with the definition of yield strength > 300 MPa and tensile strength > 600

MPa. Additionally, the special feature of the AHSS is that they combine high strength and high ductility [11]. Due

to the high strength of these steels, thinner steel structures allow for reduction in car weight, simultaneously

decreasing the fuel consumption. HSLA and AHSS derive their strength from complex microstructure, which may

be dual phase, DP steels (martensite or martensite-austenite areas in ferrite matrix), transformation-induced

plasticity, TRIP steels (ferrite, bainite, retained austenite which then transforms into martensite in deformation,

and possibly martensite), complex phase, CP steels (ferrite, martensite and bainite phases) and martensitic steels.

These microstructures and, subsequently, the properties are brought about by the careful selection of alloying



43

elements. Typically, CRMs vanadium and niobium are included, with the role of stabilizing austenite, refining of

grain structure and precipitation strengthening. Although these elements typically exists at low concentrations

(microalloying, up to some hundredth parts of %), they are crucial for reaching the high strength levels in the

steels. HSLA and AHSS find use especially in vehicle body structure. Figure 11 shows example of the use of HSLA

and AHSS in automobiles.

Figure 11. Example of the use of advanced high-strength steels in automobiles, case: Honda CR-Z 2011

[12]. The steel grades of various strength classes are shown in different colours, with red and

blue colours referring to AHSS.

Aluminium alloys are increasingly used in automobiles in order to reduce the weight of structural parts

conventionally manufactured of steel. One of the major advantages of aluminium alloys is that the stock material

can be made by hot extrusion, in addition to the conventional steel production route involving casting, forging

and rolling. Wrought aluminium alloys can be hot-extruded into strips and bars of complex cross sections, and

such extrusions are increasingly being used for bumper systems, frame members and other passenger car

components. CRM Magnesium as an alloying element is included particularly in 7000 series (Al-Zn-Mg), 6000

series (Al-Mg-Si) and 5000 series (Al-Mg-Mn) aluminium alloys. According to Hashimoto [13] , these alloys as

extrusions have been widely adopted in passenger cars during the last 15 years, due to their light weight, high

strength and rigidity. Examples of the automotive parts made of such aluminium alloy extrusions are given in

Table5. Additionally, cast aluminium alloys are employed in passenger cars. Most of these alloys also contain

magnesium as an alloying element: 7000, 6000, 5000 and 2000 series aluminium alloys. The application of cast

aluminium alloys in automobiles is shown in Figure 12.



44

Table 5. Examples of the use of Mg-bearing aluminium alloy extrusions in passenger cars [13].

Alloy Part name Required characteristics Adoption

7000 series

Door beam Bending strength, energy absorption 1993

Instrument panel reinforce Rigidity, bending strength 2003

IPU guard Bending strength 2012

Seat back bar Axial strength 2015

Front side rail Axial compressibility 2016

Locker Bending strength 2016

Bumper system Bending strength, energy absorption 1992

6000 series

Side step Rigidity 2007

Back step Rigidity 2014

Knee bolster Compressibility in cross section 2005

5000 series

Sub flame Rigidity 2005



45

Figure 12. Example of application of cast aluminium alloys in passenger cars [14]. Majority of these

applications rely on aluminium alloys with magnesium as an alloying element.

In contrast to HSLA and AHSS steels and aluminium alloys, both of which have experienced a tremendous growth

in application in automotive sector, magnesium alloys remain minimally utilised despite significant weight saving

potential. It has been estimated that magnesium alloys make up less than 0.5% of the weight of an average [15]

vehicle, which based on analysis shown in Figure 12 would contribute to less than 700 g per a passenger car. This

means that majority of magnesium included in passenger car is in aluminium alloys as an alloying element.

Nevertheless, magnesium has been used in a wide variety of automobile applications: body, chassis, and interior

components. Some other examples of Mg alloy applications in passenger cars include instrument panels, steering

wheels, engine cradles, seats, transfer cases, and many different housings. Most of these parts and components

have been manufactured by casting. However, the major challenges for the more widespread use of Mg alloy

components in passenger car applications are the high and unstable prices of Mg and the poor corrosion

performance of the material, putting significant pressures for efficient and often expensive corrosion protection.

In passenger car applications, the key substitutes for Mg alloys are HSLA and AHSS steels as well as aluminium

alloys, i.e., other key high-strength low-weigh alloys.

In automobiles with internal combustion engine, the engine valves and valve seats are typically manufactured of

Co alloys [16], such as Stellites or Triballoys. These components are often manufactured via powder metallurgy



46

route to produce the bulk components. Alternatively, Co alloys may be employed as thick coatings. Their use

generally relies on excellent high-temperature resistance and corrosion performance, and with WC particles on

good wear resistance. Nevertheless, in the future, the use of Co in passenger cars is expected to face a radical

increase (although not as an alloy material), as Co is one of the materials needed for Li-ion batteries [17].

Table 6 lists the key substitutes that have been proposed for CRMs as alloying elements or base alloys included

in alloys used in passenger car applications. Also the alloys with nominal use in this end application are included,

e.g., lead/tin alloys, copper alloys and nickel alloys.

Table 6. Proposed substitution solutions for the alloying elements or alloys in passenger car applications.

Alloy type CRM included Role of alloying element Alloying elements/Alloys giving parallel effect

Reference

HSLA, AHSS Nb Microalloying element for dispersion strengthening (NbC or Nb(C,N) precipitates), grain refinement, reduces Ms temperature

Ti, V

High-N stainless steels

Steels

[18]

V Austenite stabiliser, increases hardenability, strengthening (precipitation, refines microstructure)

Mn, Cr, Mo, Ni, B Steels

Stainless steels Nb Microlloying element for stabilizing

Ti, Ta, Mo [2]

Aluminium alloys Mg Hardener Mn, Li, Cu [2]

Magnesium alloys Mg Aluminium alloys, HSLA/AHSS

Co alloys Co Nickel-base alloys [][19]

Lead alloys, tin alloys

Sb Hardener

Copper alloys Be Hardener (age hardening, precipitation hardening), high conductivity

Ni, Si, Sn, Ti [20]

Nickel alloys P Increases hardness (wear resistance), stable low friction coefficient

B, diamond nanoparticles



47

SUBSTITUTES IN AIRCRAFT APPLICATIONS

In automobile applications, the most important criteria for the materials are the weight and mechanical

properties of the alloys, e.g., strength. These characteristics play a central role also in aircraft applications, but

here the conditions are often so harsh that also some other special properties are required, e.g., thermal and

corrosion resistance. Indeed, in aircrafts, one of the most critical application of CRM-bearing alloys is gas

turbines. The gas turbine inlet temperature may exceed 1300C and the materials see varying mechanical and

environmental loads [21]. In such conditions, the alloy choices are limited to nickel- and cobalt-based superalloys

(so that the latter may withstand somewhat lower loads and less corrosive environments than the former ones).

In general, superalloys contain plenty of alloying elements: controlled alloying elements could be as many as 14,

many of which are CRMs (e.g., Co, W, Nb, V, Hf), Ta, Ru) [22]. Indeed, Co- and/or Ni-based superalloys represent

jointly one of the largest Co markets. In Ni-based superalloys, Co is an alloying element with the role of stabilizing

and solution strengthening the phase, together with other alloying elements (Cr, Mo, Fe and W). Co alloying

enhances the yield strength and the strain hardening capacity up to certain level. The essential solutes in Ni-

based superalloys are Al and/or Ti required to form the characteristic ’ phase, an intermetallic compound of the

formula Ni3(Al,Ti). Additional strengthening at low temperatures may be achieved by the ’’ phase with the

composition Ni3Nb or Ni3V, and by oxide dispersion strengthening (ODS). It has proved a challenging task to find

a substitute to Co by a less critical element which also enhances the yield strength and the strain hardening

capacity. In some applications, Ni-based superalloys containing Nb and/or V may be substituted by Ni-based ODS

superalloys. However, at present, ODS limited use in aircraft turbines is due to manufacturing complexity, and

these alloys still contain CRMs, such as Y for ODS. In some applications, NI-based superalloys are successfully

substituted by intermetallic TiAl materials or even by iron aluminides (FeAl, Fe3Al). [2]

In aircraft, airframes represent a large-volume applications for titanium. Figure 4 shows a steady increase in the

use of titanium alloys for airframes through the latter decades of the twentieth century. Figure revealed that

titanium alloy airframes contributed at best to roughly 5% of the aircraft weight. However, the military aircraft

applications are responsible for the largest overall application of titanium alloys. For example, in an advanced

fighter airframe, some 42% of the structural weight may be of titanium alloys. In addition to airframe structures,

gas turbine engines are typically of titanium alloys, Figure 5. The most common titanium alloys used in aircraft

include CRM-bearing alloys Ti-6V-4Al (airframe and engine parts, cockpit window frames, wing box, fasteners),

Ti-3Al-2.5V (hydraulic pipes), Ti-10V-2Fe-3Al (landing gear, track beam), Ti-15V-3Cr-3Sn-3Al (airframes, welded

pipes, duct), thus these all involve V as the key alloying element. [23]



48

Figure 13. Titanium alloy use in Boeing aircraft from the first commercial jet to the Boeing 757

[24].

Figure 14. Example of application of titanium alloys for aero engine. [23]



49

One of the most significant applications of Mg in engineering is as an alloying element in aluminium alloys used

in aircraft. They play a central role in many key airfcraft components, such as upper wing structure and fuselage

skin. Although the amount of Mg included in these 7000 series alloys is relatively small (2-5 mass-%) [25], the

annual demand of such alloys is large. The most significant property of these 7000 series aluminium alloys is their

relatively high strength compared to other aluminium alloys, with other benefits covering high strength-to-

weight ratio, ease of machining and relatively low cost. Mg included in these alloys is vital for age hardening

through the precipitation hardening of coherent Guinier-Preston zones [2] [26]. An alternative to Al-Mg alloys is

suggested by the new generation of alloys containing Cu and Li. Indeed, Al-Mg-Zn alloys of the 7000 series were

originally developed to partially substitute 2000 series of Al-Cu. Now the new Al-Cu alloys with the additions of

Li are considered as promising alternatives to them. The new Al-Cu alloys are often referred to as the third

generation of Al-Li alloys, despite the fact that the Cu content is higher than that of Li and the alloys still contain

some Mg (yet the Mg amount is significantly lowered, systematically below 0.8 %). The alloys behave in a similar

way to Al-Mg-Zn alloys in that they are age hardenable, but they have improved strength, toughness and

corrosion resistance as compared to 7000 series counterparts, and feature a lower density. Therefore, e.g., 2050

and 2060-T8 alloys are likely substitutes for 7000 series alloys for the fabrication of fuselage, lower wing and

upper wing skins of aircraft. Another possible alternative to Mg-bearing Al alloys is composite materials

reinforced with carbon fibers. However, their fabrication and certification costs are significantly higher than

those for Al alloys, and their mechanical properties may vary depending on the environmental conditions

(cold/hot, moisture absorption).[2] The most important CRM-bearing alloys in aircraft applications are listed in

Table 7, together with the proposed substitutive alloying elements or alternative material candidates.

Table 7. Proposed substitution solutions for the alloying elements or alloys in aircraft applications.

CRM included

Role of alloying element

Alloying elements giving parallel effect/Alternative materials

Reference

Ni-based superalloys

Co, Ta Stabilisation of the ’ phase, strengthening

Cr, Mo, Fe and W [2]

Nb, V Strengthening at low temperatures

ODS, e.g., Y

TiAl, FeAl, Fe3Al

Aluminium alloys Mg Strengthening, Li-Cu [2]

Carbon-fiber reinforced composites

Titanium alloys V -stabiliser Mo, Cu, Co, Cr, Ni [27]

V Hampers the ductility

of metastable -alloys at high strength levels

[28]



50

4.3 REFERENCES

[1] “Dictionary of Energy (Expanded Edition) - Knovel,” 2019. [Online]. Available:

https://app.knovel.com/web/toc.v/cid:kpDEEE0001/viewerType:toc//root_slug:dictionary-energy-expanded/url_slug:dictionary-energy-expanded. [Accessed: 30-Jan-2019].

[2] M. L. Grilli et al., “Solutions for critical raw materials under extreme conditions: A review,” Materials. 2017.

[3] F. R. Field, T. J. Wallington, M. Everson, and R. E. Kirchain, “Strategic Materials in the Automobile: A Comprehensive Assessment of Strategic and Minor Metals Use in Passenger Cars and Light Trucks,” Environ. Sci. Technol., vol. 51, no. 24, pp. 14436–14444, 2017.

[4] H. E. Friedrich and B. L. (Eds. . Mordike, Magnesium Technology. Metallurgy, Design data, Applications, vol. 151. 2015.


[6] U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries. 2018. [7] W. W. Albrecht, “Production, properties and application of tantalum, niobium and their

compounds,” Lanthanides, Tantalum Niobium Mineral. geochemistry, Charact. Prim. ore Depos. Prospect. Process. Appl. - Proc. a Work. Berlin, Nov. 1986, pp. 345–358, 1989.

[8] Eurostat, “Statistics on the production of manufactured goods (PRODCOM NACE Rev. 2),” 2018. .

[9] Frost & Sullivan, “Prevalent Substitution Trends within Materials and Chemicals in Automotive Lightweighting,” 2011.

[10] PWC, “Top Suppliers,” Auomotive News, p. 16, 2013. [11] R. KUZIAK, R. KAWALLA, and S. WAENGLER, “Advanced high strength steels for automotive

industry,” Arch. Civ. Mech. Eng., vol. VIII, no. 2, pp. 103–116, 2008. [12] Steel Market Development Institute, “The evolving use of advanced high-strength steels for

automotive applications,” Steel Market Development Institute, 2019. . [13] N. Hashimoto, “Application of Aluminum Extrusions to Automotive Parts,” Kobelco Technol.

Rev., no. 35, pp. 69–75, 2017. [14] N. F. Vidaña, “Automotive aluminum castings and market trends,”

https://www.metalbulletin.com/events/download.ashx/document/speaker/7407/a0ID000000X0k7gMAB/Presentation, 2013. .

[15] W. J. Joost and P. E. Krajewski, “Towards magnesium alloys for high-volume automotive applications,” Scr. Mater., vol. 128, pp. 107–112, 2017.

[16] A. W. Orłowicz, M. Mróz, M. Tupaj, and A. Trytek, “Materials used in the automotive industry,” Arch. Foundry Eng., vol. 15, no. 2, pp. 75–78, 2015.

[17] S. Ziemann, A. Grunwald, L. Schebek, D. B. Müller, and 3and M. Weil1, “The future of mobility and its critical rawmaterials,” Rev. Métallurgie, vol. 110, pp. 47–54, 2013.

[18] H. Bhadeshia and R. Honeycombe, Steels - Microstructure and Properties (4th Edition). 2017. [19] S. L. Narasimhan, J. M. Larson, and E. P. Whelan, “Wear characterization of new nickel-base

alloys for internal combustion engine valve seat applications,” Wear, vol. 74, pp. 231–227, 1981.



51

[20] B. Beryllium Science & Technology Association, “The Benefits That Beryllium Brings To Society,” https://berylliumsafety.eu/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/Attachment-2-The-Benefits-That-Beryllium-Brings-To-Society.pdf, 2016. .

[21] M. Konter and M. Thumann, “Materials and manufacturing of advanced industrial gas turbine components,” J. Mater. Process. Technol., vol. 117, no. 3, pp. 386–390, 2001.

[22] C. Booth-Morrison, R. D. Noebe, and D. N. Seidman, “Effects of a Tantalum Addition on the Morphological and Compositional Evolution of a Model Ni-Al-Cr Superalloy,” Superalloys 2008 (Eleventh Int. Symp., pp. 73–79, 2008.

[23] I. Inagaki, T. Takechi, Y. Sharai, and N. Ariyasu, “Application and Features of Titanium for the Aerospace Industry,” Nippon Steel Sumitomo Met. Tech. Rep., no. 106, pp. 22–27, 2014.

[24] M. J. Donachie, Titanium: A Technical Guide, 2nd Edition. ASM International, 2000. [25] A. Bigot, P. Auger, S. Chambreland, D. Blavette, and A. Reeves, “Atomic Scale Imaging and

Analysis of T’ Precipitates in Al-Mg-Zn Alloys,” Microsc. Microanal. Microstruct., vol. 8, no. 2, pp. 103–113, 1997.

[26] T. Dursun and C. Soutis, “Recent developments in advanced aircraft aluminium alloys,” Mater. Des., vol. 56, pp. 862–871, 2014.

[27] R. A. Antunes, C. A. F. Salvador, and M. C. L. de Oliveira, “Materials Selection of Optimized Titanium Alloys for Aircraft Applications,” Mater. Res., vol. 21, no. 2, 2018.

[28] P. Singh, H. Pungotra, and N. S. Kalsi, “On the characteristics of titanium alloys for the aircraft applications,” Mater. Today Proc., vol. 4, no. 8, pp. 8971–8982, 2017.



52

5 CATALYTIC CONVERTERS

A catalytic converter, or an autocatalyst, is an emission control solution for removing exhaust gases emitted by

vehicle’s internal combustion engine [27]. The type of the catalytic converter varies to some extent depending

on the type of the combustion engine (i.e. gasoline-powered or diesel engine), but the principle and most of the

used CRMs are same in both cases [28]. The exhaust gases to be removed include CO, unburned fuel, partially

oxidised fuel, particulate matter, and nitrogen oxides (NO, N2O, and NO2, which are collectively termed NOx). In

the converter, platinum (Pt) and palladium (Pd) act as oxidation catalysts, whereas rhodium (Rh) catalyses the

reduction reactions of NO. [27]

The structure of a catalytic converter is presented in Figure 1. The catalytic converter is based on a monolith

support, which is a honeycomb structure of 1 mm2 channels, made of ceramic or stainless steel. Since the

monolith is non-porous, it is first wash-coated with a 20-60 μm layer of aluminium oxide to provide a higher

surface area for the catalyst, which is then impregnated with a solution of Pt, Rh, and Pd salt precursors, together

with a CeO2 layer that acts as an oxygen reservoir. [27]

Figure 1. Structure of a catalytic converter: the converter is based on a ceramic honeycomb monolith,

which is coated by a porous alumina layer. The alumina functions as a carrier for the Pt/Pd/Rh

catalyst. Figure adopted from [27].

The total mass loading of noble metals in a catalytic converter is about 0.25%, most of which is Pt. The final

catalyst is called a three-way catalyst (TWC) in the case of gasoline-powered engines, because it converts the

three main pollutants, namely CO, hydrocarbons (unburned fuel) and NO, into non-toxic products: CO2, H2O and

N2. [27]

The catalytic converter for diesel engines, on the other hand, cannot employ a direct NOx reduction because of

excess oxygen present in the exhaust gas. Therefore, the reduction of NOx has to be implemented by other

techniques. In addition, all diesel engine systems need a particulate filter, which may be modified for either

oxidation of CO and hydrocarbons, or for selective reduction of NOx. [28] Particulate filters for gasoline engines

are also becoming more common [29]. As an outcome, the emission control solutions for both diesel and gasoline

engine systems can be composed of various combinations of catalytic converter techniques depending on the



53

size and type of the vehicle (on/off-road). However, so far all combinations include at least one converter

technique that employs precious metals Pt, Pd and Rh. [28] The emission control technologies and their PGM

usage are further discussed in Section 5.2.

As a summary, the composition of CRMs in different catalytic converter solutions either include only Pt, or various

ratios of Pt-Pd-Rh, Pt-Rh, and Pd-Rh depending on the combusted fuel. In 2016, catalytic converters accounted

for approximately 84% of global Rh consumption, 67% of Pd consumption, and 46% of Pt consumption. Per

vehicle the consumption of PGMs translates as amounts ranging from 1-2 g for a small passenger car to 12-15 g

for a big truck. [30], [31]

The PGM-related value chain of catalytic converters is presented in Figure 2. PGM refiner companies refine PGMs

from virgin PGM-bearing ores or from secondary sources, of which catalytic converters provide the largest supply

source [32]. Next, the companies involved in catalytic material development produce Pt, Pd and Rh catalyst

precursors, mainly PGM salts, to be applied in the manufacture of actual catalytic converters. The catalytic

converters are then used by the original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) that automotive companies use as

subcontractors. In some cases, the companies producing catalytic converters are also OEMs themselves. The

companies that are not OEMs may also manufacture catalytic converters for the aftermarket in addition to being

subcontractors for OEMs. The final products - passenger cars, trucks or off-road vehicles - are assembled by

automotive companies. The final ring of the value chain is the recycling sector, which is actually composed of

two parts: companies dismantling or wrecking ELVs and those that actually treat the catalytic converters and

recover PGMs from them. This report takes into account only the companies recovering PGMs, as ELV dismantling

business is highly dispersed: there are 1200 operators only in Germany [33].



54

Figure 2. Operators in the PGM-related value chain of catalytic converters.

5.1 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF CATALYTIC CONVERTER VALUE CHAIN

STATISTICAL DATA

The economic analysis based on statistics (Eurostat, PRODCOM-data base) of the catalytic converter value chain

is presented next. For the analysis, the structural composition of the application has been produced in the table


presented separately in the next section.

Primary raw material

• PGM primary producers

Sub component

• Pt, Pd, and Rh catalyst precursor producers

Component/application

• Catalytic converter manufacturers

Application• Automotive companies

Recycling• Converter recyclers



55

Table 1. Structural composition of catalytic converter with PRODCOM codes and names


Automobile


Exhaust silencer

29323063 Silencers and exhaust pipes; parts thereof

Platinum catalyst

24413070 Platinum catalysts in the form of wire cloth or grill

PGM 24413030 Platinum, palladium, rhodium, iridium, osmium and ruthenium, unwrought or in

powder form 24413050 Platinum, palladium, rhodium, iridium, osmium and ruthenium, in semimanufactured forms (excluding unwrought or in powder form)

The catalytic converters value chain composed of five groups which can be divided roughly to four stages which

are materials, sub-components, components/parts and end applications. More detailed division together with

PRODCOM codes and names can be seen in Table 1. In Figure3 the relationship between production, import and

export based on the statistical data has been presented. The positive values present how much value has been

either generated and imported to Europe while the negative value present how much leaves as export from

Europe.

Figure 3. Relationship between production, import and export values for automobiles, components,

catalysts and materials in Europe 2017. Note that the values present the whole industry

volume not specific to automobiles. [1]

When observing the overview of the catalytic converter value chain in Figure 3 it can be noticed that rather

significant variations both in overall value but also in the distribution between import, production and export

exists. Total as well as production value tends to increase toward downstream whereas import and export seem

to have larger importance upstream.

For materials stage the import and export values are significant. The high export value can be to some extent be

explained by re-export but not all. A clear reason for the high export amount do not exist. As for the sub-

component stage the values are low compared to the other groups in the value chain. In addition, the export

value exceeds the production and import values which makes the figures questionable.

The component stage has rather notable production value which can be explained partly by the massive end

application industry as well as the service markets. The production, import and export values for vehicles is over

tenfold compared to the other groups. Beside the high production value, significant share of vehicles is also

exported from Europe. On the other hand, vehicle markets are global which makes the import values substantial.

It should be noticed, that not all manufactured vehicles are exported, but re-export of imported vehicles may

occur which explains the large value of export. In addition, exported figure may contain also older vehicles which

are sold outside Europe as second-hand car.

-10 000

-5 000

0

5 000

10 000

15 000

20 000

PGM Platinum catalyst Exhaust silencer Heavy vehicle

Val

ue

[mill

ion

€]

Value chain satges

Economic status of catalyst value chain 2017


Vehicle

-400 000

-300 000

-200 000

-100 000

0

100 000

200 000

300 000

400 000

500 000

600 000


SCRREEN D5.1|CRM Substitution Profiles|Rev.0| 57


to the production. If the production is larger than import the indicator gets positive bar in Figure4. For the

catalytic converter value chain it can be noticed that for components/parts and end applications the production

is higher than import. Especially for the component stage (Exhaust silencer) the production within Europe is

rather significant. The massive end application industry and service market with repair work may explain to some

extent the high share. For material stage, PGM’s are highly import dependent.

Figure 4. Production indicator (prod / imp + prod) for catalytic converter value chain in 2015, 2016 and

2017. [1]

The production/import share has for PGM’s, exhaust silencers and vehicles remained to some extent on same

level during the three years. When looking further back in time for PGM’s there seem to be some fluctuation

between import and production which may originate among other things from price fluctuations. As for heavy

vehicle the production has stayed somewhat on the same level while the import has slightly increased which can

be seen in Figure 4. However, this change is still rather low. For platinum catalysts, the statistical data has some

uncertainty which may reflect to figure. While the production value has steadily increased the values for import

has fluctuated during the last three years.

0,0

0,1

0,2

0,3

0,4

0,5

0,6

0,7

0,8

PGM Platinum catalyst Exhaust silencer Vehicle Heavy vehicle

Catalyst value chain production indicator

2015 2016 2017



FUTURE PERSPECTIVES ON THE MARKET

Emission legislation concerning combustion engines has a fundamental effect on the PGM use in autocatalysts,

which in turn instantly affects primary production market, and also secondary production after these vehicles

reach their end of life, as autocatalysts are one of the most important applications for PGMs.

During the phase-in period between Euro 6b and Euro 6d-TEMP emission legislations from September 2017 to

September 2020, it is expected that a progressive shift away from the use of PGM-containing lean NOx traps

(LNTs) for NOx control occurs, and a PGM-free selective catalytic reduction (SCR) technology becomes more

popular. (LNT and SCR technologies are discussed in section 5.2.) SCR will continue to be used alongside PGM-

bearing technologies, but on average Euro 6d-TEMP exhaust control systems are expected to contain less

platinum than their Euro 6b predecessors. [32]

The next stage of European legislation, Euro 6d, will begin to take effect in January 2020, further limiting

permitted NOx emissions. These standards will be very challenging to comply, which means potential for some

additional use of PGM-bearing NOx traps alongside PGM-free SCR, which would increase platinum use. However,

further adoption of a technology that combines the functions of SCR and a particulate filter is also expected,

permitting some reduction of PGM-loading in the system. [32]

At the other end of the value chain, in the autocatalyst recycling business, the dramatic increase in platinum

loadings in diesel vehicles occurred in 2000-2007 gives grounds to assume future gains from the catalyst scrap in

Europe when these vehicles reach their end of life. However, based on platinum assays at present, there is no

evidence of this yet. [32]


The main actors in the value chain are compiled in Table 2. The information concerning the actors of the value

chain and their geographical presence is gathered from [29], [32] and from the websites of the companies. First

of all, the raw material production in its entirety is located outside Europe, mainly in South Africa. Of the largest

primary producers of PGMs, only one, Lonmin, is headquartered in Europe. On the other hand, it can be noticed

that the next part of the value chain is dominated by EU-headquartered companies, namely Johnson Matthey,

Umicore and BASF, which all have production facilities outside Europe as well. These companies are strong

players also in the other end of the value chain, recycling. However, more diversity can be found among the

catalytic converter manufacturers, of which some are also OEMs of complete exhaust systems for automotive

companies. The ones that are not OEMs themselves, are subcontractors for OEMs or serve the aftermarket, or

both. The automotive companies listed on the next row of the table are only listed by their headquarters and not

by their production facilities due to the global presence of production of most of the companies. The recycling

part of the value chain in Europe is mostly dominated by the same companies that also supply the raw materials,

but in Asia and North America there are also recycling companies that are not identified as PGM suppliers.



Table 2. Main actors in the value chain of catalytic converters - PGM perspective. Country code in parentheses

represents the country of the headquarters of the company. The columns titled Europe or Asia and North

America refer to a significant presence of production facilities in these geographical regions.


Raw material production Lonmin (GB)

Anglo American Platinum (ZA), Impala Platinum (ZA), Lonmin (GB), Norilsk Nickel (RU), Northam Platinum (ZA), Sibanye-Stillwater (ZA), Vale (BR)

Sub component production (catalyst precursor)

Johnson Matthey (GB), Umicore (BE), BASF (DE), Safina Materials (US)

Johnson Matthey (GB), Umicore (BE), BASF (DE), Safina Materials (US), CDTi (US)

Component/application manufacture (catalytic converter)

BM Catalysts (GB), European Exhaust and Catalyst (GB), Faurecia* (FR), Magneti Marelli (IT), Friedrich Boysen* (DE), Benteler* (DE), Eberspächer* (DE), Bosal* (NL)

Tenneco* (US), Yutaka Giken (JP), DCL International (CA), CDTi (US), Bosal* (NL), Benteler* (NL)

Application manufacture (vehicle)

VW Group (DE), PSA Group (FR), Renault Group (FR), FCA Group (NL), Jaguar Land Rover Group (GB), BMW Group (DE), Daimler AG (DE), Volvo Group (SE), Man Group (GB), Scania Group (SE)

Ford (US), Toyota Group (JP), GM (US), Nissan (JP), Hyundai (KR), KIA (KR), Suzuki (JP), Mazda (JP), Honda (JP), Mitsubishi Motors (JP), Tata Motors (IN), Paccar Inc. (US)

Recycling (converter recycling)

Johnson Matthey (GB), Umicore (BE), BASF (DE), Safina Materials (US), Vale (BR), Hensel Recycling (DE)

Johnson Matthey (GB), BASF (DE), Techemet (US), Alpha Recycling (US), PGM of Texas (US), Global Refining Group (US), Sibanye-Stillwater (ZA), Nippon PGM (JP)

*) Also an OEM of exhaust systems.

5.2 SUBSTITUTION SOLUTIONS FOR CRM IN CATALYTIC CONVERTERS

As mentioned earlier, catalytic converters can be based on several different combinations of emission control

technologies. These technologies can be grouped in three categories depending on the emission they control:

particulate emissions, carbon compound emissions or NOx emissions. Technologies controlling only particulate

emissions are essentially filters not employing PGMs (or any other active materials), and therefore they are out

of the scope of this discussion. However, there is a trend to combine catalysts with particulate filters, producing

multi-purpose but single-component emission control systems referred to as catalysed particulate filters.

However, technologies controlling carbon compounds and NOx emissions both include emission control methods

based on PGMs, despite of being separate components or combined with particulate filters. [29] The



technologies controlling carbon compound and NOx emissions and their PGM usage are summarised by the

following tables.

Table 3. PGM use of technologies controlling carbon compound emissions. The emission control

performance is estimated on a scale: poor - tolerable - average - good - very good. Adapted

from [29].

Carbon compound control technology

Used for PGM usage Emission control

performance Gasoline Diesel Pt Pd Rh

Three-way catalyst (TWC)

x x x x Average

Diesel oxidation catalyst (DOC)

x x x Average

Table 4. PGM use of technologies controlling NOx emissions. The emission control performance is

estimated on a scale: poor - tolerable - average - good - very good. Adapted from [29].

NOx emission control technology

Used for PGM usage Emission control

performance Gasoline Diesel Pt Pd Rh

Lean NOx trap (LNT) x x x x x Poor

Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR)

x (except turbo

engines) x Tolerable

Selective catalytic reduction (SCR)

x Very good

As can be seen by the tables, the commercial emission control technologies for carbonaceous compounds

currently do not include PGM-free options for either gasoline or diesel engines. On the other hand, the NOx

emission control can be achieved without PGMs at least for diesel engines due to the SCR technology that

provides a very good emission control performance. The SCR utilises iron, copper and vanadium to catalyse a

reaction where ammonia selectively reacts with NOx to produce nitrogen and water [34]. The Euro VI emission

requirements already demand that heavy-duty vehicles are equipped with an SCR system [29], and consequently

the technology is already provided by the largest autocatalyst suppliers such as Umicore, BASF, Johnson Matthey

and CDTi.

SUBSTITUTIVE ELEMENTS

Obviously, there is will to replace PGMs in catalytic converters in order to reduce their cost and this is why catalyst

researchers are trying to find alternative catalyst materials such as oxides of inexpensive metals or their

combinations. However, recent studies show that not much progress has been made in this field. [29]. As PGMs

are extremely effective and durable catalysts, replacing them entirely while maintaining the excellent catalytic

ability is a very difficult task. For this reason, enhancing the activity of PGM catalysts, rather than increasing their



loading while exhaust regulations tighten, is a viable alternative. Actually, the current use of CeO2 as an oxygen

reservoir in the catalytic converter is an example of a method to boost the activity of the catalyst. [35]

There are some successful attempts to reduce PGM loading in autocatalysts [36], but the most widely recognised

example of an attempt to replace PGMs by non-precious elements is a patent claimed by CDTi (US). The patented

solution is a catalyst technology Spinel™ which aims at replacing PGMs in catalytic converters in both gasoline

and diesel vehicles. Spinel™ technology is based on various base metals which are combined together in a

common structure resulting in unusual and very effective catalytic properties. The catalyst technology is also

claimed to be highly versatile and durable. CTDi’s interim target is to use low amounts of PGMs before realising

the final target of PGM-free autocatalysts. [29], [37] In testing, CDTi was able to meet emissions standards on a

turbocharged and a non-turbocharged car by reducing the amount of PGMs by 96% and 90%, respectively, but

it has proved to be challenging to convince the original equipment manufacturers about the reliability of a new

catalyst, because PGM-based catalysts have been in use as long as catalytic converters have been on the market.

[38]

SUBSTITUTIVE APPLICATIONS

The most disruptive change for the catalytic converter market is however the electrification of transport, as

electric vehicles (EVs) do not need catalytic converters. Vehicles based on fuel cell technology can also be

considered as EVs, but so far the use of fuel cell technology is not a step away from PGMs, as many fuel cell

technologies rely on PGMs as electrocatalysts. To separate fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) from electric vehicles deriving

energy from batteries, a term battery electric vehicle (BEV) is used. Hybrid cars are also becoming more common,

but as these vehicles usually rely on the internal combustion engine as one of the energy conversion methods,

they are still dependent on the catalytic converter technologies. [29]

The rise of (B)EVs touches all parts of the catalytic converter value chain, however for some parts of the chain

the impacts are more fundamental than for the other parts. As a large share of the PGMs produced globally is

used in catalytic converters [30], the shift towards EVs means that a large part of the PGM demand will cease to

exist, unless other PGM bearing applications, such as FCVs start to become more common. The decrease in

demand will have a negative long-term effect on PGM prices, but on the supply-side, the continuing disruptions

of palladium and platinum supply among major producers, with no more than a few new platinum and palladium

projects in the pipeline, will on the other hand allow only minor production growth during the next decade,

balancing the drop in demand. [39] The likely decrease in PGM prices will have an effect on both ends of the

value chain: PGM refiners and PGM recyclers, which are in most cases the same companies.

The companies currently producing catalyst precursors for the catalytic converters, namely BASF, Umicore and

Johnson Matthey, are also facing the effects of the EV transition. However, their strategy has been to switch the

focus from catalyst materials to battery materials, adapting that way to the new market situation. [40]

The automotive sector is naturally in a steering position of the catalytic converter value chain in the EV transition.

Some European automotive companies have either started to produce EVs or announced their EV release dates

[41], but the global production of EVs is concentrated in China, which is attracting investments by its clean vehicle



policy requiring automotive companies to obtain credits for the production of EVs [42]. The effect of EV transition

on EU jobs in the automotive sector has already been examined in a briefing by Transport & Environment [43].

The banning of gasoline and diesel cars in the near future [44] will also affect the PGM recycling industry, as

mentioned above. In 2016, the global number of vehicles on the roads was 1.32 billion, meaning about as many

catalytic converters currently in use and eventually returning to PGM recyclers for recovery. However, if the

planned bans of fossil fuel vehicles come into force, and unless the decreasing PGM demand is offset by new

applications like fuel cells, there will be an excess supply of PGMs, which will have a negative impact on PGM

prices in the next 10 to 15 years. As PGM smelters need to process and sell large volumes of PGMs in order to

cover the high operating costs, a significant decrease in PGM demand could compel some of the refineries to go

out of business. However, what is seen as a redeeming feature of the situation is that the bans have been

announced years or decades ahead of time, leaving catalytic converter collectors and PGM refiners time to adjust

to new market conditions, such as to start recycling other types of PGM bearing waste. [45]

5.3 SUMMARY OF THE CATALYTIC CONVERTER VALUE CHAIN

Catalytic converters, or autocatalysts are one of the most important applications for platinum group metals. The

value chain of catalytic converters is globally spread so that the primary production of PGMs is located outside

Europe, but all other steps involve EU-headquartered operators. Both catalyst precursor production and

autocatalyst recycling are globally dominated by the EU-based companies Umicore, Johnson Matthey and BASF,

although on the recycling side some US-based companies have a strong presence in the North America. EU has

a strong competence in catalytic converter manufacture and exhaust system assembly through numerous large

companies, but there are also a couple of strong US-based players on the sector. Finally, automotive industry,

the end-user of catalytic converters, has important EU-based companies in both passenger car and heavy-duty

vehicle sector accompanied by the other well-known companies mainly from Japan and the US.

The possible substitutive solutions for currently used PGM-bearing catalytic converters and the effects of these

substitutions on different parts of the value chain are summarised in Table 5. Some of the effects have already

partly taken place, such as catalyst precursor producers’ adaptation to produce battery materials for electric

vehicles.



Table 5. Substitutive solutions for PGM-containing autocatalysts, their substitution mechanism, development

stage and parts of the value chain that would be affected by the substitutive solution. The parts of the

value chain are divided on the basis of estimated significance of the effect in a scenario where the

substitution would occur in full: those sectors that would be required to make significant changes in

their competence and product portfolio and those sectors that would have to change nothing or

would only need to refine their core business.

Substitutive solution

Substitution mechanism

Development stage

Parts of value chain affected

Fundamental effect Less fundamental

effect

Spinel™ (PGM-free catalyst)

Element Laboratory PGM producers, catalyst precursor producers, PGM recyclers

Converter manufacturers, automotive companies

Battery electric vehicles (no need for catalytic converter)

Application On market

PGM producers, catalyst precursor producers, converter manufacturers, automotive companies, PGM recyclers

Fuel cell vehicles (as above, but PGMs used as fuel cell catalysts)

Application On/Near market

Converter manufacturers, automotive companies

PGM producers, catalyst precursor producers, PGM recyclers



5.4 REFERENCES

[1] Eurostat, “Statistics on the production of manufactured goods (PRODCOM NACE Rev. 2),” 2018. [Online]. Available: https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/prodcom/data/database. [Accessed: 08-Jan-2019].

[2] “Dictionary of Energy (Expanded Edition) - Knovel,” 2019. .

[3] M. L. Grilli et al., “Solutions for critical raw materials under extreme conditions: A review,” Materials. 2017.

[4] F. R. Field, T. J. Wallington, M. Everson, and R. E. Kirchain, “Strategic Materials in the Automobile: A Comprehensive Assessment of Strategic and Minor Metals Use in Passenger Cars and Light Trucks,” Environ. Sci. Technol., vol. 51, no. 24, pp. 14436–14444, 2017.

[5] H. E. Friedrich and B. L. (Eds. . Mordike, Magnesium Technology. Metallurgy, Design data, Applications, vol. 151. 2015.


[7] U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries. 2018.

[8] W. W. Albrecht, “Production, properties and application of tantalum, niobium and their compounds,” Lanthanides, Tantalum Niobium Mineral. geochemistry, Charact. Prim. ore Depos. Prospect. Process. Appl. - Proc. a Work. Berlin, Nov. 1986, pp. 345–358, 1989.

[9] R. KUZIAK, R. KAWALLA, and S. WAENGLER, “Advanced high strength steels for automotive industry,” Arch. Civ. Mech. Eng., vol. VIII, no. 2, pp. 103–116, 2008.

[10] Steel Market Development Institute, “The evolving use of advanced high-strength steels for automotive applications,” Steel Market Development Institute, 2019. .

[11] N. Hashimoto, “Application of Aluminum Extrusions to Automotive Parts,” Kobelco Technol. Rev., no. 35, pp. 69–75, 2017.

[12] N. F. Vidaña, “Automotive aluminum castings and market trends,” https://www.metalbulletin.com/events/download.ashx/document/speaker/7407/a0ID000000X0k7gMAB/Presentation, 2013. .

[13] W. J. Joost and P. E. Krajewski, “Towards magnesium alloys for high-volume automotive applications,” Scr. Mater., vol. 128, pp. 107–112, 2017.

[14] A. W. Orłowicz, M. Mróz, M. Tupaj, and A. Trytek, “Materials used in the automotive industry,” Arch. Foundry Eng., vol. 15, no. 2, pp. 75–78, 2015.



[15] S. Ziemann, A. Grunwald, L. Schebek, D. B. Müller, and 3and M. Weil1, “The future of mobility and its critical rawmaterials,” Rev. Métallurgie, vol. 110, pp. 47–54, 2013.

[16] H. Bhadeshia and R. Honeycombe, Steels - Microstructure and Properties (4th Edition). 2017.

[17] S. L. Narasimhan, J. M. Larson, and E. P. Whelan, “Wear characterization of new nickel-base alloys for internal combustion engine valve seat applications,” Wear, vol. 74, pp. 231–227, 1981.

[18] B. Beryllium Science & Technology Association, “The Benefits That Beryllium Brings To Society,” https://berylliumsafety.eu/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/Attachment-2-The-Benefits-That-Beryllium-Brings-To-Society.pdf, 2016. .

[19] M. Konter and M. Thumann, “Materials and manufacturing of advanced industrial gas turbine components,” J. Mater. Process. Technol., vol. 117, no. 3, pp. 386–390, 2001.

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[21] I. Inagaki, T. Takechi, Y. Sharai, and N. Ariyasu, “Application and Features of Titanium for the Aerospace Industry,” Nippon Steel Sumitomo Met. Tech. Rep., no. 106, pp. 22–27, 2014.

[22] M. J. Donachie, Titanium: A Technical Guide, 2nd Edition. ASM International, 2000.

[23] A. Bigot, P. Auger, S. Chambreland, D. Blavette, and A. Reeves, “Atomic Scale Imaging and Analysis of T’ Precipitates in Al-Mg-Zn Alloys,” Microsc. Microanal. Microstruct., vol. 8, no. 2, pp. 103–113, 1997.

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[26] P. Singh, H. Pungotra, and N. S. Kalsi, “On the characteristics of titanium alloys for the aircraft applications,” Mater. Today Proc., vol. 4, no. 8, pp. 8971–8982, 2017.

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[30] P. J. Loferski, Z. T. Ghalayini, and S. A. Singerling, “2016 Minerals Yearbook: Platinum-Group Metals.” U.S. Geological Survey, 2018.

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[32] A. Cowley and M. Ryan, “PGM Market Report,” Johnson Matthey, 2018.

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[35] D. R. Watson, “Low and non-PGM materials for use in three-way catalytic converters in the treatment of gasoline exhaust,” Cardiff University, 2015.

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6 ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS

Printed Circuit Boards (PCBs) are key components in most electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) used in a

wide range of applications: consumer electronics, medical devices, industrial applications, automotive industry,

aerospace sector and lightning applications. This chapter will concentrate on the economic assessment of

substitution trajectories for CRMs used in electronic components, with the focus on PCBs with components.

PCBs form the base of electronics and are the essential part of almost all of the electronic products. PCBs are

used to mechanically support and electrically connect electronic components (EC) using conductive pathways,

tracks or signal traces (typically Cu sheets) laminated onto a non-conductive substrate. The actual PCBs are a

mixture of woven glass fiber and epoxy resins (green and high grade) or phenolic/cellulose paper (yellow and

low grade), thus typically with either green or yellow background colour. Cu sheets are claddings are laminated

in them to allow for electricity flow between ECs, with metal connections (Sn, Pb) [1] . The common ECs in the

PCBs include resistors (control the electric current that passes through them), Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs; emit

visible light when electric current passes through them), transistors (amplify charge), capacitors (harbour

electrical charge), inductors (store charge, stop and change in current), diodes (allow current to pass in one

direction only), switches (allow or block the current) and integrated circuits (chips with multiple functions:

amplifier, oscillator, timer, microprocessor, or even computer memory). Additionally, battery is the common

component that provides voltage to the circuit).

Printed circuit board assemblies, i.e., PCBs with ECs, vary in composition between individual cases, but on

average, contain 30% (by weight) plastics, 30% ceramics and 40% metals. Most of the materials are of commonly

available and abundant raw materials, such as epoxy, polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), silica (SiO2), alumina

(Al2O3), copper (Cu) and iron (Fe). However, there are also precious metals (gold, Au; silver, Ag) and Critical Raw

Materials (CRMs; palladium, Pd; platinum, Pt), often at low concentrations but playing a vital role with respect

to performance. [2] The electronic components typically contain majority of the CRMs included in the PCBs [1].

Indeed, the critical raw materials (CRMs) typically encountered in electronic components and materials are:

iridium, palladium, platinum (all being platinum-group metals, PGM), indium, gallium, germanium, tantalum,

yttrium (included in heavy rare-earth elements, HREE), silicon metal, baryte and beryllium. In the following, a

short overview is presented about the uses of each of these elements.

Approximately half of Iridium consumed in Europe is consumed for electronic applications (43%). However, here

it is primarily the high melting point (2446C) and the chemical stability (corrosion resistance) that are of

importance, as the key end use is crucibles for growing single-crystal sapphire. The sapphire provides a substrate

for the production of gallium nitride (GaN) in EEE. Thus, although much of iridium is directed to electronic

applications, it is rarely an essential material in electronic components. [3]

According to analyses, palladium is the most frequently found critical raw material (CRM) in waste electrical and

electronic equipment (WEEE) [2] [4] []. The largest area of palladium use in the electronics sector is in multi-layer

ceramic capacitors. Smaller amounts of palladium are used in conductive tracks in hybrid integrated circuits and

for plating connectors and lead frames [5] [6]. Majority of the produced palladium is consumed in catalysts for

automotive industry (92% in EU, 75% worldwide), followed by electrical applications (6% in EU, 10



worldwide) [3]. However, although the relative share of palladium used in the electronic sector is quite small, it

is in a key role enabling the miniaturisation of electronics (e.g., multi-layer ceramic capacitors). Additionally,

palladium is used for electronic contacts.

The share of produced platinum that ends up in electronic sector is small, only 1% in EU and worldwide. [3][]

However, despite the small share in consumption, the contribution of value added in electrical applications by

platinum is third after autocatalyst and chemical applications. In electronic components, the major uses are

platings in electronic connections and ceramic capacitors. [7] [5]

Concerning indium, the production of indium tin oxide (ITO) accounts for most of global indium consumption.

ITO thin films were primarily used for electrical conductivity purposes in flat-panel displays, most commonly

liquid crystal displays (LCDs). Flat panel displays is reported to correspond to 56% of end uses of indium. Other

applications include alloys and solders, thin film solar panels, thermal interface materials, light emitting diodes

(LEDs) and laser diodes. Altogether semiconductor and LED applications cover 3% of the total indium production.

[3] [5]

In the case of gallium, EEE sector consumes approximately 90% of the total production. Almost 99% of the

produced gallium is applied in the form of GaAs and GaN, with the majority (68%) being used for integrated

circuits (IC). [8] Within EU, the figures are quite equal to those worldwide, IC end-use covering 70% of all gallium

consumption, followed by LED applications (25%) [3].

Within EU, the end uses of germanium include infrared optics (47%), optical fibers (40%) and satellite solar cells

(13%). Infrared optics makes use of germanium both as metal and as its oxide glass form. In fiber optics,

germanium oxide is the preferential form of use. In space applications, solar cells employ germanium substrates.

Outside of EU, germanium is also used in electronic components, e.g., in LEDs and transistors (SiGe). [3]

The manufacturing of capacitors is the largest single use of tantalum worldwide, accounting for the use of 33%

of the produced raw material. It represents 500-600 tonnes of contained Ta used annually. It is a vital element

for the electronic sector, as all electronic devices contain capacitors: they store an electrical charge for later use.

The other important end uses are superalloys (alloying element) and sputtering targets [3].

In Europe, yttrium is mainly used for lighting (46%) and ceramics (35%) applications [3] . Elsewhere in the world,

yttrium is also used in electronics applications, e.g., in microwave radar to control high-frequency signals [9].

Silicon metal exists in two grades: metallurgical grade silicon, representing the majority of produced silicon

metal, and polysilicon, which is a high-purity polycrystalline form of silicon. The former is applied in metallurgy

and in the chemical industry in the production of silicones and silanes, whereas the latter is used as a

semiconductor in photovoltaic applications or in microelectronics. Despite the overall low share of electronic

applications in the silicon consumption, 2%, ultra-high purity grade silicon is used extensively in silicon

semiconductors, transistors, printed circuit boards and integrated circuits.[3]

Baryte (barite) is a barium sulphate mineral, BaSO4. It is the raw material for barium compounds, notably barium

carbonate (BaCO3). BaCO3 is increasingly used in electronic components, such as electronics ceramics and



capacitors. In the overall end uses of baryte, the chemical industry that yields a variety of barium compounds

accounts for 10% of the produced baryte, with special glass applications being the primary baryte consumer. [3]

Beryllium is used in the solder alloy for electronic components, typically as an alloying element in copper. Various

electronic applications account for the consumption of more than half of the produced beryllium, although

beryllium is not included in the electronic components but in their contacts.[3][5]

Table 1 summarises the CRMs included in the PCBs.

Table 1. The main electric components of PCBs, the CRMs included and the relative importance.

Component CRMs included

Form Importance

Printed circuit boards

LEDs Indium

Gallium

Germanium

Iridium

Yttrium

Ga in Gallium arsenide (GaAs), gallium nitride (GaN)

Indium: Minor (semiconductor + LED applications altogether 3% of Indium production) [3].

Ga: approx. 22% of gallium is used for opto-electronic components, such as LEDs and laser diodes [8]

Ge, I, Y: Minor

Transistors Germanium

Silicon

Bismuth

Silicon germanium

Capacitors Palladium

Tantalum

Baryte

Baryte: BaCO3

Pd: 6% produced palladium, but it is in a key role enabling the miniaturisation of electronics (e.g., multi-layer ceramic capacitors).

Tantalum: 33% produced Ta used in capacitors

Baryte: minor

Diodes Gallium

Indium

Bismuth

Ga: approx. 22% of gallium is used for opto-electronic components, such as LEDs and laser diodes

Indium: minor

Integrated circuit (IC)

Gallium GaAs, GaN 68% of produced gallium used in ICs for high-frequency wireless



Silicon communication (mobile phones, wireless local area network)[8]

Connections, connectors

Palladium

Platinum

Indium

Beryllium

Metallic, In and Be as alloys

>50% of Be consumed in electronic applications

Based on Table 1, the most important CRMs in electrical components are palladium, gallium, tantalum and

beryllium. A short overview of these elements is given below.

Palladium is an element that belongs to the platinum group metals (PGM) and is obtained as a co-product in Ni,

Cu and Zn production. It is a shiny, silvery-white metal that resists corrosion. Finely divided palladium is a good

catalyst and is used for hydrogenation and dehydrogenation reactions. Hydrogen easily diffuses through heated

palladium and this provides a way of separating and purifying the gas. Major palladium producers are Russia,

South Africa and Canada. Figure 1 shows that In Europe, there are manufacturing activities related to catalysts,

electrical components and dental restorations.

Figure 1. Simplified value chain for palladium [3].

Gallium is a soft, silvery metal with an extremely low melting point, 30C, but a high boiling point, 2229C [10].

It is an excellent conductor of both heat and electricity, and its compounds: gallium arsenide, GaAs, and gallium

nitride, GaN, show exceptional semiconducting properties [10][3]. Gallium is exclusively obtained as a by-product

during the processing of other metals, e.g. aluminium (bauxite) and zinc (sphalerite). The total production of

gallium is of the order of a few hundred tonnes per year. China accounted for the majority of world’s gallium

production (production capacity 400-500 tonnes annually), followed by Germany (25-40 t/a) and Kazakhstan (25

t/a). In terms of final end-uses (on average during 2010-2014), about 70% of gallium is used for Integrated Circuits



(ICs) while 25% is consumed for lighting applications (mostly LED technology). Figure 2 shows that in Europe,

there are manufacturing activities in the areas of GaAs and GaN wafers and well as Ga compounds.

Figure 2. Simplified value chain for gallium [3].

Tantalum is a silvery transition metal that is very resistant to corrosion and exhibits excellent thermal resistance

(melting point 3017C, boiling point 5455C). An oxide layer which forms on the surface of tantalum can act as

an insulating (dielectric) layer. Because tantalum can be used to coat other metals with a very thin layer, a high

capacitance can be achieved in a small volume. Indeed, one of the main uses of tantalum is in the production of

electronic components, with capacitors corresponding to the primary end use of tantalum (33%). Most tantalum

is produced as a co-product as it occurs in complex mineral form, often associated in ore bodies with niobium,

tin or lithium. In Europe, there are some activities related to the manufacturing of tantalum chemicals, powders,

carbides, ingots and mill products, Fig. 3.

Figure 3. Simplified value chain for tantalum[3].

Beryllium is a silvery-white metal. It is relatively soft and has a low density. Beryllium is used in alloys with copper

or nickel to make gyroscopes, springs, electrical contacts, spot-welding electrodes and non-sparking tools. Mixing

beryllium with these metals increases their electrical and thermal conductivity [11]. Particularly copper beryllium

is widely used in electrical connectors in a wide range of sectors, e.g., transportation. USA accounts for 90% of

global beryllium production, followed by China. Europe has manufacturing activities in the manufacturing of

products made of beryllium ceramics, beryllium alloys and beryllium metal, Figure 4.



Figure 4. Simplified value chain for beryllium [3].

6.1 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF ELECTRONIC COMPONENT VALUE CHAIN

STATISTICAL DATA

For the economic analysis based on statistics (Eurostat, PRODCOM-data base) of the electronics value chain. For

the analysis, the structural composition of the application has been produced in the table below. Based on these

divisions, the schematic economic value chain description has been produced and presented separately in the

next section.

The electronics value chain composes of 13 groups which can be divided roughly to three stages which are

materials, sub-components, components/parts. More detailed division together with PRODCOM codes and

names can be seen in Table 2. It should be noted that in the electronics value chain analysis, the focus is on only

materials, sub-components and component/parts, since electronics are utilized in so many different end

applications crossing several industries which makes their mapping very complex.

Table 2. Structural composition of electronics with PRODCOM codes and names.

Component Sub component Materials Prodcom code and name

Printed circuit board

26115020 Multilayer printed circuits, consisting only of conductor elements and contacts 26115050 Printed circuits consisting only of conductor elements and contacts (excl. multiple printed circuits) 26121020 Bare multilayer printed circuit boards 26121050 Bare printed circuit boards other than multilayer

Integrated circuits

26113003 Multichip integrated circuits: processors and controllers, whether or not combined with memories, converters, logic circuits, amplifiers, clock and timing circuits, or other circuits 26113006 Electronic integrated circuits (excluding multichip circuits): processors and controllers, whether or not combined with memories, converters, logic circuits, amplifiers, clock and timing circuits, or other circuits 26113023 Multichip integrated circuits: memories 26113027 Electronic integrated circuits (excluding multichip circuits): dynamic random–access memories (D–RAMs) 26113034 (cache–RAMs)Electronic integrated circuits (excluding multichip circuits): static random–access memories (S–RAMs), including cache random–access memories 26113054 programmable, read only memories (EPROMs)Electronic integrated circuits (excluding multichip circuits): UV erasable, 26113065 Electronic integrated circuits (excluding multichip circuits): electrically erasable, programmable, read only memories (E²PROMs), including flash E²PROMs 26113067 Electronic integrated circuits (excluding multichip circuits): other memories 26113091 Other multichip integrated circuits n.e.c. 26113094 Other electronic integrated circuits n.e.c.

Transistors

26112150 Transistors, other than photosensitive transistors

Capacitors

27905220 Fixed electrical capacitors, tantalum or aluminium electrolytic (excluding power capacitors) 27905240 Other fixed electrical capacitors n.e.c. 27905300 Variable capacitors (including pre-sets)



Resistors

27906037 Fixed electrical resistors for a power handling capacity > 20 W (excluding heating resistors and fixed carbon resistors, composition or film types) 27906035 Fixed electrical resistors for a power handling capacity <= 20 W (excluding heating resistors and fixed carbon resistors, composition or film types)

Semiconductors

26112260 Semiconductor devices (excluding photosensitive semiconductor devices, photovoltaic cells, thyristors, diacs and triacs, transistors, diodes, and lightemitting diodes) 26112120 Semiconductor diodes 26112180 Semiconductor thyristors, diacs and triacs

Connectors

27331360 Prefabricated elements for electrical circuits for a voltage <=1kV 27331370 Connections and contact elements for wires and cables for a voltage <=1 kV 27331380 Other apparatus for connections to or in electrical circuit, voltage <=1000 V

Si 20132150 Silicon

20132475 Silicon dioxide

Sb 20121975 Antimony oxides 24453047 Zirconium and articles thereof (excluding waste and scrap), n.e.c.; antimony and articles thereof (excluding waste and scrap), n.e.c.

REE 20132300 Alkali or alkaline-earth metals; rare-earth metals, scandium and yttrium; mercury

20136500 Compounds of rare-earth metals, of yttrium or of scandium or mixtures of these metals

PGM 24413030 Platinum, palladium, rhodium, iridium, osmium and ruthenium, unwrought or in powder form 24413050 Platinum, palladium, rhodium, iridium, osmium and ruthenium, in semimanufactured forms (excluding unwrought or in powder form)



Ga, Ge 24453055 Beryllium, chromium, germanium, vanadium, gallium, hafnium ("celtium"), indium,

niobium ("columbium"), rhenium and thallium, and articles of these metals, n.e.c.; waste and scrap of these metals (excluding of beryllium, chromium and thallium) 20121950 Lithium oxide and hydroxide; vanadium oxides and hydroxides; nickel oxides and hydroxides; germanium oxides and zirconium dioxide


In Figure 5 the relationship between production, import and export based on the statistical data has been

presented. The positive values present how much value has been either generated and imported to Europe while

the negative value present how much leaves as export from Europe.

Figure 5. Relationship between production, import and export values for electronics, components, and


to end application. [12]

From Figure 5 it can be noticed as the overall impression of the electronics value chain that the value which is

produced, imported and exported is on a higher level in the component/part stage compared on raw materials

with exception of PGMs even though the electronic component manufacturing industry is heavily competed and

global. For integrated circuits which generates the highest values (both positive and negative) in the value chain,

rather same value is produced as exported where as the import value is larger. This indicate rather great demand

for higher grade components in Europe even though export exists. To one extent the strong industrial and

automotive industry drives the demand [13][14]. As for other sub-components the strong demand of

components/parts as well as automotive industry generate somewhat notable demand for the sub-components.

For materials stage the values are significantly lower compared to components with the exception of PGMs and

silicon. For PGMs, especially palladium is used in electronics for example in multi-layered ceramic capacitors,

while platinum in lower quantities [3]. In terms of trade, the high export, tenfold compared to production,

indicate uncertainty in the data even though some re-export of imported goods may occur. For silicon ultra-high

purity grade silicon is used extensively in electronic devices such as silicon semiconductors, transistors, printed

circuit boards and integrated circuits [3]. The trade balance indicate that significant share of value stays in Europe

due to the lower export compared to the import and production. This would be logical since component

manufacturing e.g integrated circuits exists in Europe. Certainly not all silicon is utilized in electronics

manufacturing. According to CRM list 2017 the major share of imported silicon compose of lover purity (< 4 N,

silicon containing < 99.99% by weight of silicon) silicon while only few percent is so called polysilicon (<6 N,

‘silicon containing >= 99.99% by weight of silicon) which is utilized in the generation of ultra high purity silicon

for semiconductor and integrated circuit industry [3] [15]. As for other materials much lover trade values can be

noticed.The relation between production and import in Figure 6 expresses how dependent Europe is of import

compared to the production. If the production is larger than import the indicator gets positive bar in Figure 6. It

can be noticed that there is rather much fluctuation in the production-import relation through the entire value

chain. Already in the subcomponent and component stages rather great differences occur for example capacitors

-30 000

-20 000

-10 000

0

10 000

20 000

30 000

40 000

50 000

Val

ue

[mill

ion

€]

Economic status of electronics value chain 2017




have significantly lover indicator value compared to semiconductors or connectors. However, it should be

noticed that connectors group compose of several PRODOM groups which may mix the situation. As for

integrated circuits which have high trade values (Figure 5) the import and production values are somewhat the

same for the last three years indicating strong demand in Europe. In material stage Europe tend to be more

reliant on the import with the exception of silicon and tantalum. As has been already discussed in the alloys

section the tantalum PRODCOM group compose of tantalum and articles thereof (excl. waste and scrap), not of

ore or concentrate which has been presented in the recent CRM-list 2017 to be totally reliant on import. The

production of tantalum is most likely originated from manufacturing industry which utilizes goods containing

tantalum and produces so called “pre-consume” scrap [3]. In addition, the total values and quantities for

tantalum in PRODCOM data base are low at which time changes may have larger effect. As for silicon, the

production value is notable larger than the value for import which results in a positive bar in Figure 6. Compared

with the outcomes in CRM-list 2017 which report on a higher import reliance, the results are divergent. However,

this may be explained partly with Norway’s production data which is included in the PRODCOM data analysis

where as in CRM-list 2017 assessment it is regarded as an importer to Europe. In addition, PRODCOM data do

not specify the type or grade of silicon that is compiled in the statistics which generates some unclarity and

should be regarded with a critical viewpoint. For other materials the production indicator shows higher

dependency on import. Especially on PGMs the import dependency is significant. However as was discussed

earlier for PGMs some uncertainties in the trade data may exist.

Figure 6. Production indicator (prod / imp + prod) for electronics value chain in 2015, 2016 and 2017.

[12]

0,0

0,1

0,2

0,3

0,4

0,5

0,6

0,7

0,8

0,9

1,0

Electronics value chain production indicator

2015 2016 2017



When looking at the indicator values of the materials, sub-components and components/parts for the past three

years, some variations exist. Especially for gallium/germanium, tantalum, PGMs, transistors and resistors

fluctuation in the indicator exists. For gallium/germanium the import has remained on the same level or

increased whereas the production has decreased annually which explains the decrease in the production

indicator. According to the CRM material datasheets 2017, two European gallium producers (Hungary and

Germany) has stopped their operation in 2013 and 2016 i.a. high operating costs and cheap Chinese material

availability which has resulted in higher import dependency [3]. As for tantalum the production has in turn

increased while import decreased. As was earlier discussed there is some uncertainties in the statistical data and

in rather delicate change factor due to the low original values. In sub-component stage both transistors and

resistors have fluctuation. For resistors the production has first decreased and then increased while the import

has increased constantly where as for transistors the production has behaved the opposite while similar constant

increase in the import. Fluctuations may origin from several reasons which individual causes are not clear.


Table 3. Main actors in the value chain of Printed Circuit Boards with components. Country in parentheses

presents the headquarters of the company.


Precursor manufacturing

TMGa (Trimethylgallium) and TEGa (Triethylgallium)

Umicore (Belgium) Nouryon (USA)

Tantalum powder Inframat Advanced Materials (USA), JX Nippon mining & Metals Group (Japan), Showa Cabot Supermetals K.K. (Japan), Stanford Advanced Materials (USA), American Elements (USA), Ningxia Nonferrous Metals Import & Export Corporation (China)

Pd powder, Pd-powder-based ink

Heraeus (Germany), Metalor (Switzerland)

Ferro Corporation (USA), Cermet Materials, Inc. (USA)

Copper-beryllium connector alloy

Lamineries Matthey (Switzerland)

Component production

GaAs wafer[16] , GaN wafer Freiberger Compound Materials (Germany), United Monolothic Semicondiuctors, UMS (Germany), EpiGaN (Belgium)

Sumitomo Electric (Japan), Americal Xtal Technology, AXT (USA), Xinxiang Shenzhou Crystal Technology Co., Ltd



(China), RF Micro Devices (USA), Xiamen San’an Integrated Circuit Co (China)

Tantalum capacitors AVX Corporation (USA), NEC (Taiwan), ROHM semiconductor (Japan), NTE Electronics (USA), United Chemi-Con (USA)

Palladium-containing multi-layer ceramic capacitors

Johnson Matthey Plc (UK) Taiyo-Yoden (Japan), Kyocera (Japan), Murata (Japan), TDK (Japan)

Beryllium-containing connectors

Materion (USA), PMX Industries (USA)

Application manufacturing

Led and photonic applications of GaAs [16], GaN

Osram (Germany), AMS Technologies (Germany)

Xiamen San’an Integrated Circuit Co (China), II-VI (USA), Lumentum (USA), Finisar (USA)

6.2 SUBSTITUTION SOLUTIONS FOR CRM IN ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS

Most of the CRMs included in electronic components are difficult to substitute without loss in performance.

Indeed, among the four most important CRMs in the electronic component sector: palladium, gallium, tantalum

and beryllium, either losses in performance or price are expected in the case of substitution. For example, for

palladium the potential substitutes are other PGMs (e.g., platinum), gold or base metals, but this may results in

increase in price or compromise in performance. For gallium, silicon or silicon-based substrates, such as SiGe, are

usually the main substitutes for GaAs or GaN substrates in semi-conductors. However, silicon has a lower electron

mobility and is therefore significantly less efficient. GaAs-based semiconductors also operate at higher

breakdown voltages and generate less noise at high frequencies (>250 MHz). In capacitors, the substitution of

tantalum typically means a change in capasitor technology. Even at present, the vast majority of capacitors in

electronic devices do not contain tantalum, but such capacitors (based on, e.g, niobium) are usually larger and

have a shorter life-span or have larger size, reduced capacitance and are more sensitive to harsh and hot

operating conditions (ceramic capacitors, aluminium capacitors). The superior performance and robustness of

tantalum capacitors thus remains the only reliable choice in applications where long term reliability, size and/or

security matters (e.g. automobile anti-lock brake systems, airbag activation systems, satellites, etc.). Substitution

of beryllium always leads to a loss of performance [3]. Silicon can be a less-expensive substitute for germanium

in certain electronic applications, such as transistors. [9][3]. However, there has recently been a shift back to the

use of germanium, as this will allow the miniaturization of electronics [3]. Nickel and copper have been

substituted for palladium in certain electronic applications (e.g., platings) , albeit with some reduction in

performance. Consequently for many high-tech electronics applications palladium remains the material of

choice, i.e., is practically impossible to substitute.[3]



Table 4. Possible substitutes for CRMs in printed circuit boards.

Component CRM Form Substitutes

Printed circuit boards

LEDs Indium

Gallium

Germanium

Iridium

Yttrium

Gallium arsenide (GaAs), gallium nitride (GaN)

Ga: Liquid crystals made from organic compounds [9]

GaAs, GaN: silicon or silicon based substrates sich as SiGe

Transistors Germanium

Silicon

Bismuth

Silicon germanium Ge: Si

Capacitors Palladium

Baryte

Tantalum

Pd: other PGMs (e.g., platinum), gold or base metals

Ta : Nb-based capacitors, ceramic capacitors, aluminium capacitors

Diodes Gallium

Indium

Bismuth

GaAs Ga: Indium phosphide components (laser diodes, specific wavelengths) [9]

Integrated circuit Gallium

Silicon

Ga: No effective substitutes [9]

Connections Palladium

Platinum

Metal Gold, nickel, copper, silver [5]



6.3 REFERENCES

[1] M. Kaya, “Recovery of metals and nonmetals from electronic waste by physical and chemical recycling processes,” Waste Manag., vol. 57, pp. 64–90, 2016.

[2] H. Duan, K. Hou, J. Li, and X. Zhu, “Examining the technology acceptance for dismantling of waste printed circuit boards in light of recycling and environmental concerns,” J. Environ. Manage., vol. 92, no. 3, pp. 392–399, 2011.


[4] M. Bigum, L. Brogaard, and T. H. Christensen, “Metal recovery from high-grade WEEE: A life cycle assessment,” J. Hazard. Mater., vol. 207–208, pp. 8–14, 2012.

[5] K. J. Puttlitz and K. A. Stalter, Handbook of Lead-Free Solder Technology for Microelectronic Assemblies. Marcel Deccer Inc., New York, USA, 2004.

[6] “http://www.platinum.matthey.com/about-pgm/applications/industrial/electronic-components#.” .

[7] “https://www.thebalance.com/metal-profile-platinum-2340149e.” .

[8] M. Ueberschaar, S. J. Otto, and V. S. Rotter, “Challenges for critical raw material recovery from WEEE – The case study of gallium,” Waste Manag., vol. 60, pp. 534–545, Feb. 2017.

[9] B. W. Jaskula, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2018. U.S. Geological Survey. 2018.

[10] “http://www.rsc.org/periodic-table/element/31/gallium.” .

[11] “http://www.rsc.org/periodic-table/element/4/beryllium.” .

[12] Eurostat, “Statistics on the production of manufactured goods (PRODCOM NACE Rev. 2),” 2018. .

[13] H. Bauer et al., “McKinsey on Semiconductors,” 2017.

[14] J. Carbone, “Electric Vehicles, Autonomous Cars Will Boost Chip Demand,” Electronics Sourcing, 2018. .

[15] W. R. Runyan, “Silicon,” in Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, Hoboken, NJ, USA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2013, pp. 1–22.

[16] “GaAs wafer market growing at 15 % CAGR to 2023 , driven by photonics applications growing at 37 %,” vol. 13, no. 5, pp. 73–75, 2018.



7 PERMANENT MAGNETS. ENERGY SECTOR – APPLICATION: WIND TURBINE

In the last decade, wind power has exhibited an enormous growth thanks to its competitiveness with fossil fuel-

fired electricity generation, unlike other renewable energy technologies, and positive life-cycle assessment on

air, water and land. Wind turbines can be classified according to the driven force (aerodynamic drag or lift), spin

axis orientation (horizontal or vertical), rotational speed (constant or variable) and generator type (asynchronous

or synchronous) [1]. Nowadays, the wind turbines with aerodynamic lift, horizontal spin axis type and variable

rotational speed are the most widely used due to their performance. There are two types of wind turbine with

variable rotational speed: doubly-fed asynchronous and synchronous generators. Synchronous generators can

further be subdivided according to their use of electromagnets (predominantly made of copper) or permanent

magnets (mostly Nd2Fe14B), that are called separately excited synchronous generators and permanently excited

synchronous generators, respectively. Only permanently excited synchronous generators require expensive rare

earths like Nd (CRM), that are monopolized by China's market. Permanently excited synchronous generators

have many advantages, e.g. very high efficiency (96-98%, which is greater than the separately excited

synchronous generators with 94% and the doubly-fed asynchronous generators with 94-95.5%), robustness

(saving about 25% weight) and reduced maintenance (no rotor with slip ring brushes). However, production of

wind power plants driven by a permanent-magnet generator is more expensive due to the use of CRM, thus

inducing a trade-off from the perspective of manufacturers and clients, especially in Europe. In 2015 the supply

risk for Rare Earth chemical elements was evaluated as 9.5 over 10 by the British Geological Survey [2]. Fig. 1

shows a list of materials and components frequently used in wind turbines. We see that the most critical material

in this application is the high-performance permanent magnet employed in permanently excited synchronous

generators.

Figure 1. Materials and components in wind turbines [10,11].



The wind turbine value chain starts with the supply of raw materials like steel, carbon fiber, permanent magnets,

etc, and machinery suppliers followed by design and development services, component suppliers of generators,

gearbox, blades for wind turbine companies that supply construction companies to fulfil the requests of wind

farm developers, see Fig. 2 [10,11]. The enormous growth of wind power in the last years jointly with a small

amount of suppliers, that had the right capabilities, have motivated the vertical integration of the supply chain

where large wind companies buy out suppliers of critical components such as blades, generators, and gearboxes

in order to get the products on time, and at an acceptable price [10]. Table I shows some of the current main

actors of the wind turbine’s value chain [27,28].

Figure 2. Value chain of wind turbine [10,11].

7.1 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF WIND TURBINE VALUE CHAIN

STATISTICAL DATA

The economic analysis based on statistics (Eurostat, PRODCOM-data base) of the wind turbine value chain is


below (Table 1.). Based on these divisions, the schematic economic value chain description has been produced

and presented separately in the next section.

Table 1. Structural composition of wind generator/turbine with PRODCOM codes and names.


Wind power

28112400 Generating sets, wind-powered

Wind turbine generator

27112540 Multi-phase AC motors of an output > 75 kW but <= 375 kW (excluding traction motors)



Magnet

25992995 Permanent magnets and articles intended to become permanent magnets, of metal 23441230 Permanent magnets and articles intended to become permanent magnets (excluding of metal)

Nd, Dy 20132300 Alkali or alkaline-earth metals; rare-earth metals, scandium and yttrium; mercury 20136500 Compounds of rare-earth metals, of yttrium or of scandium or mixtures of these metals

The wind generator/turbine value chain composed of 4 groups which can be divided roughly to four stages which

are materials, sub-components, components/parts and end applications. More detailed division together with

PRODCOM codes and names can be seen in Table 1. In Figure 3 the relationship between production, import and



Europe.

Figure 3. Relationship between production, import and export values for wind generator, components

and materials in Europe 2017. Note that the values present the whole industry volume not

specific to wind generator. [32]

-6 000

-4 000

-2 000

0

2 000

4 000

6 000

8 000

10 000

12 000

REE Magnet AC motor Wind generator

Val

ue

[mill

ion

€]

Economic status of magnet value chain (wind generator) 2017




The value which is produced, imported and exported in wind generator/turbine value chain is heavily focused on

end application. Especially production value is multifold compared to the other groups and stages in the value

chain. The European wind turbine/generator manufacturers have strong position in the European market when

considering the low import value. In addition, the some what low export value compared to production value

indicates that the wind turbines/generators are utilized within Europe.

For the other stages in the value chain the figures are significantly lower. Production values vary from ~200

million euros for REE production to ~500 million euro for AC motor production. Especially for magnets there is

rather significant import as well compared to its production which increase the positive value meaning the value

that is either imported or produced in Europe. The massive end application production value compared to the

other stages seems to indicate that significant value addition is generated in the turbine production.


to the production. If the production is larger than import the indicator gets positive bar in Figure 4.

Figure 4. Production indicator (prod / imp + prod) for wind generator magnet value chain in 2015,

2016 and 2017. [1]

For Wind turbine/generator value chain it can be noticed that in overall reliance on import decreases when

moving downwards on the value chain. Especially end application has strong production within Europe which

has stayed as such for the last three years. For components AC motors, the production has been rather strong

and sable for the last three years.

0,0

0,1

0,2

0,3

0,4

0,5

0,6

0,7

0,8

0,9

1,0

REE Magnet AC motor Wind generator

Wind generator magnet value chain production indicator

2015 2016 2017



For sub-components (magnets) and materials (REE) Europe has been dependent on import the last three years

and no significant changes in the indicator can be seen. In both stages (material and sub-component) the

production and import has more or less increased in the same relation which results in a relatively even bar in

the Figure 4.

ACTORS IN THE VALUE CHAIN - WIND TURBINE

Table 2. Some main actors in the wind turbine’s value chain [27,28].

Value chain Main actors (Europe) Main actors (USA & Asia)

Raw Material ArcelorMittal (LU), Exel Composites (FI)

Hangseng(Ningbo) Magnetech (CN), Risheng magnets (CN), Miles Fiberglass and Composites (US), Zoltek (US)

Design Acciona (ES), Adwen Offshore (DE), Lagerwey (NL), Mervento (FI), Nordex SE (DE), Siemens (DE), Sway (NO), Turbowinds (BE) , ALXION (FR)

Sinovel (CN), Nanjing Willgain Power Equipment Co. (CN), Qingdao Greef New Energy Equipment Co. (CN)

Component suppliers Acciona (ES), Adwen Offshore (DE), Alstom Wind (FR), Enercon GmbH (DE), Gamesa (ES), Leitwind (IT), LM Windpower (DK), MHI Vestas Offshore Wind (DK), Nordex SE (DE), PowerBlades

GmbH (DE), Riablades (PO), Senvion SE (DE), Siemens (DE), Vestas (DK)

Sinovel (CN), Ameron (US), Trinity Structural Towers (US), DMI Industries (US), Broadwind Towers (US), Timken (US), Nanjing Willgain Power Equipment Co. (CN), Qingdao Greef New Energy Equipment Co. (CN)

Wind turbine companies Acciona (ES), Adwen Offshore (DE), Alstom Wind (FR), Enercon GmbH (DE), Gamesa (ES), Leitwind (IT), LM Windpower (DK), MHI Vestas Offshore Wind (DK), Nordex SE (DE), Vestas (DK)

NextEra (US), Sinovel (CN), Goldwind (CN), United Power (CN), Envision (CN), Suzlon (IN)

Installation Gamesa (ES), Vestas (DK), Iberdrola renewables (ES), Capture Energy Ltd. (UK), Absolute Solar and Wind Ltd. (UK), Total Wind A/S (DK),

NextEra (US), Mortenson (US), NextEra Energy Resources (US), China Datang Corporation renewable Power Co (CN), Invenergy (US), Goldwind (CN), United Power (CN), Envision (CN), Suzlon (IN)



Wind farm developers Acciona (ES), Iberdrola renewables (ES), Vattenfall (SW), WPD (DE), RES (UK), Enel GreenPower (IT), EDF renewables (FR), EDP Renovaveis (ES), Enercon (DE)

NextEra (US), Mortenson (US), NextEra Energy Resources (US), China Datang Corporation renewable Power Co (CN), Invenergy (US)

7.2 SUBSTITUTION SOLUTIONS FOR CRM IN WIND TURBINES

In this section, different substitution solutions and strategies for the problem of CRM in permanent magnets

applied to wind turbines are discussed [3,21]. These solutions mainly affect the first stages of the wind turbine

value chain, that is, raw material (element-element substitution) and design (product substitution), see Fig. 2.

Additionally, other renewable energy sources, as alternatives to wind turbine, are analyzed (service substitution).

Table III summarizes the main substitution solutions mentioned here.

ELEMENT-ELEMENT SUBSTITUTION

The most used permanent magnet in generators is Nd-Fe-B magnet because it gives the best performance (the

largest output power). Fig. 5b presents the crystal structure of the Nd-Fe-B magnet (Nd2Fe14B). The addition of

Dy (Nd-Dy-Fe-B) enhances its performance at high temperatures. For example, a modern low-speed direct drive

generator for wind turbine have a Rare-Earth magnet content of around 650 kg/MW [29], with a cost of around

$100/kg, see Fig. 5c. The figure of merit of a permanent magnet is the maximum energy product (BH)max, which

is related to the maximum magnetostatic energy stored in the magnet. Another important property is the

coercivity HC since it is a key to resisting thermal demagnetization. The Nd-Dy-Fe-B magnets exhibit (BH)max

around 300 kJ/m3 at maximum operating temperatures close to 60 oC, which are required for generators in wind

turbines [21].

a. Reducing Rare-Earth (RE) content in RE-based permanent magnet (PM).

Recently, research in PM has focused on reducing the amount of RE elements in PM and especially on Dy in Nd-

Fe-B magnets. To this end, in the last decade the following strategies have been used: i) large shape anisotropy,

with non-spherical particles, to compensate for the loss in magnetocrystalline anisotropy when reducing RE

content, ii) substitution of Dy by a more abundant and cheaper RE as Pr and Ce, iii) reducing Dy content, by

diffusion of some Dy along the grain boundaries for its introduction only at places required for coercivity

enhancement. The tetragonal 1:12 structure (the ThMn12 type, space group I4/mmm) is the most rare-earth-lean

structure known to form in the (RE,Fe)-based compounds; it features only 7.7 at.% RE compared to 11.8% in the

R2Fe14B [12]. The 1:12 alloys with R = Ce, Sm exhibit uniaxial anisotropies with μ0Ha ≈ 10 T; for R = Nd, and

anisotropies of μ0Ha > 7 T can be induced through interstitial modification with nitrogen atoms. Unfortunately,

the RFe12 structures do not form in the equilibrium binary alloys (only observed in thin films with R = Sm and Nd);

they must be stabilized by a third element M. These kind of solutions are still under development (lab stage, TRL



4-6) and there are not clear indications when it will come to the market. On the other hand, Sm-Co magnets are

considered as an alternative to Nd-Dy-Fe-B because they have a good performance at high-temperatures and

slightly lower price, see Fig. 5c.

b. Advances in RE-free PM.

Alnico magnets are a family of heat-treated Fe-Co-Ni-Al alloys with possible additions of Cu, Ti, … which were

developed over 30-year period from 1932 [13]. They have some interesting properties as high remanence and

high Curie temperature (TC). Unfortunately, its coercivity is very low due to an inefficient microstructure, which

favors the magnetization reversal. As a result, it leads to a low maximum energy product ((BH)max=80 kJ/m3). At

the present time, the research in this PM is focused on improving the coercivity by reducing the scale of the

microstructure, which could improve anisotropy, and reducing the interaction strength between FeCo-rich

precipitates and enhancing the domain wall pinning. Alnico are already used in some applications where not very

high-performance PMs are required as instrument panels of cars or transformer (TRL 9).

Ferrites like MFe12O19, where M is Sr or Ba, are oxides which have high coercivity, high resistant to corrosion and

low cost [13]. However, the antiferromagetic coupling between Fe atoms leads to a very low remanence and low

maximum energy product ((BH)max=30 kJ/m3) [21]. Nowadays, some efforts are aimed at reducing the

magnetization of one sublattice without changing to much TC. Ferrites can be found in some low demanding

applications as adorn refrigerator door, small motors, loudspeakers, etc (TRL 9). Fig. 5a presents the crystal

structure of ferrite BaFe12O19. On the other hand, some non-oxide Fe-based magnets have high remanence and

TC but low coercivity. Since low symmetry crystal structures enhance magnetocrystalline anisotropy and thereby

improve coercivity, research has focused on Fe-based magnets with tetragonal crystal structures like tetrateanite

(FeNi) and iron nitride (α’’-Fe16N2). Another interesting non-oxide Fe-based magnet is Fe3Sn that exhibits high

saturation mangetization and high Tc [14]. The main problem with this phase is its strong in-plane

magnetocrystalline anisotropy, so the research in this magnet is focused on switching it to out-plane anisotropy

by doping (TRL 3).

Mn-based magnets are promising cheap alternatives to RE-PM [15]. The low temperature phase (LTP) MnBi and

τ-phase MnAl are characterized by having a high magnetocrystilline anisotropy, high TC (~650 K), experimental

moderate maximum energy product ((BH)max=35-60 kJ/m3) and low cost (<10 $/Kg). Unfortunately, these phases

are quite unstable, therefore at the present time most efforts are destined to improve the synthesis, processing

and phase stability of them (TRL 4). For example, the stability of the τ-phase MnAl can be increased adding C,

MnAlC, but the coercivity and TC decreases significantly.

Nanocomposites made of high magnetization soft ferromagnet with a high coercivity hard ferromagnet, called

“exchange spring magnet”, are now considered one of the most promising candidates for next-generation of PM

[3]. Recently, high energy product ((BH)max=130 kJ/m3) has been achieved in Zr2Co11/FeCo nanocomposites.

Moreover, some attention has been paid on L10-type MnAl(C)/∝-FeCo nanocomposite magnet, which could be

an interesting exchange spring magnet with high coercivity and TC. Main present unsolved problems in this

approach are the synthesis, processing and stability of the appropriate nanostructure.



Presently, a magnetic material needs to have quite demanding extrinsic properties in order to be considered as

a high-performance PM. Desirable values might be μ0MS >1T, μ0Hc >1T and (BH)max > 200 kJ/m3, with cost

<50$/Kg. Typically, the above mentioned RE-free magnets exhibit a maximum energy product (BH)max that is

much lower than the RE-based PM, so presently they cannot be used in applications as wind turbine generators,

where high-performance PM are required. The improvement of these RE-free solutions are still under

development (lab stage, TRL 3-5) and there are not clear indications whether they will finally fulfil industry

demand [3].

Figure 5. (a) Crystal structures of Ferrite BaFe12O19 and (b) Nd2Fe14B. (c) Room temperature (BH)max as a

function of approximate raw material costs for a selection of common commercial permanent

magnets. Figures taken from Refs. [30, 31].

c. Recycling RE-PM.

Both for economic and environmental reasons the recycling of RE-based magnets has gained increasing attention

and importance in the PM industry. In our modern society, the number of obsolete devices which contain RE-PM

is increasing very rapidly, which may provide a cheap source of RE-PM. For example, it was estimated [4,5] that

the hard disk drive (HDD) industry could source around 57-64% of its NdFeB requirement from recycled HDD

sources, which equates to approximately 3-11% of total NdFeB demand. Recently, it has been shown that

hydrogen can be used as a very effective processing agent to decrepitate sintered NdFeB magnets from HDDs

using a method called Hydrogen Processing of Magnetic Scrap (HPMS), this technique may also be applied to

other devices such as electric motors, generators and actuators [6]. At the present time, Hitachi recycles RE-PM

using a self-developed process that separates the RE magnets from HDD and air conditioner compressors [7] (TRL

9). Similarly, additional efforts are also being made to recycle Nd elements of NdFeB magnets from electric drive

motors of (hybrid) electric vehicles [8]. Most recycling efforts of magnets currently focus on production scrap

(so-called new scrap) [9].



PRODUCT SUBSTITUTION

Permanently excited synchronous generators imply the usage of permanent magnets (mostly made of Nd2Fe14B).

Electromagnets (Cooper-based) usage is an alternative to permanent magnets in wind power generators. Only

permanently excited synchronous generators require expensive rare earths like Nd (CRM), which are

monopolized by China's market. Wind turbines with PM-based generators account for 12 per cent of the global

installed onshore wind capacity in 2016, while those with electrically excited generators are used by 9 per cent

of the global onshore wind turbines (in terms of capacity) [22]. Fig. 6 shows the onshore drivetrain installed base

by configuration of wind turbines.

Figure 6. Onshore drivetrain installed base by configuration of wind turbines. Wind turbines with PM-

based generators (DD PMSG and geared PMSG) account for 12 per cent of the global installed

onshore wind capacity in 2016. Figure taken from Ref. [22].

Due to the cost-effectiveness and market independence of this alternative, production of wind power plants

driven by electromagnetic generators has grown in the last years, although it has some disadvantages such

the lower efficiency, more expensive maintenance and more robustness [1]. These alternatives are already

in the market (TRL 9). In Ref. [23], one can find a more detailed analysis of substitution strategies for reducing

the use of rare earths in wind turbines. Fig. 7 shows some possible component substitutions in wind turbines

and their current technological status [23].



Figure 7. Possibilities for component substitution in wind turbines. Figure taken from Ref. [23].

SERVICE SUBSTITUTION

Wind power is a renewable energy resource widely distributed that is been implemented exponentially

worldwide. For example, wind power energy production in peninsular Spain was the second primary energy

source behind nuclear power in 2017 [16] and supplies 11.6% of the EU’s electricity consumption. Wind power

in Denmark provides 39% of Danish domestic electricity in 2015 [17], generates the 21.30% of consumed energy

in Germany in 2017 [18] and it is the most important renewable energy source in Spain. The EU wind industry

has had an average annual growth of 15.6% over the last 17 years (1995-2011). As of December 2017, the

installed capacity of wind power in the European Union totaled 169.3 MW.

Other renewable sources are bioenergy, geothermal, concentrated solar power, hydraulic, wave power,

photovoltaic solar power and hydrogen energy. The substitutive energy sources that do not imply the use of

turbines in electric production are photovoltaic solar power and hydrogen fuel.

Hydrogen fuel has not got commercial application yet. Some current TRL values of Hydrogen fuel for mobility

applications are: aviation (TRL 5-6), buses (TRL 7-8), cars (TRL 8) and aerospace (TRL 9) [20]. Solar power amounts

to about 3.2% of the European Union’s electricity production [19]. This share is logically higher in the countries

most involved in photovoltaic technology, namely Germany (5.9%), Italy (7.9%) and Greece (7.4%) [19].

Photovoltaic panel does not need RE to work.



Electricity production of photovoltaic technology in Spain only reaches 16.81% of the wind power production in

the year 2017 [16]. Photovoltaic energy production also implies more landfield to produce the same amount of

energy than wind power. Fig. 8 shows the average Levelized Cost of Electricity (LCOE) of renewable and non-

renewable energy prices [24,25] across the 22 U.S. supply regions of the National Energy Modeling System

electricity market module. We observe that the LCOE value of onshore wind turbine is slightly lower than the

solar photovoltaic. In Fig. 9 we present the time evolution of global cumulative installations of wind and solar

energies [26]. At present, the global installation of wind energy is larger than solar energy (photovoltaic), but it

is expected that the global installation of solar energy will overcome the wind energy by 2020.

Figure 8. Levelized Cost of Electricity of renewable and non-renewable energy prices. Figure taken from

Ref. [24].

Figure 9. Global Cumulative Installations of wind and solar energies. Figure taken from Ref. [26].



Table 3. Summary of substitution solutions for CRM in permanent magnets applied to wind turbine.

Value chain point

Potential substitute Advantages Drawbacks Lab stage vs market

(including TRL)

Element Reducing RE content in RE-based permanent magnet

Replace Dy by Pr or Ce

More abundant and cheaper elements than Dy

Lower performance at high temperatures than using Dy

6

Large shape anisotropy

low cost Synthesis, processing and upscaling

4

Improve microstructure design

Cheap, good performance

Grain boundary stability and complex phenomenology

5

NdFe12

Low content of Nd Bulk is very unstable

4

RE-free PM Alnico

High remanence and high Tc

Low coercivity, low demanding applications

9

Ferrites

High coercivity, high resistant to corrosion, low cost, coercivity increases with temperature

Very low remanence, low demanding applications

9

Non-oxide Fe-based magnets

FeNi Cheap, good performance

Bulk very unstable, problems with synthesis and upscaling

4

Fe3Sn High saturation magnetization and Tc

Strong in-plane magnetocrystalline anisotropy

3



Mn-based magnets

High magnetocrystalline anisotropy, high Tc, low cost

Modest saturation magnetization, synthesis, thermal stability

4

Exchange spring magnet

high energy product

Synthesis, processing and stability of the appropriate nanostructure

4

Recycling RE-PM

Recovery Nd from scraps

cheap source of RE, large number of obsolete devices which contain RE-PM

Only few companies do it. There is not too much social conscience to recycle RE-PM.

9

Product Doubly-fed asynchronous wind turbine

Cheaper, no CRM Lower efficiency, more expensive maintenance

9

Ecited synchronous generators Cheaper, no CRM Lower efficiency, more expensive maintenance

9

Service Photovoltaics No RE Lower efficiency, landfield uses

9

Hydrogen fuel Diverse sources, abundant

Low TRL Mobility applications: [20]

Aviation 5-6

Buses 7-8

Cars 8

Aerospace 9



7.3 REFERENCES

[1] Anja Brumme, Wind Energy Deployment and the Relevance of Rare Earths, Springer 2014.

[2] Katarzyna Bilewska et al., MSP-REFRAM D5.1 Refractory metal reduction potential – potential substitutes

(2016).

[3] R.W. McCallum, L.H. Lewis, R. Skomski, M.J. Kramer and I.E. Anderson, Practical Aspects of Modern and

Future Permanent Magnets, Annu. Rev. Mater. Res. 2014. 44:451–77.

[4] J.H. Rademaker, R. Kleijn, Y. Yang, J. Environ. Sci. Technol. 47, 10129 (2013).

[5] B. Sprecher, R. Kleijn, G.J. Kramer, J. Environ. Sci. Technol. 48, 9506 (2014).

[6] A. Walton, Han Yi, N.A. Rowson, J.D. Speight, V.S.J. Mann, R.S. Sheridan, A. Bradshaw, I.R. Harris, A.J.

Williams, Journal of Cleaner Production, 104, 236 (2015).

[7] Kenji Baba, Yuzo Hiroshige, Takeshi Nemoto, Hitachi Review, 62, 8 (2013).

[8] Tobias Elwert, Daniel Goldmann, Felix Roemer, Sabrina Schwarz, Recycling of NdFeB Magnets from Electric

Drive Motors of (Hybrid) Electric Vehicles, J. Sustain. Metall. (2017) 3:108–121.

[9] Sebastiaan Peelman, Zhi H.I. Sun, Jilt Sietsma, Yongxiang Yang, Chapter 21 - Leaching of Rare Earth

Elements: Review of Past and Present Technologies, Editor(s): Ismar Borges De Lima, Walter Leal Filho, Rare

Earths Industry, Elsevier, 2016, Pages 319-334.

[10] http://www.eai.in/ref/eve/wind_power_value_chain.pdf

[11] www.nextenergy.org

[12] Y. Hirayama, Y.K. Takahashi, S. Hirosawa and K. Hono, NdFe12Nx hard-magnetic compound with high

magnetization and anisotropy field, Scripta Materialia 95 (2015) 70–72.

[13] R. Skomski and J. M. D. Coey. Permanent magnetism. Institute of Physics Publishing, 1999.

[14] Brian C. Sales, Bayrammurad Saparov, Michael A. McGuire, David J. Singh & David S. Parker,

Ferromagnetism of Fe3Sn and Alloys, Scientific Reports (2014) 4, 7024.

[15] J. M. D. Coey, New permanent magnets; manganese compounds, J. Phys.: Condens. Matter 26 (2014)

064211.

[16] Red Eléctrica de España, El sistema eléctrico español 2017, 2018.



[17] R. Jesper Nørskov, Vindmøller slog rekord i 2014. Energinet.dk, 6 January 2015. Accessed: 6 January 2015.

Archived on 6 January 2015

[18] Electricity generation in Germany | Energy Charts". www.energy-charts.de. Fraunhofer ISE. Retrieved 18

January 2018.

[19] Eurobserver, Photovoltaic barometer (2017)

[20] https://www.shell.de/medien/shell-publikationen/shell-hydrogen

study/_jcr_content/par/toptasks_e705.stream/1497968967778/4622a1e39bbe8d32e386f57f4c4b3c950a0219

55988b2783541ecb4a01e4a660/shell-hydrogen-study.pdf

[21] Oliver Gutfleisch, Matthew A. Willard, Ekkes Brück , Christina H. Chen , S. G. Sankar, and J. Ping Liu,

Magnetic Materials and Devices for the 21st Century: Stronger, Lighter, and More Energy Efficient, Adv. Mater.

2011, 23, 821–842.

[22] https://renewablewatch.in/2017/07/29/turbine-configuration/

[23] Claudiu C. Pavel, Roberto Lacal-Arántegui, Alain Marmier, Doris Schüler, Evangelos Tzimas, Matthias

Buchert, Wolfgang Jenseit, Darina Blagoeva, Substitution strategies for reducing the use of rare earths in wind

turbines, Resources Policy 52 (2017) 349–357.

[24] https://www.theatlas.com/charts/r17v3jba

[25] https://www.eia.gov/outlooks/aeo/pdf/electricity_generation.pdf

[26] http://www.fi-powerweb.com/Renewable-Energy.html

[27] Magagna, D., Shortall, R., Telsnig, T., Uihlein, A. and Vazquez Hernandez, C., Supply chain of renewable

energy technologies in Europe - An analysis for wind, geothermal and ocean energy, EUR 28831 EN,

Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, 2017, ISBN 978-92-79-74281-1, doi:10.2760/271949,

JRC108106.

[28] https://www.thewindpower.net/developers_en.php

[29] Lacal-Arántegui R. Materials use in electricity generators in wind turbines – state-of-the-art and future

specifications. J Clean Prod 2015;87:275–83.

[30] Simon Bance, Florian Bittner, Thomas G. Woodcock, Ludwig Schultz,Thomas Schrefl, Role of twin and anti-

phase defects in MnAl permanent magnets, Acta Materialia 131 (2017) 48-56.

[31] P. Nieves, S. Arapan, G. C. Hadjipanayis, D. Niarchos, J.M. Barandiaran, S. Cuesta-López, Phys. Status Solidi

C 13, No. 10–12, 942–950 (2016).



[32] Eurostat, “Statistics on the production of manufactured goods (PRODCOM NACE Rev. 2),” 2018.

[Online]. Available: https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/prodcom/data/database. [Accessed: 08-Jan-2019].

8 PERMANENT MAGNETS. TRANSPORT SECTOR – APPLICATION: ELECTRIC

VEHICLES

Nowadays, some problems related to the massive worldwide use of internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs),

like fossil fuels resources, global greenhouse gas emission, high air pollution and disturbing noise levels in big

cities, are forcing the development of greener transportation systems based on efficient electric vehicles (EVs).

EVs make use of electric motors that contain high-performance permanent magnets (PMs) with Critical Raw

Materials (CRMs), as Nd or Dy, in order to generate a high torque. PM-based motors have many advantages

compared to ICEs including high efficiency, compact size, light weight, and high torque [2]. EVs can be classified

according to the type(s) and combination (if any) of energy converters used. As it is shown in Fig. 1, this

classification leads to two types of EVs: (i) Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV), which doesn’t contain any kind of ICE,

and (ii) Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV), which combines an electric motor and ICE. HEVs are further divided into

four types depending on the architecture: series hybrid, parallel hybrid, series-parallel hybrid and complex hybrid

[1]. More details of these types of EVs and other possible classifications are described in Ref. [1]. Fig. 2 shows the

key components of the BEV and PM-based motor, while Table I gives the nominal range and price of some of the

best EVs in 2018 [6,7].

Figure 1. Classification of electric vehicles according to the type(s) and combination (if any) of energy

converters used [1].



Figure 2. (Left) Key Components of an All-Electric Car, and (right) a Permanent Magnetic Electric Motor

[4,5].

Table 1. Some of the best EVs in 2018 [6,7].

Model Range (Km) Price (Euro)

Tesla Model 3 500 43.000

Chevrolet Bolt EV 383 26.200

2018 Nissan Leaf 240 26.200

BMW i3 180 39.000

Jaguar I-Pace 386 60.700

The EV value chain starts with the supply of raw materials like steel, aluminum, polymers, permanent magnets,

rubber, copper, lithium, etc, that are used to make components as transmission, brakes, seats, batteries, electric

motor, etc. Next, these components are assembled by automotive companies to make the final product, which

is distributed and sold by transportation and marketing services, respectively. Finally, services like maintenance,

charging, insurance or parking play an important role in the usage of EVs by customers (citizens, transportation

companies, public transport, etc.) [3]. In particular, the current low number of charging stations in many

countries is limiting the growth of the EV market. It is estimated that around one public charging station per 100

EVs would be sufficient to fulfill the user’s demand [8]. Possible scenarios of the EV market influenced by

governmental measures and other factors are analyzed in Ref. [3]. Fig. 3 shows a diagram of the EV value chain,

while Table II provides some of its main actors (other companies involved in the EV value chain can be found in

Ref. [9]).



Figure 3. Structure of the electric vehicle supply chain.

8.1 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF ELECTRIC VEHICLE VALUE CHAIN

STATISTICAL DATA

The economic analysis based on statistics (Eurostat, PRODCOM-data base) of the electric vehicle value chain is


below (Table 2). Based on these divisions, the schematic economic value chain description has been produced

and presented separately in the next section. There are some similar elements and product groups used in both

chains for different applications of permanent magnets (wind generation/turbine and electric vehicle) which

means that the graphs are partly similar since the value of a product/application specific component or material

cannot be differentiated. However, this is not seen as a restriction since the relevance of a value chain phase for

European manufacturing (industry) is the key outcome of the analysis. For the analysis, the structural

composition of both applications has been produced in the table. Based on these divisions, the schematic

economic value chain description has been produced and presented separately in the next two sections.

Table 2. Structural composition of Electric/hybrid vehicle with PRODCOM codes and names.


Electric/hybrid vehicle

29102410 Motor vehicles, with both spark-ignition or compression-ignition internal combustion reciprocating piston engine and electric motor as motors for propulsion, other than those capable of being charged by plugging to external source of electric power 29102430 Motor vehicles, with both spark-ignition or compression-ignition internal combustion reciprocating piston engine and electric motor as motors for propulsion, capable of being charged by plugging to external source of electric power



29102450 Motor vehicles, with only electric motor for propulsion

Electric motors

27111050 DC motors and DC generators of an output > 750 W but <= 75 kW (excluding starter motors for internal combustion engines) 27111070 DC motors and generators of an output > 75 kW but <= 375 kW (excluding starter motors for internal combustion engines)

Magnet

25992995 Permanent magnets and articles intended to become permanent magnets, of metal 23441230 Permanent magnets and articles intended to become permanent magnets (excluding of metal)

Nd, Dy 20132300 Alkali or alkaline-earth metals; rare-earth metals, scandium and yttrium; mercury 20136500 Compounds of rare-earth metals, of yttrium or of scandium or mixtures of these metals

The electric vehicle value chain composed of 4 groups which can be divided roughly to four stages which are


PRODCOM codes and names can be seen inTable2. In Figure 4 the relationship between production, import and



Europe.



Figure 4. Relationship between production, import and export values for electric and hybrid vehicle,

components and materials in Europe 2017. Note that the values present the whole industry

volume not specific to electric vehicle.[15]

The value which is produced, imported and exported in electric vehicle value chain is heavily focused on end

application similar to wind turban value chain. Values are multifold compared to the other groups and stages in

the value chain. However, when looking the distribution of production, import and export in electric vehicle stage

it can be noticed that rather significant share of positive value comes from import. Global and competitive

industry with aware consumer might to some extent explain the rather significant import value. In addition, the

electric vehicle manufacturing is first now starting to gain its momentum [14] in Europe which may reflect in the

rather notable import. High export of electric vehicle may origin partly from re-export and second-hand vehicle

export.

For the other stages in the value chain the figures are significantly lower in the similar way as in the wind turbine

value chain which is logical since the PRODCOM groups for REE and magnets are same. As for the DC

motor/generator the value amounts are rather same as for the AC generators in wind turbine value chain and it

seems to be that a great link between the DC generator and electric vehicle can not be made. The slower start

in electric vehicle manufacturing might also reflect in the component manufacturing values.


to the production. If the production is larger than import the indicator gets positive bar in Figure 5.

-10 000

-5 000

0

5 000

10 000

15 000

REE Magnet DC motor/generator Electric/hybrid vehicleVal

ue

[mill

ion

€]

Economic status of magnet value chain (electric vehicle) 2017




Figure 5. Production indicator (prod / imp + prod) for electric and hybrid vehicle magnet value chain in

2015, 2016 and 2017.[15]

The electric vehicle value chain is somewhat novel which results that for example statistical data on electric

vehicle manufacturing, import and export do not exist prior 2017. Therefore, profound deduction and

speculations based on statistical data cannot be made. It seems to be that the markets first now in terms of

statistics start to take shape. For DC motors/generators there seem to be a slight decreasing trend which is

caused by both an increase in the import and decrease in the production at the same time during the last three

years. However, linkages between DC motor/generator and electric vehicle indicator cannot be made.

For sub-components (magnets) and materials (REE) the figures has been discussed already in the wind turbine

value chain and therefore are not dealt here.

0,0

0,1

0,2

0,3

0,4

0,5

0,6

0,7

0,8

0,9

1,0

REE Magnet DC motor/generator Electric/hybrid vehicle

Electric vehicle magnet value chain production indicator

2015 2016 2017



ACTORS IN THE VALUE CHAIN - ELECTRIC VEHICLE

Table 3. Some main actors in the EV’s value chain.

Value chain Main actors (Europe) Main actors (USA & Asia)

Raw Material

STEP-G (DE), thyssenkrupp Materials (UK), Albis (DE), Intertek (UK), Goudsmit (NL)

Hangseng(Ningbo) Magnetech (CN), Risheng magnets (CN), Novelis (US), Aleris (US), Magnequench (CN)

Components Magtec (UK), Axeon (UK), Elaphe (SL), Magnax (BE), Bosch (DE)

Tesla (US), General Motors (US), A123 Systems (US), Panasonic (JP), BYD (CN), LG Chem (SK), Samsung (SK), AESC (JP), Ener1 (US)

Assembly BMW (DE), Citroën (FR), Fiat (IT), Mercedes-Benz (DE), Peugeot (FR), Renault (FR), Volkswagen (DE)

Tesla (US), Chevrolet (US), Honda (JP), Hyundai (SK), Mitsubishi (JP), Nissan (JP)

Service Schneider Electric (FR), Ecotricity (UK), Endesa (ES), Iberdrola (ES), KEBA (AT)

ChargePoint (US), EVgo (US), Volta (US), Evconnect (US)

8.2 SUBSTITUTION SOLUTIONS FOR CRM IN ELECTRIC VEHICLES

In this section, different substitution solutions and strategies for the problem of CRM in permanent magnets

applied to EVs are discussed. These solutions mainly affect the first stages of the value chain, that is, raw material

(element-element substitution) and components-assembly (product substitution), see Fig. 3. Additionally,

possible alternatives to EVs are analyzed (service substitution). Table IV summarizes the main substitution

solutions mentioned here.

ELEMENT-ELEMENT SUBSTITUTION

The most used permanent magnet in electric motors is Nd-Dy-Fe-B magnet because it gives the best performance

(the highest torque). For example, the Toyota Prius uses around 1.3 Kg of Nd-Dy-Fe-B magnets [2]. In the case of

electric motors, it is required slightly larger energy products (300 kJ/m3), coercivity (30 kOe) and maximum

operating temperature (180oC) than for generators in wind turbine applications [2]. Main research lines and their

development stage to solve the problem of CRM in permanent magnets applied to EVs are very similar as in the

case of generators for wind turbines, which were previously analyzed in the section of substitution solutions for

wind turbines.



PRODUCT SUBSTITUTION

One possible strategy for minimizing the problem of CRM in PM applied to EVs is the improvement and

optimization of the design of PM-based electric motors in order to reduce the amount of PMs needed for

providing a good performance (torque). For example, it was found that the drive torque of the Toyota Hybrid

System can be increased by around 15% (from 350 to 400 N*m) just by arranging the PMs in a V-shape rather

than a flat-shape [2]. Recently, Magnax company designed a new generation of electric motors called Axial Flux

PM motor (TRL 9) with a high power density resulting in much lower overall weight and size, while the efficiency

is the highest in the market [11]. The required drive torque of PM-based motor in EVs can be partially reduced

combining it with ICE as in HEV, or by totally replacing it by ICE as in ICEVs. However, PM-based motors have

many advantages compared to ICEs including high efficiency, compact size, light weight, and high torque [2].

Moreover, the substitution of ICEVs by EVs can solve some of their problems like fossil fuels resources, global

greenhouse gas emission, high air pollution and disturbing noise levels in big cities.

SERVICE SUBSTITUTION

In the near future, it is expected an enormous worldwide growth in new sales of EVs [10], with approximately 60

million cars sold per year by 2040, see Fig. 6a. In 2018, almost a third of new cars sold in Norway were pure

electric, a new world record as the country strives to end sales of fossil-fueled vehicles by 2025, see Fig. 6b

[12,13]. The transportation service given by private electric cars can be substituted by using public transport (bus,

train, metro, etc.), bikes or other low cost EVs as electric bikes or electric scooter that make use of small PM-

based motor with low content of PMs. These strategies might have some advantages, especially in big cities, like

reducing the number of required charging stations, saving money and electricity consumption, or avoiding

possible traffic jams.

Figure 6. (a) Forecast for EVs shows explosive growth in new sales [10]. (b) Evolution of passenger car

fleet market share in Norway by type of fuel or powertrain between 2011 and 2018 [13].



Table 4. Summary of substitution solutions for CRM in permanent magnets applied to EVs.

Value chain point

Potential substitute Advantages Drawbacks Lab stage vs market

(including TRL)

Product Optimizing the design of PM-based motor

Reduction of the amount of required PM, lower weight and size, high efficiency

It still needs expensive PMs

9

Hybrid Electric Vehicles high efficiency, compact size, light weight, and high torque

It still needs expensive PMs

9

Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles

It doesn’t used PM-based motors,

long range, many gas stations available

Low fossil fuels resources, global greenhouse gas emission, high air pollution and disturbing noise levels

9

Service Public transport Cheap Not very flexible schedule

9

Low cost electric vehicles (electric bikes, electric scooter, …)

No traffic jam, PM-motor with low content of PMs

Only 1 passenger, only suitable for short trips

9



8.3 REFERENCES

[1] Samuel E. de Lucena (2011). A Survey on Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicle Technology, Electric Vehicles“,

The Benefits and Barriers, Dr. Seref Soylu (Ed.), ISBN: 978-953-307-287-6, InTech, Available from:

http://www.intechopen.com/books/electric-vehicles-the-benefits-and-barriers/a-survey-on-electric-and-

hybridelectric-vehicle-technology

[2] Oliver Gutfleisch, Matthew A. Willard, Ekkes Brück, Christina H. Chen, S. G. Sankar, and J. Ping Liu, Magnetic

Materials and Devices for the 21st Century: Stronger, Lighter, and More Energy Efficient, Adv. Mater. 2011, 23,

821–842.

[3] H.-O. Günther, M. Kannegiesser, N. Autenrieb, The role of electric vehicles for supply chain sustainability in

the automotive industry, Journal of Cleaner Production 90 (2015) 220-233.

[4] https://afdc.energy.gov/vehicles/how-do-all-electric-cars-work

[5]https://media.gm.com/media/us/en/gm/news.detail.html/content/Pages/news/us/en/2011/Oct/1026_spar

k_elec_mtr.html

[6] https://www.digitaltrends.com/cars/best-electric-cars/

[7] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_electric_cars_currently_available

[8] http://www.ourenergypolicy.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/PEV-Literature-Review.pdf

[9] https://evtrader.com/listings/

[10] http://www.climatecentral.org/news/world-electric-car-revolution-21597

[11] https://www.magnax.com/product

[12]https://www.reuters.com/article/us-norway-autos/norways-electric-cars-zip-to-new-record-almost-a-

third-of-all-sales-idUSKCN1OW0YP

[13] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plug-in_electric_vehicles_in_Norway

[14] Tsakalidis, A,. & Thiel, C. (2018) Electric vehicles in Europe from 2010 to 2017: is full-scale

commercialization beginning? An overview of the evolution of electric vehicles in Europe. Luxembourg.

[15] Eurostat, “Statistics on the production of manufactured goods (PRODCOM NACE Rev. 2),” 2018.

[Online]. Available: https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/prodcom/data/database. [Accessed: 08-Jan-2019].

Documents

Report on the economic assessment of substitution trajectories