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Report on the Overseas Study Tour Organized by the National Disaster

Risk Management Commission and UNDP CO in collaboration with the

Kenya Meteorological Society and the University of Nairobi

Prepared by Almaz Demessie and Dr. Gilbert Ouma (with the help of all Study Tour crew)

Funded by UNDP/GEF LDCF project in titled with “Strengthening Climate

Information and Early Warning System in Africa for Climate Resilient Development and

Adaptation to Climate Change – Ethiopia”

held from 4 – 16 DECEMBER 2016, Nairobi, Kenya

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Table of content page

I. Background and Context ....................................................................................... 3

II. Rationale

III. Objective

IV. Detail description about the Study Tour under consideration

V. Organizations of interest that were visited by the NDRMC team ........................ 5

VI. Major Activities

Session 1 .................................................................................................................... 5

1.1 Opening of study tour

1.2 Perspectives and outcome mapping for the Study Tour

1.3 Topics covered under Concepts of Risk

1.4 Differences between Hazards and Disasters

Session 2 ................................................................................................................... 8

2.1 Visit to RCMRD

2.2 Visit to the Kenya Meteorological Department (KMD)

Session 3 .................................................................................................................... 11

3.1 Visit to IGAD Climate Prediction and Applications Centre (ICPAC)

3.2 Visit to FEWSNET, Kenya

Session 4 .................................................................................................................... 15

4.1 Visit to the National Drought Management Authority (NDMA)

4.2 Visit to National Disaster Operation Centre

Session 5 .................................................................................................................... 18

5.1 Visit to CARE Kenya

5.2 Mission and Vision

Session 6 .................................................................................................................... 18

6.1 Visit to OSIENALA (Friends of Lake Victoria)

6.2 Purpose of the Institution

6.3 Ethiopian Experience

Session 7 .................................................................................................................... 22

7.1 Visit to the Dominion Millennium Goals and climate change adaptation

farm at Yala Swamp and Mama Sarah Obama Foundation

7.1.1 Visit to Dominion Farm in Yala Swamp

7.1.2 Visit to Mama Sarah Obama Foundation

Session 8 .................................................................................................................... 26

8.1 Visit to Nganyi Community-Based Early Warning System and

Maseno Equator

8.1.1 Maseno Equator Crossing

8.1.2 Nganyi Community Based Early Warning System

8.1.3 Modern meteorological systems at the resource centre

8.1.4 Indigenous Knowledge (IK) Systems at the Resource Centre

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8.2 Integration of IK and Modern Meteorological Systems at the

Resource Centre

8.2.1 Dissemination and feedback with local communities

Session 9 ................................................................................................................. 29

9.1 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

9.1.1 The monitoring institutions (KMD, RCMRD and ICPAC)

9.1.2 Government disaster risk management organizations (NDMA and NDOC) ..

9.1.3 International non-governmental disaster risk management (FEWSNET

and CARE)

9.1.4 Community-based risk management (OSIENALO, Dominion farm

and Nganyi)

9.2 Evaluation

VII. At NDRMC (Ethiopia) ..................................................................................... 32

1. Discussion with the Director of Early Warming and Emergency Director

Appendix 1 - 3 ........................................................................................................ 34 - 42

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I. Background and Context

Ethiopia is highly vulnerable to disasters which are caused by many hazards such as drought, flood,

conflict, human and livestock diseases, pests, wildfire and landslide. Despite the fact that climate change

is also increased risk of potential climate related hazards and increased frequency, area coverage and

number of people affected by the disasters. Ethiopia has got a 30 years experience of working on

monitoring and warning of natural disaster. However, the available evidence seems to suggest that this

early warning experience should be supported and further strengthened by skills, knowledge that goes

with the dynamics in the prevailing climate change calamities so that effective early warning system

could be established , which entirely dependent on how information could be collected, processed and

disseminated to the end users.

II. Rationale

Adaptation to climate change would be very difficult without timely and reliable information. Thus

senior experts and decision makers need information for policy formulation and immediate action.

Likewise, on these grounds, we can agree that these parties play on the weather/climate information for

an effective Early warning system. Information is also important to climate change adaptation because

farmers will need to be sufficiently informed in order to participate in the government decision-making

process to ensure that it does not affect their lives and livelihood. In addition, national governments are

in charged with the provision of public goods such as ensuring the economic and social well – being,

safety and security of their citizens from disaster.

III. Objective

To improve Skills and knowledge of the senior experts and decision makers on Early Warning

information management, improve the capacity of responding weather/climate related disasters on the

basis of the early warning information and make them exposed with the international experience of

effective Disaster Risk Management system at large.

IV. Detail description about the Study Tour under consideration

As the Overseas Study Tour is one of the mechanisms(Action 2.4.5) to strengthening EWS through

knowledge transfer and experiences sharing, which is designed by the UNDP/GEF LDCF project in

titled “Strengthening climate information and early warning systems in Africa for climate resilient

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development and adaptation to climate change, Ethiopia” the senior early warning experts and decision

makers of the National Disaster Risk Management Commission (NDRMC) together with the

representatives from Regional bureau of DRM(Afar, Somali, Tigray, Amara, Oromiya and SNNPR)

have performed the study tour in Kenya from December 4 - 16, 2016 based on the study tour visit

areas check least designed by NDRMC as follows:-

1. Kenya Met Office on the subject of communicating their user particularly Kenya Disaster

Management Offices at the time of disaster and at regular basis as well

2. Kenya Disaster Risk Management Office

how they are using weather/climate information for risk mapping

how the DRM office working with sector offices such as Ministry of Health,

Ministry of Agriculture, Ministry of Water Resource, Ministry of Education,

Ministry of Environment, Ministry of Defense and Research Institute including

UN agencies, NGOs and CBOs.

How they are communicating with rural communities at time of disaster and at

regular basis as well

Their Early Warning System (EW products, Methods and Tools for EW

activities)

Methods and tools for their response mechanism.

3. Kenyan Ministry of Agriculture and their experiences at the time of disaster.

4. Office for fire protection about their practices at the time fire hazed.

5. RCMD about risk mapping for different hazards.

6. ICPAC about seasonal forecast and DRM activities at Regional level.

7. Two sample rural communities about their DRM experience (field visit).

The study tour was hosted by the Kenya Meteorological Society (KMS) in collaboration

with the Institute of Meteorological Training and Research (IMTR) and the Institute for

Climate Change and Adaptation, University of Nairobi. The event took place between

4th

and 16th

December 2016. The experts coordinating the event were drawn from the

Institute for Climate Change and Adaptation (ICCA), the Department of Meteorology,

University of Nairobi, Kenya Meteorological Society (KMS), Institute of

Meteorological Training and Research (IMTR), and Jaramogi Oginga Odinga

University, Bondo, among other institutions.

As per the above mentioned check list the overseas study tour involved visiting institutions that

generate climate information as well as those that utilize these information so as to understand

the importance of weather/climate information for effective disaster risk management. In

addition there were some country representations on disaster risk management and the best

practices towards effective DRM. The participants were to be acquainted with the existing

knowledge, skill of information management and to get the knowledge and capacity of decision

making on responding to climate related hazards. In addition, the participants were exposed to

multi-agency network system to support the development of standard operation system and

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ways of joint response to climate related emergency. Lastly, the participants visited local

communities to be exposed to some lessons and experiences on community based early warning

systems in Kenya.

V. Organizations of interest that were visited by the NDRMC team

These included among others:-

Regional Centre for Mapping of Resources for Development (RCMRD)

Kenya Meteorological Department (KMD)

IGAD Climate Prediction and Applications Centre (ICPAC)

Famine Early Warning Network-Kenya (FEWSNET-Kenya)

National Drought Management Authority (NDMA)

National Disaster Operations Centre (NDOC)

CARE-Kenya (International)

OSIENALA (Friends of Lake Victoria -Kisumu)

Dominion Millennium Goals Development demonstration Farm (Yala)

Community resilience development efforts around Mama Sara Obama foundation

Nganyi community-based early warning system with integrated Indigenous Knowledge

and modern Disaster Management systems

Maseno Equator, to demonstrate the changing nature of fluid motions (air and water) on

crossing the equator latitude

VI. Major Activities

Session 1

The first session was held on Monday 5th

December 2016. It included registration of

participants, formal opening of the event, outcome mapping on perspectives of the study tour,

presentation of the principles of disaster risk management, and discussion and agreement on

study tour programme.

1.1 Opening of study tour

A forum to formally open the study tour was held at Mash Park Hotel on Monday 5th

December. The forum was opened by Ms Stella Aura, the principle of IMTR and Chair of

KMS, the host to the study tour. Brief statements were also made by

Dr. Ouma , the Coordinator of the study Visit –

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Ms Almaz W.D , the Study Tour Team Leader

Participants during the Opening Ceremony

Group photo taken after Opening Ceremony

1.2 Perspectives and outcome mapping for the Study Tour

The first session was devoted to the planning of the programme of the study tour. The items

addressed in the session included:

Perspectives of the Study Tour

Presentation of the Objectives of the study tour

Discussion and Adoption of the two weeks programme

Outcome Mapping that included addressing:

Why are we here?

What are we aspiring to achieve by the end of the study visit?;

Mapping the objectives and means of achievement, addressing participants

expectations

Review of the logistical matters, etc.

1.3 Topics covered under Concepts of Risk

In order to ensure that all participants were equipped with basic fundamentals of disaster risk

management principles, some lectures were provided to the participants that addressed among

others:

Key Terminologies, Concept of risk (Hazard , Vulnerability, Capacity, and Exposure )

Concepts risk management / reduction; Introduction to Climate Risks: Managing Risks

Concepts of Resilience

Hazard identification and Mapping

Linking Weather/Climate Change and Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR)

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Climate and Sustainable Development; Use of Satellite and Remote Sensing

information in EW

Preparedness: Activities and measures taken in advance to ensure effective response to

the impact of disasters, including the issuance of timely and effective early warnings

and the temporary removal of people and property from a threatened location.

Early warning: Timely, usable and effective information that can allow individuals at

risk of a disaster, to take action to avoid or reduce their risk and prepare for effective

response

Discussions (Participants led the discussions for Ethiopia, specific areas and sectors)

Highlights on the differences between hazards and disasters were also addressed with specific

reference to capacity, vulnerability, exposure, climate variability and change, as well as

resilience. Some briefs of these are given in the next section.

1.4 Differences between Hazards and Disasters

Hazard is a threat that may cause injury, property damage, and disruption of normal activity or

even death. The UN defines a disaster as a serious disruption of the functioning of a community

or a society involving widespread human, material, economic or environmental impacts that

exceeds the ability to cope using its usual systems. Hazards turn to disasters only if there is no

capacity to control the impacts of hazards. Do we then have any natural disasters? In principle

NO if you can effectively handle all hazards impacts. BUT some natural hazards are gigantic

and difficult to control even by wealthy nations. In many developing nations all hazards turn to

disasters.

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CLASSIFICATION OF DISASTERS (participants to undertake exercise)

DISASTER TYPE EXAMPLES

NATURAL Cannot be controlled by human

Seismic / Geological Earthquakes, Tsunamis; Volcanic activity and emissions;

landslides, rockslides, etc

Hydrometeorological

Hazards

Floods, tropical cyclones, storm surges, hailstorms, wind

storms, thunder, lightning ,Droughts, desertification,

wildfires, heat waves, sand / dust storms, etc

Biological Hazards Outbreaks of epidemic diseases

HUMAN INDUCCED

(ANTHROPOGENIC)

- Are human based thus can

be stopped

Technological or industrial accidents, urban, Infrastructure

failures, Industrial pollution, Nuclear accidents and

Radioactivity, Toxic wastes , Dam failures, Transport

accidents

MIXED / HYBRID TYPES

Including environmental

Land degradation, Deforestation Desertification, Climate

Change, Ozone depletion

Session 2

Session 2 included all activities that were undertaken during the second day, Tuesday 6th

December 2016

2.1 Visit to RCMRD

New generations in science, technology and innovations for addressing all components of

disaster risk management challenges are now focused mainly on remote sensing technology.

The major institution in the region for development and application of remote sensing technology is

the Regional Centre for Mapping of Resources for Development (RCMRD). The Centre was

established in Nairobi Kenya in 1975 under the auspices of the United Nations Economic

Commission for Africa (UNECA) and the then Organization of African Unity (OAU). The

founder members are Kenya, Uganda, Somalia, Tanzania and Malawi and the Government of

the Republic of Kenya. RCMRD currently has 20 Contracting Member States in the Eastern

and Southern Africa Regions; Botswana, Burundi, Comoros, Ethiopia, Kenya, Lesotho,

Malawi, Mauritius, Namibia, Rwanda, Seychelles, Somali, South Africa, South Sudan, Sudan,

Swaziland, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe.

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The objectives of the Centre are to:

Provide services in the fields of surveying and mapping including aerial photography,

photogrammetry, photo-interpretation, first order geodesy, remote sensing, calibration

and maintenance of surveying and mapping equipment;

Provide training for nationals of contracting parties in surveying, mapping and remote

sensing, and; To provide advisory services upon request on problems relating to

surveying and mapping to the governments of member States.

Since its establishment, the Center has been very instrumental in capacity building in resource

survey, mapping, remote sensing, GIS and natural resources assessment and management in

Africa. The Centre has been instrumental in helping different countries establish their National

Mapping Agencies. The Centre trains more technical officers from its member States and other

African countries in the fields of surveying and mapping, remote sensing, GIS and natural

resources assessment and Management. The Mission of the Centre is to promote sustainable

development in the member States through generation, application and dissemination of geo-

information and allied ICT technologies, products and services with a Vision of becoming a

premier Centre of excellence in the provision of geo-information for sustainable development

in the member States and beyond.

The group was received and taken round by Mr. Byron Anangwe and Mr. Dennis Macharia.

They were given highlights of the SERVIR-ESA project implementation. The Program is a

partnership between RCMRD, NASA and USAID to improve environmental Management and

resilience to climate change by building capacity of institutions in the member states to

integrate Earth Observation and Geospatial technology in environmental decision making.

Participants at the RCMRD Satellite Receiver

Station

Having a briefing at RCMRD

The team also visited various technology devices and tools used to process RCMRD products.

These included

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Satellite receiving Antennas

Analysis of maps for water quality level and ecosystem degradation/erosion

Modeling for flood Early Warning and alerting.

Maps showing hydrological model(CREST) and data for near-real time flood

monitoring in Africa basins

Hazard and Vulnerability Maps

Ecosystems and Land use, Land cover Mapping for development of Green Houses Gas

Inventories in East and South Africa.

RCMRD is also applying best available science for decision making by using data products and

tools through small grants and capacity

2.2 Visit to the Kenya Meteorological Department (KMD)

Most of the hazards and disasters in Ethiopia, like other countries of the Greater Horn of

Africa, are linked to weather and climate extremes. Weather and cliamete extremes are

observed, monitored, predicted, and early warning provided by NMHSs under coordination of

WMO. The team visited KMD for comparision with activities and services being provided by

Ethiopia National Meteorological Agency. Some briefs from KMD visit are presented in the

section below.

The group was informed that the responsibility of KMD includes provision of accurate and

timely weather and climate information to support economic growth in key weather sensitive

sectors; promotion of the safety of life and protection of property; conservation of the natural

environment; and to provide education and training in meteorology. The group was also

informed that the data and information it provides is used run the National Flood Forecasting

and Early Warning System for Nzoia, Tana and Nyando Basins, and the National Earthquake &

Tsunami Warning Centre, both of which are domiciled in the Department. KMD also has a

Malaria Early Warning Model and runs a Severe Weather Forecasting and Warning that deals

with Frost, Fog, Wind, Lightning, Temperatures, heavy rainfall, among others. To enhance

monitoring, the Department also uses satellite and remote sensing information.

For flood forecasting, the group was informed that the data received from the river-gauging

stations are spatially analyzed and displayed. KMD runs flow forecasting models to give the

forecasts. The information is the provided through and early warning bulletin (flood watch) and

colour codes are used for the local communities with green indicating no risk, amber indicating

medium risk and red indication high risk.

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The major beneficiaries of the information from KMD include organizations such as the

National Drought Monitoring Centre (NDMA), the National Disaster Operations Centre

(NDOC), the Kenya Red Cross, Disaster Committees, NGOs and the Communities at Risk,

among others. The group was informed that the information is disseminated to the users

through community radios, email and website. Examples of the organizations in the email list

include the Office of the President, the National Disaster Operations Centre (NDOC), Kenya

Red Cross, Medical/Health Schools, Religious Organizations, NGOs, county governments and

individual users within the communities.

Group photo infront of KMD headquarters

Almaz presenting weather in KMD studios

Session 3

Session 3 was devoted to the activities of the 3rd

day Wednesday 7th

December 2016 that

included visit to IGAD Climate Prediction and Applications Centre (ICPAC), and FEWSNET,

Kenya

3.1 Visit to IGAD Climate Prediction and Applications Centre (ICPAC)

Global and regional scale Climate prediction and early warning are coordinated by WMO

global and regional climate centres that provide critical products to the NMHSs. In the greater

Horn of Africa regional climate products and services are provided by IGAD Climate

Prediction and Applications Centre (ICPAC). ICPAC is a specialized institution of

IGAD responsible for eleven member countries namely: Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya,

Somalia, South Sudan, Sudan, Uganda, Burundi, Rwanda and Tanzania. The Vision ICPAC is

To become a viable regional centre of excellence in climate prediction and applications for

climate risk management, environmental management, and sustainable development while its

Mission is the provision of timely climate early warning information and supporting specific

sector applications to enable the region cope with various risks associated with extreme climate

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variability and change for poverty alleviation, environment management and sustainable

development of the member countries.

The objectives of the Centre are:

To provide timely climate early warning information and support specific sector

applications for the mitigation of the impacts of climate variability and change for

poverty alleviation, management of environment and sustainable development;

To improve the technical capacity of producers and users of climatic information, in

order to enhance the use of climate monitoring and forecasting products in climate risk

management and environment management;

To develop an improved, proactive, timely, broad-based system of information/product

dissemination and feedback, at both sub-regional and national scales through national

partners;

To expand climate knowledge base and applications within the sub-region in order to

facilitate informed decision making on climate risk related issues; and

To maintain quality controlled databases and information systems required for

risk/vulnerability assessment, mapping and general support to the national/ regional

climate risk reduction strategies.

The functions of the ICPAC include:

Acquisition of climate and remotely sensed data;

Develop and archive national and regional climate databanks including calibration of

remote sensing records;

Process data and develop basic climatological statistics required for baseline risk

scenarios and other applications;

Monitor, predict and provide early warning information of the space-time evolutions of

weather and climate extremes over the sub-region;

Hazards and climate risk mapping of the extreme climate events thresholds;

Networking with WMO, the National Meteorological and Hydrological institutions as

well as regional and international centres for data and information exchange;

Capacity building in the generation and applications of climate information and

products;

Applications of climate tools for specific climate sensitive sector risk reduction,

environment management, and sustainable development, including integration of

indigenous knowledge;

Monitor, assess, detect and attribute climate change and associated impacts,

vulnerability, adaptation and mitigation options;

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Develop relevant tools required to address the regional climate challenges through

research and applications in all climate sensitive socio-economic sectors including

addressing linkages with other natural and man-made disasters; and

Networking and exchange of information regarding disasters in the sub-region

The products of the Centre includes the following:

Ten day, Monthly and Seasonal climate/weather bulletins

Climate Watch/El Niño updates

Annual climate summaries

Some of the Centers major achievements include the following:

Enhanced regional capacity enhancement for both climate scientists and users ,

including the use of regional climate outlook forums (COFs), and associated

workshops.

Timely production and dissemination of climate early warning information.

Improvement of knowledge of processes and new empirical models for seasonal

forecasts.

Enhanced networking and collaboration between ICPAC, NMHSs and advanced

regional diagnostics Centres.

Establishment of a continuously updated data bank for development of baseline

statistics and hazards maps.

Successful networking with users of climate information, climate scientists, as well as

gender and media groups in dissemination of weather information and products.

Several recognitions and awards at regional and global levels, including contribution

to UNFCCC, UNCCD, ISDR, IPCC among others.

Enhanced collaborations with sector specific users through pilot application projects for

development of new application tools Agriculture and Food Security, Livestock, Health,

Water Resources, Conflict Early Warning, Hydropower risk management, Environment

Management, etc

Improved equipment including computing and Geographical Information System (GIS);

and human resource capacity in regional climate modelling; prediction and applications.

Improved research collaboration including PhD and MSc student attachments that have

led to new tools and applications.

The participants were introduced to all ICPAC activities. Several Ethiopian experts also work

at ICPAC including Mr. Abebe Tadege (in charge of climate change); Dr Segele Zewdu

(Climate modeling), Hussen Endris (Climate modeling), Dr Ahmed Amdihun (GIS), and

Birhanu (Procurement).

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Presentation in ICPAC lab

3.2 Visit to FEWSNET, Kenya

FEWSNET - the Famine Early Warning Systems Network, is a leading provider of early

warning and analysis on acute food insecurity. Created in 1985 by the US Agency for

International Development (USAID) after devastating famines in East and West Africa, FEWS

NET provides objective, evidence-based analysis to help government decision-makers and

relief agencies plan for and respond to humanitarian crises. FEWS NET delivers early warnings

of hazard, food insecurity, vulnerability to food insecurity, and famine. Funded by USAID and

administered by Chemonics, FEWS NET increases and improves the quality and quantity of

information used to monitor food security, needs assessments, preparedness, and response

planning. The program develops national and regional emergency early warning and food

monitoring and assessment capabilities. FEWNET has analysts in 20 field offices, work with

US government science agencies, national government ministries, international agencies, and

NGOs to produce forward-looking reports on more than 35 of the world's most food-insecure

countries,

The participants were exposed to the FEWSNET, Kenya and were informed on how the

organization links with government agencies in monitoring and providing food security early

warning. They focus on livelihoods and monitor the impacts of climate on the livelihoods. They

also use seasonal forecasts from ICPAC and KMD to project food security status of the country

for the coming season.

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Participants being briefed at a meeting in FEWSNET Offices

Session 4

Session 4 was devoted to the activities of the 4th

day, Thursday 8th

December 2016 that

included visits to National Drought Management Authority (NDMA) and National Disaster

Operation Centre (NDOC).

4.1 Visit to the National Drought Management Authority (NDMA)

The National Drought Management Authority (NDMA) was established by the National

Drought Management Authority (NDMA) Act of 2016. The Act gives NDMA the mandate to

exercise overall coordination over all matters relating to drought management including

implementation of policies and programmes relating to drought management.

The NDMA provides a platform for long-term planning and action, as well as a mechanism for

solid coordination across Government and with all other stakeholders. The Authority has

established offices in 23 ASAL counties considered vulnerable to drought and is committed to

Ending Drought Emergencies. NDMA is an agency of the Government of Kenya mandated to

establish mechanisms which ensure that drought does not result in emergencies and that the

impacts of climate change are sufficiently mitigated. The Vision is to be a world-class authority

in drought management and climate change adaptation for sustainable livelihoods while its

Mission is to provide leadership and coordination of Kenya’s effort in the management of

drought risks and enhancing adaptation to climate change. The Technical services Department

of NDMA comprises of three (3) divisions namely:-

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4.1.1 Drought Information:

Developing and maintaining drought information systems

Coordinating national and county food security assessments

4.1.2 Drought Resilience

Coordination of drought risk reduction and building of long-term resilience to drought

Promoting capacity building of community planning units in participatory disaster risk

assessments

Facilitate formulation, implementation, M&E of strategic risk reduction programmes,

projects and initiatives

4.1.3 Drought Contingency Planning and response

Develop strategies and oversee coordination and implementation of drought response

programmes and projects based drought management cycle and contingency planning

Consolidation of county plans into national drought contingency plans

Establishment and maintenance of a national drought response capacity database

Drought management is not a single-sector issue. It is a cross-cutting issue that requires

collaborative action by a range of public and private sector agencies at different levels

(national, county, and community). The Authority is responsible for the establishment,

institutionalization and coordination of structures for drought management. The Authority:

Coordinates action across sectors and across agencies at all stages of the drought cycle

at both national and county levels

Reviews existing coordination structures to ensure their relevance in Kenya's

governance structures

Promotes networking and learning between stakeholders

The following coordination structures already exist at national, county, and community level:

4.1.4 Kenya Food Security Meeting (KFSM)

The KFSM is an open forum with high-level representation by government, UN agencies,

development partners and NGOs interested in food security and drought management. The

KFSM facilitates information exchange and actions to address emerging issues, referring these

to the relevant government bodies or other actors for implementation.

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4.1.5 Kenya Food Security Steering Group (KFSSG)

The KFSSG is a technical sub-committee of the KFSM. It is a think-tank and advisory body for

all stakeholders. Membership is limited to organisations with technical or administrative

capability. KFSSG meets monthly.

4.1.6 County Steering Groups

These are the equivalent of the KFSM at county level and include representatives from relevant

line ministries and agencies. There is currently a CSG in each of the 23 counties. The meetings

are held frequently, as need arises, and are chaired by the Governor or County Commissioner.

The NDMA’s County Drought Coordinator provides the Secretariat.

4.1.7 Community-level drought management structures

These are Community Managed Disaster Risk Reduction (CMDRR) committees and other

community committees established to coordinate drought risk interventions.

4.2 Visit to National Disaster Operation Centre

During the visit, the group was informed that Kenya’s disaster profile is dominated by

droughts, fires, floods, technological accidents, diseases and epidemics that disrupt people’s

livelihoods, destroy the infrastructure, divert planned use of resources, interrupt economic

activities and retard development. The National Disaster Operations Centre (NDOC) of Kenya

was established in January 1998 after the adverse effects of El Nino by an act of Parliament to

act as the focal point for co-coordinating response to emergencies and disasters in Kenya. Its

mandate is to monitor, co-ordinate, mobilize national resources to respond to disaster incidents

in the country. Its reporting centre runs 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, from

which emergency operations, activities and events are recorded and communicated for action.

The functions of the Centre include to:

Co-ordinate and control of disaster response efforts,

Act as the command centre for all communications and information relating to response

operations, and

Liaise with responsible ministries on national response efforts

The sources of early warning information for the Centre include KMD, NDMA, RCMRD and

the Department of Remote Sensing and Resource Surveys (DRSRS). He group was further

informed the group that the Centre faces several challenges. It has limited funding to support

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mitigation, preparedness and response; capacity building activities to support response; and

human resources. The Director of the Centre also indicated that there is no institutional

framework to guide the activities.

Session 5

Session 5 was devoted to the activities of the 5th day, Thursday 9th December 2016 and this

was a visit to CARE Kenya

5.1 Visit to CARE Kenya

The roles of Community-Based Organizations (CBOs), in community based early warning

systems are complementary at many locations in Africa. Example and lessons on the

community based early warning systems in Kenya were provided by CARE Kenya.

5.2 Mission and Vision

CARE stands for "Cooperative for Assistance and Relief Everywhere, Inc." The CARE-Kenya

mission is to serve individuals and families in the poorest communities in the world. Drawing

strength from their global diversity, resources and experience, we promote innovative solutions

and are advocates for global responsibility. We facilitate lasting change by Strengthening

capacity for self-help, providing economic opportunities, delivering relief in emergencies,

influencing policy decisions at all levels and addressing discrimination in all its forms.

CARE-Kenya seeks a world of hope, tolerance and social justice where poverty has been

overcome and people live in dignity and security. CARE will be a global force and partner of

choice within a worldwide movement dedicated to ending poverty. We will be known

everywhere for our unshakeable commitment to the dignity of people.

CARE International traces its roots back to 1945. It is a global confederation of 13 National

Members and one Affiliate Member with the common goal of fighting global poverty. Each

CARE Member is an autonomous non-governmental organization and implements program,

advocacy, fundraising and communications activities in its own country and in developing

countries where CARE has programs.

Session 6

The second week of the visit was largely concentrated around Lake Victoria for hands on

experiences with the institution and community systems involved in practical community based

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early warning systems. Session 6, that was held at Vittoria Suites Hotel on Monday morning,

12th

December 2016, not only evaluated the progress of the first week activities but also

discussed and agreed on the programme for the visit to the communities and relevant

institutions in the Lake Victoria basin that included OSIENALA (Friends of Lake Victoria),

Dominion Millennium Goal and climate adaptation national demonstration farm, and the

Nganyi IK integrated early warning system.

6.1 Visit to OSIENALA (Friends of Lake Victoria)

Despite the efforts made and long year experience in making sustainable development and

disaster risk reduction on the vast Lake Victoria catchment of four member African countries

(Kenya, Tanzania, Burundi and Uganda), a lot has to be done for the future taking in to

account climate change adaptation and mitigation measures. As a result of climate change

impacts, the Lake Victoria is facing complex disasters that restricts sustainable development

and climate resilience adoption. High winds and water storms, an aquatic invasive weed,

siltation as result of catchments run off, fertilizer pollution and algae are among many other

disasters in lake Victoria.

OSIENALA (Friends of Lake Victoria) was established in 1992 as a national NGO with its

head office in Kisumu City in Western Kenya. It has created awareness locally and

internationally about the problems facing Lake Victoria while at the same time creating

structures that would support local communities to become responsible custodian of their

environment and the lake. It endeavors to strengthen capacities within the communities for

sound management, optimization of resource utilization and improvement of the social and

economic status in the region

OSIENALA is a regional NGO working to promote sustainable development in the Lake Victoria

basin covering countries like Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania, Rwanda and Burundi. It also work with

private investors like OSRAM Germany to provide off-grid solar power to fishers of Lake Victoria

and Green Forest Social Investment Trust to grow and process bio-diesel, Aloe Vera, honey and

non-timber products. The organization has a FM 92.1 Radio station, Radio Lake Victoria (RLV)

reaching 3 million listeners in Lake Victoria basin region and Micro-finance for the communities in

the Lake Victoria basin, Kenya.

OSIENALA has created awareness locally and internationally about the problems facing Lake

Victoria while at the same time creating structures that would support local communities to

become responsible custodian of their environment and the lake. It endeavors to strengthen

capacities within the communities for sound management, optimization of resource utilization

and improvement of the social and economic status in the region.

20

Vision: A sound Lake Victoria's environment that sustains equitable livelihood of

communities.

Mission: To empower Lake Victoria communities to become key participants in the

management and equitable utilization of resources for sustainable livelihoods through capacity

building, research, policy advocacy, education, information dissemination and networking.

OSIENALA's collaboration with worldwide renowned partners in environment and

development issues such as Global Nature Fund (GNF), Living Lakes Network, OSRAM in

Germany and the International Lake Environment Committee (ILEC) in Japan have further

strengthened its role in the region. The Environmental Education Department aims at reaching

out to people to address the issues facing our environment such as Global warming, climate

change and increased pollution as a result of rapid urbanization and industrialization in the

region. It currently has a total of 21 staff among which 10 are PHD and 10 Master’s degree

holders.

Participants were briefed on the lake hazards, risks and disasters, as well as local programmes

for building community resilience. The participants were given a ride around the lake for

practical experience regarding the lake hazards and severe degradation of the environment.

6.2 Purpose of the Institution

To develop institutional capacity and take action on environment recovery measures and see

the future development of Lake Victoria.

6.2.1 Findings

Media serves as a profound means of disseminating timely early warning information to the

community. In this connection, Radio Lake Victoria was set up and is in charge to

communicating to the community early warning information in a timely manner.

Unfortunately, there are no currently available mobile phone for disaster communication.

6.2.1.1 High wind and water storm

High wind and water storm affects by disrupting navigation process to cause

damage/physiological disorder to people traveling in the boats and submersion of

people and property loss, though boats are available /ready to rescue people.

On top of this, it lays a problem in fish hunting process making economic loss to

cooperatives that would have been gained in the absence of High wind and water

waves.

21

6.2.1.2 Aquatic invasive weed (Water hyacinth)

An aquatic invasive weed known as water hyacinth was introduced from abroad also

found to be a disaster expanding its invasion area from time to time, has

limited/insignificant economic value even to use as animal feed which its biomass very

minimal except excess water content.

Despite the efforts made to tackle the problem, introducing from abroad a beetle that

consumes floral part of this aquatic weed, realized as a biological control means to

minimize the seed bank has ended up without success, as the agent could not survive

the ecology at lake Victoria.

so this aquatic weed has remained with no solution so far except being a potential

danger for the future.

The invasive weed and presence of algae in the lake also tackles boat water

transportation process and oxygen circulation in the lake resulting fishes deoxygenated

to death.

6.2.1.3 Flood and Drought in Lake Victoria

In times, Lake Victoria extends to cover wider area where the community is dwelling

around due to flood water flow from the vast catchments. On the other hand, the lake

reversely dries to exhibit its negative impact on the community.

For instance four years ago the lake has been dried to result displacement and migration

of the community to Tanzania.

6.2.1.4 Siltation

Siltation of the lake is also another problem as water shade management practice not

run as desired as expected in minimizing the rain drop and run off impact from the

catchments, though aloe Vera is widely used as biophysical measure.

6.2.1.5 Fertilizer pollution

Pollution of the lake is accelerated by the washed away fertilizers from farm lands

transported to the lake. This may have a negative effect in diminishing the fish

population which in turn affects the livelihood of the community engaged in fishery.

22

Presentation session by the Director of

OSIENALA

The boat ride with water hyacinth in the

background

6.3 Ethiopian Experience

According to the group’s experiences from Lake Tana, where this similar weed is

prevalent, several fish trapped in these weeds are likely to have sour tastes when

consumed resulting in deteriorated quality fish that further exhibit less price in local

markets.

Besides, accumulation of fertilizers in the lake under pins the growth and development

of this weed to be vigorous as a result of tap rooted and root hair branches interwoven

to conjugating silt trapped with fertilizer favoring again the weed to be vigorous.

Apart from its negative impact, using the weed as fertilizer green manure is in practice

among the community, this seems a good practice.

Session 7:

8.1 Visit to the Dominion Millennium Goals and climate change adaptation farm at Yala

Swamp and Mama Sarah Obama Foundation

7.1.1 Visit to Dominion Farm in Yala Swamp

The Dominion farm was initiated as a demonstration pilot arm on Millennium Goals and

climate change adaptation. The farm is situated in western Kenya in the delta of the Yala River

where the equator crosses Lake Victoria. It is in Nyanza Province – forty miles northwest of the

provincial capital of Kisumu. River Yala provides high volumes of irrigation water throughout

the year. The area is densely populated with an estimated 700,000 persons within a ten-mile

23

radius of the farm’s perimeter. Most live in family enclaves of only a few acres, from which

they subsist on vegetable gardening and livestock tending. When Dominion arrived in 2002, a

few hundred acres of the swamp were above the flood plain and were used for cattle grazing

and intermittent grain production. Otherwise, the Yala Swamp consisted of over 50,000 acres

of papyrus with little contribution to the welfare of local residents.

When Calvin Burgess first visited the Yala Swamp in 2002, it was accessible only via all-

terrain vehicle. As there was no commerce in the area, neither were there jobs, currency in

circulation nor hope for improvement. But the residents were determined to break out of the

cycle of poverty associated with their tiny acreages and limited access to markets. Dominion’s

local payroll has done wonders for the health, wealth and attitude of hundreds of employees

and thousands who benefit indirectly from the circulation of hard currency. And the farm has

provided an example for smaller farmers to emulate in order to render their operations more

productive and profitable.

The area around the farm allows for an ideal farming environment. Water is plentiful, the

climate is cool and the fields produce at least two crops per annum. Add the components of

cost-effective labor and regional food deficiencies and the area offers an exceptional farming

scenario. The impact of two crops per annum cannot be overstated in a large-scale application.

It is the financial equivalent of doubling the size of an efficient commercial farm at zero added

cost.

For a nation that imports more than 200,000 tons of rice annually from India, Pakistan and

Southeast Asia, the continuous planting and harvesting of rice on a commercial scale is a

welcome activity.

Today Dominion Farms is a celebrated example of technology-based, irrigated agriculture in

western Kenya. It is a model for long-range planners who seek to develop the water resources

and expand the land under cultivation that is needed to sustain the fast-growing Kenyan

population. It also illustrates the synergies of using agricultural by-products to lower operating

costs through reduced reliance on the use of chemicals and imported fuels.

24

A briefing before the tour

The group at the weir controlling irrigation

A group photo of the participants at the

Dominion Farm

The Rice Miller in Dominion Farm

7.1.2 Visit to Mama Sarah Obama Foundation

The team visited a community self-based resilience building effort under leadership of a

community champion Mama Sarah Obama, the grandmother of USA President Barack Obama.

Several demonstration projects are undertaken that enable the neighbourhood communities

work in partnerships to enhance their resilience capacity

The Mama Sarah Obama Foundation is the realization of a long-term dream. The foundation

was founded after years of hard work helping orphans and poverty-stricken families feed and

educate their children. With the AIDS epidemic ravaging Sub-Saharan Africa in the last three

decades and leaving many children without parents, Mama Sarah turned her attention to

addressing the educational and welfare needs of orphans in Kogelo village, as well as

demonstration on resilience building practices relevant to local community.

Mama Sarah has relentlessly worked with community leaders to meet the dire needs of the

local community, and participatory involvement of the local for providing solution to local

25

environment and development challenges. With the election of her grandson to the presidency

of the United States of America, her phenomenal work has come to light well beyond the

boundaries of Kogelo village. In 2009, the Mama Sarah Obama Foundation (MSOF) was

formed to coordinate support to local community.

Participants with Mama Sarah Obama

Participants outside Mama Sarah Obama’s Home

26

Session 8:

8.1 Visit to Nganyi Community-Based Early Warning System and Maseno

Equator

Session 9 was dedicated to visit a local community to understand how they get receive and

integrate early warning information in their local decision making. On the way to the

community, the group stopped at the equator crossing at Maseno.

8.1.1 Maseno Equator Crossing

At the Equator crossing in Maseno, demonstrations were made to show how air and water

change direction on crossing the estuarial latitude. These have implications on pollution

transport, and extremes air/water circulations.

Group photo at the equator

8.1.2 Nganyi Community Based Early Warning System

The peak of the study visit was at Nganyi community resource centre with integrated

Indigenous Knowledge and modern Disaster Management systems with the resultant

information disseminated through a local FM Radio using local language. The Nganyi

community is a sub-clan of the larger Abasiekwe clan of Bunyore. They are found largely in

27

West Bunyore Location of western Kenya with several smaller sub-clans dispersed in other

parts of Bunyore and beyond, spreading into the neighbouring Nyanza region. They are

renowned for their rare skills, ability and power to monitor, predict and early warn of the

impending local climate risks. KMD collaborates with the indigenous knowledge forecasters to

produce a blended seasonal forecast that has both the modern-day and indigenous knowledge

forecast information for dissemination to the local community.

8.1.3 Modern meteorological systems at the resource centre

The resource centre has modern meteorological equipment ran by KMD supporting the

forecasting process. The data from the station is sent to the headquarters and used in the

forecast development. The forecast is then brought to the resource centre where the blending is

done.

The observatory with the modern day meteorological instruments at the resource centre

8.1.4 Indigenous Knowledge (IK) Systems at the Resource Centre

The Nganyi forest shrines in Esibila village, in Western Kenya has pristine biodiversity that has

helped the local Bunyore community predict weather conditions for generations. The small

forest has 67 known plant species, and is home reptiles, birds and insects that help in weather

forecasting. The forest also has some of the oldest trees in Vihiga County.

28

The “monitoring” indigenous knowledge indicators is done in the shrines, not too far away

from the resource centre, by dedicated old men of the community. Generally, they observe

budding, flowering or shedding of leaves of specific plant species, listen to croaking of frogs,

listen to chirping of birds, observe behaviours of local insects and animals to predict climatic

and weather conditions. These observations have helped his community prepare for droughts

and floods, and determine when to plant their crops. The elders then meet and agree on what

they see as the forecast. This consensus forecast is brought to the resource centre where the

blending with the KMD forecast is done.

The group at one of the shrines

Mzee Obedi “monitoring” the indigenous

indicators in one the shrines visited

8.2 Integration of IK and Modern Meteorological Systems at the Resource Centre

The group was informed that the integration process involves consensus building meetings

between the IK practitioners and modern-day climate scientists to compare and merge IK and

modern-day science based rainfall forecasts at the resource centre.

8.2.1 Dissemination and feedback with local communities

The group was informed that after the integrated IK and modern science based consensus

rainfall forecast is agreed on, a local dissemination forum is held with the community in the

framework of the local community management systems. Brochures and posters were also

published, translated into the local lunyole language and widely distributed to schools, markets

and churches within the project area. Dissemination is also done through the local community

radio, Anyole Radio, broadcasting from the community centre.

The Community Radio is a valuable asset to the community, keeping many people glued to

their radio sets listening to different programs, while other access the signal via mobile phones.

29

The radio station have the duty to give weather information based on the integrated result from

the indigenous rainmakers and the KMD every hour and focuses mainly on climate-related

issues, market information, agriculture and emerging technologies. The station sometimes

invites traditional forecasters at least three times a week for a call-in session, so that listeners

can ask questions about the prevailing weather conditions. The station is very important for the

survival as smallholder farmers in the area since it provides alerts and warning on the

prevailing rainfall conditions for agricultural purposes.

Anyole Radio broadcaster at work during the study visit

Session 9:

9.1 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

During the last Session (Session 10), the participants reflected on their experiences during the

study tour. They identified several areas of commonalties between the two countries and also

areas that they can learn from.

9.1.1 The monitoring institutions (KMD, RCMRD and ICPAC)

The participants noted that KMD largely operates in a similar manner as the Ethiopian

Meteorological Agency. However, they were impressed by the way KMD communicates

with the people at risk and the early warning tools for risk management that they have in place.

30

The community engagement was flagged as worth emulating for effective community risk

management. The tools for early warning for floods, earthquakes and tsunami, and malaria

epidemics were identified as important and useful for the Ethiopian context.

The participants noted that RCMRD and ICPAC are regional governmental organizations with

Ethiopia being an active member of both. The framework of disseminating products and

information to different institutions (governmental and non-governmental) by these

organizations was found to be impressive. The participants were keen to have the results of

some of the pilot projects (CREST and GeoFSM flood models) implemented in their country.

9.1.2 Government disaster risk management organizations (NDMA and NDOC)

The participants found a lot of similarities between NDMA and NDOC with the corresponding

organizations in Ethiopia. However, the early warning system operated by these institutions,

especially the communications at grassroots level, was identified as impressive and good

learning points.

9.1.3 International non-governmental disaster risk management (FEWSNET and CARE)

The participants noted that both FEWSNET and CARE operate in Ethiopia. They however

appreciated the work CARE, in collaboration with the government, is doing with the

communities in risk management, indicating that it is worth emulating.

9.1.4 Community-based risk management (OSIENALO, Dominion farm and Nganyi)

The participants were very excited with the trip to western Kenya and identified several

learning points. They appreciated the project on Lake Victoria dealing with environmental

issues focusing on Lake Victoria basin covering Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Ruanda and

Burundi.

From the discussions with OSIENALA, the participants noted that weather/ climate change

impacts have contributed to complex disasters in Lake Victoria. Tackling these problems

requires strong collaboration among the affected countries in building climate change resilience

and sustainable development. It was clear that effective use of biological approach to control

the invasive aquatic weed needs good knowledge on the biology of the pest that relates to the

ecology in which the pest is targeted to be released. Furthermore, strict quarantine measures

need to be taken before introducing any foreign seed and plant material. Otherwise, the aquatic

weed should be removed manually before it flowers in order to disrupt production of seeds that

enhance the seed bank.

31

The prudent use of water hyacinth as manure in farms should be scaling-up since this will be

beneficial to the farmers as it will reduce the cost of fertilizer farmers and the level of fertilizer

pollution in the Lake. Collaborative integrated water shed management program/ project should

be enhanced to reduce the consequence of siltation and washed-away fertilizer resulting in

pollution in the lake.

The participants drew parallels with the problem caused by Water Hyacinth in Ethiopian lakes

like Lake Tana and Lake Hawassa, noting that it might cause a serious problem in the future in

big dams being developed in Ethiopia. The participants therefore recommend that the Ethiopian

Environmental Authority should give attention and carry out a proper study around the lakes

and dams in Ethiopia.

The community-based climate monitoring services and early warning system supported by FM

Radio, seen in the Nganyi Community, was identified as a good way of a national institution

reaching local communities with disaster risk information. The active participation of the

community in the development and communication of the early warning information was

identified as a good sustainable way of ensuring risk reduction of the community.

9.2 Evaluation

Participants were requested to take some few minutes to provide feedback that would help

improve organization of future study tours. The chart below represents their views on selected

indicators. They were required to respond to each of the evaluation questions by giving 1 as the

lowest and 5 the highest / most positive rating. It is evident from chart that all the participants

were reasonably satisfied with the study tour with almost all the questions receiving either 4 or

5 rating. However, one participant felt that the transport arrangements were average (rating of

3).

All the participants indicated that they would recommend a return trip for the group to enable

ample time for visits to more communities and other specialized institutions. They would also

recommend that other groups in Ethiopia participate in a similar tour.

32

VII. At NDRMC (Ethiopia)

1. Discussion with the Director of Early Warming and Emergency Director

As per our plan we were discussing the overall situation of the study tour with Ato Muluneh

Woldemariam the Director of Early Warning and Emergency Response Directorate. The

reflection of the study tour participant was very interesting and the major points which were

mentioned in the discussion was:

About the visit of Kenya Meteorological Department and its activity particularly in

areas of communicating the people at risk at the time of disaster and early warming

tools for risk management.

About Regional Center for Mapping of Resources for Development(RCMRD)

activities and its products and how to disseminate information for different institutions

About the activities of National drought Management Authority and National Disaster

Operation Center. Besides they have appreciate on Kenyan EWS i.e. the way what they

are communicating at grassroots level.

About the very interesting Kisumu field trips particularly:

- on a pilot project which was established by ICPAC, that is the community-

based climate monitoring services and early warning system supported by FM

Radio. The activities practiced by Kenya Meteorological Services(KMS) with

Nganyi community.

- About the visit to OSIENALA (Friends of Lake Victoria) project dealing

with environmental issues focusing on Lake Victoria in Kenya, Uganda,

Tanzania, Ruanda and Burundi dealing with such environmental issues like the

Water Hyacinth which is a major invasive plant species in Lake Victoria.

33

Moreover the participants raise the problem caused by Water Hyacinth in

Ethiopian lakes like Lake Tana, Lake Hawassa and others. The group has gave

more emphasis about the treat of the weed(Hyacinth) i.e. it might be cause a

serious problem in our big dams for the future. Thus the study tour participant

proposed that the Environmental Authority in Ethiopia should give attention

and made proper monitoring and study around the lakes and dams in Ethiopia in

order to minimize the effect of the problem that would be cased by the water

weed Hyacinth.

Finally they have discussed about the importance of the study tour particularly about the

knowledge and experience sharing including the future plan on the issue under consideration.

34

Appendix 1 List of participants

No Name of the participants Represent

1 WOLDETSADIK/ALMAZ DEMESSIE Focal person for UNDP/GEF/LDCF project and

Team Leader for the Study Tour

2 EDRIS/ MOHAMMED HUSEIN From Afar Regional bureau of DRM

3 WELDETSADIK/DEJENE MEBRATU From Federal NDRMC

4 BERISSO/TESFAYEGEBREWOLD From Federal NDRMC

5 BEYENE/DEBEBE ZEWUDIE From Federal NDRMC

6 GIDA/MULATU NEGUMA From Oromiya Regional bureau of DRM

7 TIRFU/HUSSEN AHMED From Amara Regional bureau of DRM

8 HIFAMO /ABERA WILLA From SNNP Regional bureau of DRM

9 LAEKBERHAN/MESFIN WOLDU From Tigray Regional bureau of DRM

10 MAHAMUD/HASSEN BARUD From Somali Regional bureau of DRM

Appendix 2

A sample of the Monitoring and Evaluation Form is shown in the section below.

Please take a few minutes to provide us with feedback to improve future study tour

visits/workshops. Write down one response for each question, with 5 being the highest / most

positive and 1 the lowest / most negative rating.

Very high High Medium Low Very low

5 4 3 2 1

Overview of the transport for the Study Tour Arrangements.

5

Evaluation of the overall study tour design/structure

5

Evaluation of the different institutions of the Study Visits

5

Evaluation of information provided during various study visits/if any

5

Evaluation of the Study Visit presentations by various personalities

4

Evaluation of interactive sessions with the various organizations

4

Evaluation of the residential hotel facilities and food

4

Which organization/visit did you like most and why? Please write them down in the box

provided below

35

I liked most the two field visits conducted in the two communities that are Nganyi Community(Use of

indigenous knowledge as part of an early warning system) because it observed that the integration of

university meteorology, local government, communities, traditional forecasters and FM radio station is

working together in a very integrated manner to collect early warning data through using various

approaches and analysing the data together with rain makers then the final agreed information

disseminated to the local community through the local FM radio. The other organization that it had

impressed about its work is the fishery programs underway in the area is important due diversifying the

livelihoods of the community and making more benefit from it.

Were there good lessons you learnt from these visits? Ratings (1 to 5)

5

Were your expectations met? Ratings (1 to 5)

5

Kindly write down your overall views about this Study Tour and provide some suggestions to

the organizers for the improvement of future Tour Meetings.

The study tour was very good in its organized preparation, facilitation and logistics and I was

also teach full for me in every moment of the activity so I gained much more experiences and

lessons from this tour. Finally I want to say thank you very much for your kind hospitality,

friendly approach and care you gave for us during each and every moment of the tour. So

Asante Sana!!!!!

Appendix 3 Based on the assignment given by the Director of EWERD

Eichhornia crassipes

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other plants known as "water hyacinth", see Eichhornia.

Common water hyacinth

36

Scientific classification

Kingdom: Plantae

(unranked): Angiosperms

(unranked): Monocots

(unranked): Commelinids

Order: Commelinales

Family: Pontederiaceae

Genus: Eichhornia

Species: E. crassipes

Binomial name

Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms

Eichhornia crassipes, commonly known as (common) water hyacinth, is an aquatic plant

native to the Amazon basin, and is often considered a highly problematic invasive species

outside its native range.

Description

Water hyacinth is a free-floating perennial aquatic plant (or hydrophyte) native to tropical and

sub-tropical South America. With broad, thick, glossy, ovate leaves, water hyacinth may rise

above the surface of the water as much as 1 meter in height. The leaves are 10–20 cm across,

and float above the water surface. They have long, spongy and bulbous stalks. The feathery,

freely hanging roots are purple-black. An erect stalk supports a single spike of 8-15

conspicuously attractive flowers, mostly lavender to pink in colour with six petals. When not in

bloom, water hyacinth may be mistaken for frog's-bit (Limnobium spongia).

One of the fastest growing plants known, water hyacinth reproduces primarily by way of

runners or stolons, which eventually form daughter plants. Each plant can produce thousands of

seeds each year, and these seeds can remain viable for more than 28 years.[1]

Some water

hyacinths were found to grow up to 2 to 5 metres a day in some sites in Southeast Asia.[2]

The

common water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) are vigorous growers known to double their

population in two weeks.

In their native range these flowers are pollinated by long tongued bees and they can reproduce

both sexually and clonally. The invasiveness of the hyacinth is related to its ability to clone

itself and large patches are likely to all be part of the same genetic form. There are three

morphs of water hyacinth, long medium and short. However, the short morph is restricted to the

native range due to founder events during its distribution.

37

Habitat and ecology

Its habitat ranges from tropical desert to subtropical or warm temperate desert to rainforest

zones. The temperature tolerance of the water hyacinth is the following; its minimum growth

temperature is 12 °C (54 °F); its optimum growth temperature is 25-30 °C (77-86 °F); its

maximum growth temperature is 33-35 °C (92-95 °F), and its pH tolerance is estimated at 5.0

to 7.5. It does not tolerate water temperatures >35 °C. Leaves are killed by frost and salt water,

the latter trait being used to kill some of it by floating rafts of the cut weed to the sea. Water

hyacinths do not grow when the average salinity is greater than 15% that of sea water. In

brackish water, its leaves show epinasty and chlorosis, and eventually die.[3]

Because of E. crassipes invasiveness, several biological control agents have been released to

control it, including two weevils (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), Neochetina bruchi Hustache and

Neochetina eichhorniae Warner, and the moth Niphograpta albiguttalis (Warren) (Lepidoptera:

Pyralidae).[4]

Neochetina eichhorniae causes "a substantial reduction in water hyacinth

production" (in Louisiana); it reduces plant height, weight, root length, and makes the plant

produce fewer daughter plants. N. eichhorniae was introduced from Argentina to Florida in

1972.[5]

Azotobacter chroococcum, an N-fixing bacteria, is probably concentrated around the bases of

the petioles. But the bacteria do not fix nitrogen unless the plant is suffering extreme N-

deficiency.[6]

Fresh plants contain prickly crystals.[3]

This plant is reported to contain HCN, alkaloid, and

triterpenoid, and may induce itching.[7]

Plants sprayed with 2,4-D may accumulate lethal doses

of nitrates,[8]

as well as various other nocive elements in polluted environments. See further

down.

Invasive species

Water hyacinth has been widely introduced in North America, Europe, Asia, Australia, Africa

and New Zealand.[9]

In many areas it is has become an important and pernicious invasive

species. In New Zealand it is listed on the National Pest Plant Accord which prevents it from

being propagated, distributed or sold. In large water areas such as Louisiana, the Kerala

Backwaters in India, Tonlé Sap in Cambodia and Lake Victoria it has become a serious pest.

When not controlled, water hyacinth will cover lakes and ponds entirely; this dramatically

impacts water flow, blocks sunlight from reaching native aquatic plants, and starves the water

of oxygen, often killing fish (or turtles). The plants also create a prime habitat for

mosquitos[citation needed]

, the classic vectors of disease, and a species of snail known to host a

parasitic flatworm which causes schistosomiasis (snail fever).[10]

Directly blamed for starving

subsistence farmers in Papua New Guinea[citation needed]

, water hyacinth remains a major problem

where effective control programs are not in place. Water hyacinth is often problematic in man-

made ponds if uncontrolled, but can also provide a food source for goldfish, keep water clean [11]

[12]

and help to provide oxygen[citation needed]

to man-made ponds.

38

Water hyacinth often invades bodies of water that have been impacted by human

activities[citation needed]

. For example, the plants can unbalance natural lifecycles in artificial

reservoirs or in eutrophied lakes that receive large amounts of nutrients.

Eichhornia crassipes, the Common water hyacinth, has become an invasive plant species on

Lake Victoria in Africa after it was introduced into the area in the 1980s[citation needed]

.

Africa

See also: Water hyacinth in Lake Victoria

Water hyacinth at Kisumu Port

The plant was introduced by Belgian colonists to Rwanda to beautify their holdings and then

advanced by natural means to Lake Victoria where it was first sighted in 1988.[17]

There,

without any natural enemies, it has become an ecological plague, suffocating the lake,

diminishing the fish reservoir, and hurting the local economies. It impedes access to Kisumu

and other harbors.

The water hyacinth has also appeared to the north in Ethiopia, where it was first reported in

1965 at the Koka Reservoir and in the Awash River, where the Ethiopian Electric Light and

Power Authority has managed to bring it under moderate control at the considerable cost of

human labor. Other infestations in Ethiopia include many bodies of water in the Gambela

Region, the Blue Nile from just below Lake Tana into Sudan, and Lake Ellen near Alem

Tena.[18]

The water hyacinth is also present on the Shire River in the Liwonde National Park in Malawi.

Muhammad Ali of Egypt's era was when Egypt's Nile contracted the plant.[19]

Control

The three commonly used control methods against water hyacinth infestations are physical,

chemical, and biological controls. No one control method is generally better than the others,

because each has its advantages and disadvantages. The optimum control depends on the

specific conditions of each affected location such as the extent of water hyacinth infestation,

regional climate, and proximity to human and wildlife.[21]

39

Chemical control

Chemical control is the least used out of the three controls of water hyacinth, because of its

long-term effects on the environment and human health. The use of herbicides requires strict

approval from governmental protection agencies of skilled technician to handle and spray the

affected areas. The use of chemical herbicides is only used in case of severe infiltration of

water hyacinth.[22]

However, the most successful use of herbicides is when it is used for smaller

areas of infestation of water hyacinth. This is because in larger areas, more mats of water

hyacinths are likely to survive the herbicides and can fragment to further propagate a large area

of water hyacinth mats. In addition, it is more cost-effective and less laborious than mechanical

control. Yet, it can lead to environmental effects as it can penetrate into the ground water

system and can affect not only the hydrological cycle within an ecosystem but also negatively

affect the local water system and human health. It is also notable that the use of herbicides is

not strictly selective of water hyacinths; keystone species and vital organisms such microalgae

can perish from the toxins and can disrupt fragile food webs.[21]

The chemical regulation of

water hyacinths can be done using common herbicides such as 2,4-D, glyphosate, and diquat.

The herbicides are sprayed on the water hyacinth leaves and leads to direct changes to the

physiology of the plant.[23]

The use of the herbicide known as 2,4-D leads to the death of water

hyacinth through inhibition of cell growth of new tissue and cellular apoptosis (Jimenez, 2005).

It can take almost a two-week period before mats of water hyacinth are destroyed with 2,4-D. It

has been found that up to 150,000 acres of water hyacinth are treated annually in Louisiana.[24]

The herbicide known as diquat is a liquid bromide salt that can rapidly penetrate the leaves of

the water hyacinth and lead to immediate inactivity of plant cells and cellular processes. For the

herbicide glyphosate, it has a low toxicity than the other herbicides; therefore, it takes longer

for the water hyacinth mats to be destroyed (about three weeks). The symptoms include steady

wilting of the plants and a yellow discoloration of the plant leaves that eventually leads to plant

decay.[22]

Physical control

Physical control is performed by land based machines such as bucket cranes, draglines, or

boorm or by water based machinery such as aquatic weed harvester,[25]

dredges, or vegetation

shredder.[26]

Mechanical removal is seen as the best short-term solution to the proliferation of

the plant. A project on Lake Victoria in Africa used various pieces of equipment to chop,

collect, and dispose of 1500 hectares of water hyacinth in a 12-month period. It is, however,

costly and requires the use of both land and water vehicles, but it took many years for the lake

to become in poor condition and reclamation will be a continual process. It can have an annual

cost from $6 million to $20 million and is only considered a short-term solution to a long-term

problem. Another disadvantage with mechanical harvesting is that it can lead to further

fragmentation of water hyacinths when the plants are broken up by spinning cutters of the

plant-harvesting machinery. The fragments of water hyacinth that are left behind in the water

can easily reproduce asexually and cause another infestation.[23]

However, transportation and

disposal of the harvested water hyacinth is a challenge because the vegetation is heavy in

weight.The harvested water hyacinth can pose a health risk to humans because of the plant’s

propensity for absorbing contaminants, and it be considered toxic to humans. However, the

practice of mechanical harvesting is not effective in large-scale infestations of the water

40

hyacinth, because this aquatic invasive species grows much more rapidly than it can be

eliminated. In addition, only one or two acres of water hyacinth can mechanically harvested

daily because of the vast amounts of water hyacinths in the environment. Therefore, the process

is very time-intensive.[27]

Biological control

In 2010 the insect Megamelus scutellaris was released by the Agricultural Research Service as

a biological control for Water hyacinth.[28]

As chemical and mechanical removal is often too expensive and ineffective, researchers have

turned to biological control agents to deal with water hyacinth. The effort began in the 1970s

when USDA researchers released three species of weevil known to feed on water hyacinth into

the United States, Neochetina bruchi, N. eichhorniae, and the water hyacinth borer Sameodes

albiguttalis. The weevil species were introduced into the Gulf Coast states, such as Louisiana,

Texas, and Florida, where there was thousands of acres of infestation from water hyacinth. It

was found that a decade later in the 1980s that there was a decrease in water hyacinth mats by

as much as 33%. However, because the life cycle of the weevils is only ninety days, it puts a

limitation on the use of biological predation to efficiently suppress water hyacinth growth.[24]

These organisms regulate water hyacinth by limiting water hyacinth size, its vegetative

propagation, and seed production. They also carry microorganisms that can be pathological to

the water hyacinth. These weevils eat stem tissue, which results in a loss of buoyancy for the

plant, which will eventually sink.[23]

Although meeting with limited success, the weevils have

since been released in more than 20 other countries. However, the most effective control

method remains the control of excessive nutrients and prevention of the spread of this species.

May 2010 the USDA’s Agricultural Research Service released Megamelus scutellaris as a

biological control insect for the invasive waterhyacinth species. Megamelus scutellaris is a

small planthopper insect native to Argentina. Researchers have been studying the effects of the

biological control agent in extensive host-range studies since 2006 and concluded that the

insect is highly host-specific and will not pose a threat to any other plant population other than

the targeted water hyacinth. Researchers also hope that the biological control will be more

resilient than existing biological controls to the herbicides that are already in place to combat

the invasive water hyacinth.[29]

Another insect being considered as a biological control agent is the semi-aquatic grasshopper

Cornops aquaticum. This insect is specific to the water hyacinth and its family, and besides

41

feeding on the plant, it introduces a secondary pathogenic infestation. This grasshopper has

been introduced into South Africa in controlled trials.[30]

Uses

Bioenergy

Because of its extremely high rate of development, Eichhornia crassipes is an excellent source

of biomass. One hectare of standing crop thus produce more than 70,000 m3 of biogas.

[31]

According to Curtis and Duke, one kg of dry matter can yield 370 liters of biogas, giving a

heating value of 22,000 kJ/m3 (580 Btu/ft

3) compared to pure methane (895 Btu/ft

3)[32]

Wolverton and McDonald report only 0.2 m3 methane per kg, indicating requirements of 6000

MT biomass/ha to attain the 70,000 m3 yield projected by the National Academy of Sciences

(Washington).[33]

Ueki and Kobayashi mention more than 200 MT/ha/yr.[34]

Reddy and Tucker

found an experimental maximum of more than a half ton per day.[35]

Bengali farmers collect

and pile up these plants to dry at the onset of the cold season; they then use the dry water

hyacinths as fuel. They then use the ashes as fertilizer. In India, a ton of dried water hyacinth

yield circa 50 liters ethanol and 200 kg residual fiber (7,700 Btu). Bacterial fermentation of one

ton yields 26,500 cu ft gas (600 Btu) with 51.6% methane, 25.4% hydrogen, 22.1% CO2, and

1.2% oxygen. Gasification of one ton dry matter by air and steam at high temperatures (800°)

gives circa 40,000 ft3 (circa 1,100 m

3) natural gas (143 Btu/cu ft) containing 16.6% hydrogen,

4.8% methane, 21.7% CO, 4.1% CO2, and 52.8% N. The high moisture content of water

hyacinth, adding so much to handling costs, tends to limit commercial ventures.,[33][36]

A

continuous, hydraulic production system could be designed, which would provide a better

utilization of capital investments than in conventional agriculture, which is essentially a batch

operation.,[3][37]

The labour involved in harvesting water hyacinth can be greatly reduced by locating collection

sites and processors on impoundments that take advantage of prevailing winds. Wastewater

treatment systems could also favourably be added to this operation. The harvested biomass

would then be converted to ethanol, natural gas, hydrogen and/or gaseous nitrogen, and

fertilizer. The resulting byproducts of water and fertilizer can both be used to irrigate nearby

cropland.[3]

Phytoremediation, waste water treatment

The roots of Eichhornia crassipes naturally absorb pollutants, including lead, mercury, and

strontium-90, as well as some organic compounds believed to be carcinogenic, in

concentrations 10,000 times that in the surrounding water.[38]

Water hyacinths can be cultivated

for waste water treatment.[3]

Water hyacinth is reported for its efficiency to remove about 60–80 % nitrogen (Fox et al.

2008) and about 69% of potassium from water (Zhou et al. 2007). The roots of water hyacinth

were found to remove particulate matter and nitrogen in a natural shallow eutrophicated

wetland (Billore et al. 1998).[39]

42

Edibility

The plant is used as a carotene-rich table vegetable in Taiwan. Javanese sometimes cook and

eat the green parts and inflorescence.[3]

Medicinal use

In Kedah (Malaysia), the flowers are used for medicating the skin of horses.[3]

The species is a

"tonic.",[40][41]

Potential as bioherbicidal agent

Water hyacinth leaf extract has been shown to exhibit phytotoxicity against another invasive

weed Mimosa pigra. The extract inhibited the germination of Mimosa pigra seeds in addition to

suppressing the root growth of the seedlings. Biochemical data suggested that the inhibitiory

effects may be mediated by enhanced hydrogen peroxide production, inhibition of soluble

peroxidase activity, and stimulation of cell wall-bound peroxidase activity in the root tissues of

Mimosa pigra.[42]

Other uses

In East Africa, water hyacinths from Lake Victoria are used to make furniture, handbags and

rope.[43]

The plant is also used as animal feed and organic fertilizer although there is

controversy stemming from the high alkaline pH value of the fertilizer.[44]

Though a study

found water hyacinths of very limited use for paper production,[45]

they are nonetheless being

used for paper production on a small scale.

American-Nigerian Achenyo Idachaba has won an award for showing how this plant can be

exploited for profit in Nigeria.[46]

In places where water hyacinth is invasive, overabundant, and in need of clearing away, these

traits make it free for the harvesting, which makes it very useful as a source of organic matter

for composting in organic farming in those locales, provided that the composting method

properly handles it. As an aquatic plant, it requires most of the same composting principles as

the seaweed that is composted close to sea coasts.