DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 445 971 SO 031 610

AUTHOR Corbishley, Mike; Fordham, Jennie; Gay, Susan; Hollinshead,Liz; Spicer, Suzanne; Walmsley, David

TITLE Primary History: Using the Evidence of the HistoricEnvironment. A Teacher's Guide.

INSTITUTION English Heritage Education Service, London (England)

ISBN ISBN-1-85074-650-8PUB DATE 1999-00-00NOTE 78p.; Produced with assistance from Amanda Feather, Ken

Glen, and Oliver Aston.AVAILABLE FROM English Heritage, Education Service, 23 Savile Row, London

W1X 1AB, England. Tel: 020 7973 3000; Fax: 020 7973 3443;E-mail: education@english-heritage.org.uk; Web site:(www.english-heritage.org.uk/).

PUB TYPE Guides - Classroom - Teacher (052)

EDRS PRICE MF01/PC04 Plus Postage.DESCRIPTORS Built Environment; Elementary Education; Foreign Countries;

Heritage Education; *Historic Sites; *HistoricalInterpretation; Material Culture; *Primary Sources; *Social

StudiesIDENTIFIERS *English History

ABSTRACTThis guide aims to help busy elementary teachers make the

best use of a whole range of evidence for teaching history in schools today,covering areas of study at both Key Stages 1 and 2 (in the British schoolsystem). The guide includes: clear, richly illustrated explanatory text forthe non-expert, with practical advice and project ideas; how to ask the rightquestions, teach key skills, use objects, games, documents, andinterpretations of the past; ideas for Key Stage 1, from looking at houses orfamous people or events, to using stories and timelines; the Romans inBritain; the Anglo-Saxons and the Vikings; Tudor life; Victoria's England andBritain since 1930; case studies of places relating to each period; andreproducible activity sheets for classroom use or on site visits. Contains alist of selected annotated resources for further reading. (BT)

Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be madefrom the original document.

Primary History:

Using the Evidence of the Historic Environment.

A Teacher's Guide

Mike Corbishley

Jennie Fordham

Susan Gay

Liz Hollinshead

Suzanne Spicer

David Walmsley

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONOffice of Educational Research and Improvement

EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATIONCENTER (ERIC)

O This document has been reproduced asreceived from the person or organizationoriginating it.

O Minor changes have been made to improvereproduction quality

Points of view or opinions stated in thisdocument do not necessarily represent officialOERI position or policy.

1

PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE ANDDISSEMINATE THIS MATERIAL HAS

BEEN GRANTED BY

Coral Seeley

TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCESINFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)

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ENGLISH HERITAGE

IMAHE EVIDENCE OF

IC ENVIRONMENTA I "Patti.* to-

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-401111iik

Primary History was written bymembers of the English HeritageEducation Service: Mike Corbishley,Jennie Fordham, Susan Gay, LizHollinshead, Suzanne Spicer, DavidWalmsley with help fromAmanda Feather and Ken Glen.Additional writing by Oliver Aston,formerly Primary Adviser withShropshire LEA, now a freelancein-service provider.

Educational readers: Martin Nicholls,Deputy Head, Great Oakley CEPrimary School, Essex and SallyGiovanelli,Teacher, St George theMartyr CE Primary School, Camden,London.

Cover: Pupils on a visit to ElthamPalace, London.Opposite: Pupils on a visit toLindisfarne Priory, Northumberland.

Edited and produced byMike CorbishleyDesigned by Alan McPhersonDrawings by Ronald Burch, PeterDunn, Charlotte Rogers, CoralSea ley, and Sean Whittle.Printed by Palladian Press

First published 1999 by EnglishHeritage© Copyright English Heritage, 1999

The activity sheets, drawings andphotographs which are copyright ofEnglish Heritage may be reproducedwithout written permission byeducational institutions for freedistribution for their own educationaluse.

ISBN 1-85074-650-8

All photographs and drawings are the copyright of English Heritageexcept for English Heritage Photographic Library/Skyscan BalloonPhotography 4tr, 25bm, 52 m; Mike Corbishley 4d, 22 all, 24tr & bl,25t, 69 ml, mr, mrb; CADW: Welsh Historic Monuments 13b;Dominic Powlesland 19b1 & 42t; Public Record Office 20t; EssexRecord Office 20m; Crown Copyright 20b, 59 both br, 61br, 62m;Norman Jacobs 23t; Ministry of Defence 23b1; Ordnance Survey23br;The Royal Collection Timeline 35 top row fl & fr, br, 35 toprow 541, bl; Museum of Antiquities of the University & Society ofAntiquaries Newcastle-upon-Tyne'38t; Oxford University Press 42bl; Peter Clayton 43t; British Museum 43 bl & br; St EdmundsburyBorough Council/West Stow Anglo-Saxon Village Trust 44/45 draw-ings; Yorkshire Museum 46 bl; York Archaeological Trust 47, 48-49(all); Birmingham Library Services 56 (all), 57 bl; Alan McPherson60tr & m, 64-65 (all); Susan & Jennifer Gay 61tr;63 clockwiseHu lton Getty, City of Plymouth, Mike Corbishley, TophamPicturepoint, Hu lton Getty, Public Record Office; Dover Museum66-67 (all except 66br & 67inset); Hu lton Getty 69b1.

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USING THE EVIDENCE OFTHE HISTORIC ENVIRONMENT

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ENGLISH HERITAGE

PRIMARY HISTORY

ABOUT THIS BOOKTo those of us working in heritageeducation, the most exciting newdevelopments have been inprimary history. Many teachers inprimary schools have taken up thechallenges of National Curriculumhistory and turned them intoopportunities to excite pupils witha discovery of the past. But it hasnot just been a discovery of pastcultures through textbooks.Teachers have used the pastaround them - in their own schools,in the locality and through theparents and grandparents of their

pupils. Manyschools havebuilt upcollections oflocally relatedobjects anddocuments.Some schoolshave maderecordings ofresidents andset upprojects inwhich theirown pupils

have been carrying out realhistorical detective work.This is book has been written

especially for primary teachers. Asyou turn its pages you will findillustrations of real evidence, helpand advice to bring history alive foryour pupils. Inside you will find

sections on historical enquiry andperiods of the past specified in theNational Curriculum

activity sheets which you canphotocopy to use with your pupilsin the classroom or out in the his-toric environment

case studies of places or subjectareas.

Mike Corbishley,Head of Education, English Heritage.

HISTORICAL ENQUIRYThis section introduces those areasof enquiry which your pupils willneed to be familiar with. They canthen make the best use of a wholerange of evidence from the highstreet to an ancient site.

Asking questionsand finding out 4-9

The past around uslooks at the layers ofour past with sugges-tions for introducing

some simple observation work.

Asking the rightquestions has photo-copiable activities toinvestigate houses.

Issues raises a numberof questions about the

1 long-term conservationof our past. Should wepreserve buildings justbecause they are old?

Visiting sites 10-15

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My class is in ruinsprovides advice forvisiting ancient siteswith a photocopiablechecklist to fill out

before you leave school.

Take note is aboutsimple note taking andsketching by pupils ona site probably the

simplest and easiest key skill youcan teach them.

Recording grave-stones encouragespupils to make accu-rate records of animportant source ofevidence, especially

for a local study.

1C2

Using objects 16-19

An object lesson isall about using objectsin the classroom todevelop observational

11. and analytical skills.

Object games con-tinues the work onobjects with five triedand tested games forthe classroom.

Documentary evidence 20-23

Evidence from1, documents provides.....

a checklist of some ofthe more accessible

documents for you to use in theclassroom or at the record office.

An eye for detaillooks at one type ofdocument thephotograph.

Interpretationsof history 24-29

Interpreting historyis an important part ofhistory teaching andlearning. This sectionprovides an

introduction to some of the bias inhistorical evidence.

An Anglo-Saxonhermitage is a CaseStudy in interpretinghistory.

Fabulous Fronts isan Activity Sheet totake the idea ofinterpretation intoyour local area.

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AREAS OF STUDY:KEY STAGE 1This section looks in detail at areasof the history curriculum whichcan be studied at KS1.

My house 30-34

Looking at houseshelps pupils think care-fully about their ownhouses and, using theActivity Sheets, pro-

vides interesting extension workinto Now, LongAgo and Very Long

Ago.

PRIMARY HISTORY

The Vikings 46-49 Local studies

The Vikings werenot just piratewarriors - theyalso settled largeparts of Britain.

The Case Study is of A VikingTown, York and the Jorvik VikingCentre.

The Tudors 50-53

' . Tudor Life outlinesthe Tudor period in

-s Britain and gives thebackground to some,

, of the evidence fromhouses and forts. The

Case Study is of The TudorHouse and takes asits example KirbyHall,Northamptonshire.

Famous peopleand events sug-gests ways of usingstories and time-lines. These ideasare developed in

Big history book and Make adrama.

AREAS OF STUDY:KEY STAGE 2This section provides an introduc-tion to each area of study at KS2.After each period introductionthere is at least one Case Study.

The Romans

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The Romans inBritain outlinesthe main areas ofRoman life and is

followed by a Case Study on ARoman Villa, Lullingstone inKent.

41-45:,

The Anglo-Saxons relates thehistory of their set-tlement in Britain,with a Case Studyon An Anglo-Saxon Village,West Stow in

7 Ai Suffolk.

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Victoria's Englandconcentrates on thelife and influences ofthe queen and PrinceAlbert. There are twoCase Studies forthis period -Victorian CivicPride looks atBirmingham in theVictorian period andLife in a CountryHouse is a study ofBrodsworth Hall,near Doncaster.

Mid-century Britain 60-63

Britain since 1930looks at the types ofevidence which youcan use for thisperiod and detailsthe major changes inpeople's lives,including the role ofwomen and the

changes in leisure activities.

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64-69

Three CaseStudies completethis section forKS2:Investigating a

locality shows you how easy it isto investigate a place using docu-

ments and obser-vation, Theimpact of warlooks at theevidence of theSecondWorld War onDover and The

zremnants of warinvestigates someof the clues still tobe found in our

landscape for this period.

Further readingand information 70-72

This section has a list of books andother classroom resources whichyou may use to take individualtopics further.

HISTORICAL ENQUIRY

THE PASTAROUND US

WHAT IS THE EVIDENCEFOR THE PAST?' The past is all around us' is aphrase you will often have heard.But what does it mean? Put sim-ply, it means that in Britain ourenvironment has been shaped,altered, added to and partlydestroyed many times over thecenturies. In fact, since we nowknow that human beings were hereat least half a million years ago,there has been great scope forchange. We know that there arehardly any 'natural' landscapes leftin Britain. You will find evidence ofhuman occupation and use of ourlandscape, practically everywhere.This evidence might be veryobvious for example:

an ancient building such as acathedral

or a constructed landscape suchas parkland around a countryhouse

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Padbury, Bucks, medieval ridge andfurrow fields.

or it might be harder to spot with-out help such as:

the remains of a medieval townplan hidden within modern towndevelopments

or evidence of some ancient set-tlement from scatters of material,such as flints or pottery or bones,in a field, or earthworks.

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Audley End House, Essex.

IN YOUR STREETThe past is not somewhere which is along coach journey from your school.Here is a city street which has seenmany changes since the last century.Investigating the past in your ownneighbourhood may allow you tomake more out-of-school visits andcollect resources, such as maps andother documents more easily. Pupilscould draw, rather than photograph,rows of buildings like these.

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The layersof our pastWherever you live orteach, you will simply beinhabiting the topmostlayer of the past. Whereyour school is, whatmaterials it is built of,even what it is called willprobably have been influ-enced by what or whowas there before. It issometimes hard forpupils to see the layers ofthe past. Too often we aretold to get back into thepast without any help.Have you ever heard any-one say, on an ancientsite, 'Imagine what is waslike as a Romansoldier/Saxon farmer/medieval monk/slave/millworker here'? It is noteasy to make that imagi-native leap into the past.But there are ways ofconstructing 'steppingstones' which can helppupils.

Parish churches usuallyhave had a number ofadditions, such as porchesor chapels.

ASKING QUESTIONS AND FINDING OUT

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This is an obvious exampleof an addition to a modernhouse.

A clear example of ablocked-in window and astreet name to investigate.

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Travel back into thepast from the present.Start where your pupilsare - in their homes or inthe school classroom.

Encourage your pupilsto think about the shapeof a familiar environmentand ask them to look forsimilar evidence in olderbuildings or ancient sites.

Look for simplechanges in homes, inschool and in modernstreets. It will help themdiscover changes moreeasily in past environ-ments.

Ask the same questionsabout three differentbuildings.

Why are particularbuilding materials used?

Does the shape of thebuilding help us work outwhat it was used for?

Is there any evidenceto suggest that it might bea new or old building?

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HISTORICAL ENQUIRY

ASKING THERIGHT QUESTIONS

By looking closely at a buildingand asking relevant questions youcan encourage pupils to find outabout it for themselves. There arefive types of questions which canbe used as a framework in examin-ing the evidence. They are:

WHAT questions: what is thisplace for? What needs was thisbuilding designed to meet?

HOW questions: how was itbuilt?

WHY questions: why was itbuilt? Why was it built here?

WHEN questions: when was itbuilt? When was it changed?

WHO questions: who built it?Who lived here?

What and how questions make agood starting point for any workon site. They require pupils tothink about a building as a system,as a place people lived or workedor worshipped in and as a buildingdesigned to meet certain needs.Once the what and how questionshave been investigated there will belots of information to help in work-ing out the who, when and why.

WHEN WAS IT BUILT?Pupils can try to decide if theythink a house is older or youngerthan the house they live in, orother houses in the town or villagearound them.

WHEN WAS IT CHANGED?The shape of windows and doorsis a good indication of the date of abuilding, but they are also thefeatures which get most often

updated. Houses are constantlybeing modified to meet new needsand new demands. Alterations canreflect a need for more space, morestatus, keeping up with fashion, ora change of use in the building.Changes in brick and stonework,lines of old arches and bricked upfireplaces or windows, new-lookingpipes and different shaped win-dows can all provide valuable clues

about changes which have takenplace over time.

Use the photocopiable activityLooking at change and ask pupils todecide which of these houses camefirst, then try to put them all inchronological order.

Ask your pupils to look out fordifferent building materials.

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RIGHT: Classical influencecontinued to dominate moremodest town houses until theVictorian period. These are inHackney, London.

Looking at changeLabel the pictures ofthis house from 1 to 6in date order

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HISTORICAL ENQUIRY

Because we live in such a crowdedplace, it is inevitable that some-times the old will have to give wayto the new. The issues involved inchoosing to preserve part of ourpast are complex but pupils shouldbe encouraged to think aboutthem. After all, they will need tolive with the decisions made by ustoday. Just think of the problemswe have to put up with todaybecause of some 1960s' buildingdesigns!Take these invented issues set out

in a newspaper format (opposite),or find real ones from your ownarea. There are more ideas fordealing with issues of conservation,especially in newspapers, inFurther reading and information.

Topics for issues could include:

Hospitals

11

ISSUES

War memorials

War memorials are still valuedtoday by communities and manylocal people will still be related tothose who died during the twoWorld Wars.

Memorials were usually posi-tioned so that they could be seenfrom a number of different pointsin the town or village, perhaps onan island at the meeting of three ormore roads. Road patterns, anduse, have changed enormouslysince the last war.

Nineteenth-century hospitalswere built to very different stan-dards to those of today. Likeschools of the same period, theyare not necessarily easy to convertor adapt.

The building itself may be pro-tected by law. If the health trustdecides to sell the building, it maybe saved by adapting it for otheruses, such as flats.

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Medieval bridges

A good example of an ancientmonument with no practical usetoday.

However, it is an important land-mark which people would not wantto see destroyed.

Local examples of large sums ofmoney being released by theLottery for 'heritage' or artsprojects could be discussed.

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Churches

The parish church will often bethe oldest building in the locality.Many are protected by law.

Any alteration or additions toprotected buildings must receiveconsent and archaeological andsurvey work must be carried out inadvance.

People often feel that ancientmonument or historic buildingprotection should not stand in theway of 'progress'.

Pubs

Here there might be a questionof whether we should replicate oldbuildings. Pubs are often placeswhere 'old' things are displayedfor example, iron ploughs orantique ships' wheels often quiteout of context.

Do people really hate 'modern'buildings? Or are we afraid that the`new' will not fit in with the 'old'?

Are we losing another part of ourheritage when the names of pubsare changed? For example, fromThe Queen's Head to the Slug andLettuce?

ASKING QUESTIONS AND FINDING OUT

THE WEEKLY ECHOServing the peopleSAVE OURHOSPITAL!

Ard Friday April

Local residents angry overclosure plans

Residents in the Greenfieldsarea of town today learnt ofnew health trust plans toclose the emergency depart-ment of the hospital. Localcampaigner, John Hoskynssaid, "We knew that sooneror later the Trust would admitthat our 100 year old hospitalwould close. When the emer-gency department goes, that'llbe it". A Trust spokeswomanissued a statement whichemphasised its commitmentto providing local health carefor local people, but admittedthat maintaining an old build-ing was too costly for them.

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On the ring road - youcan't miss us.

'IT'S AN OUTRAGE

SAYS WAR VETERAN'

Bryan Magee, 85-year warveteran from the Alder Treeestate, was in blistering moodtoday after he found out thatthe roads department of theCounty Council were goingto move the War Memorial."My comrades are commem-orated there as well as a gen-eration before them who fell

in the Great War. It's simplynot right to dismantle it andput up a plaque in the townhall. I'm getting up a petitionand I've got 30 signaturesalready." The War Memorialwas put up after the FirstWorld War by public sub-scription and further nameswere added after 1945. Thememorial was the work of alocal firm, Cosby (2 Sons, for-merly at Union Street(now the Co-op).

11110 ROM 70PRAY". SAYS LOCAL

CO1101073011

Local worshippersat St Margaret's,Great Blessingford,

are hoping thattheir diocese willgive permissionfor a new room tobe added to theirchurch. Church-warden Jill

1

I1Hanratty said,"We know thechurch is very oldbut we must movewith the times. Weneed better facili-ties like toilets anda room for nursing

mothers if we areto attract ayounger congre-gation". The coun-ty's archaeologistssay the church'sorigins are Saxonand that it hadbeen altered andadded to in the12th to 14thcenturies.

LOTTERY LOLLY FOR LOCAL LANDMARKBy our villages correspondent

Villagers at Great Brentleywere overjoyed yesterdayas newsreached themthat their bid forLottery moneyhad been suc-cessful. Now£167,000 will beavailable to repair theancient medieval pack-horse bridge which is the

centre piece of theirvillage. The bridge was

closed to traffic in1974 after dan-gerous crackswere discoveredand a new bridgebuilt. Repairs thenwere only £2,500

- the cost of maintainingancient monuments hascertainly risen since then!

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It wasn't 'Time gentlemenplease' which landlord, KenMcVitie aged 28, shouted atabout closing time on Saturday

at the King's Head in LambsLane. He was shocked to dis-cover a fire raging in the cellar

and the pub had to be evacuat-

ed. The fire had taken holdeven before the local fire ser-vice could reach the pub. Thepub is one of the town's few his-

toric buildings and was datedto 1765. Its timber structurehas been almost entirelydestroyed. Mr McVitie is deter-

mined to carry on though, "We

will simply have to build areplica King's Head. My cus-tomers like to drink in familiarsurroundings".

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- ---HISTORICAL ENQUIRY

MY CLASS IS INRUINS

Many teachers worry about visit-ing and using ruined sites ancientmonuments - with their classes.Some believe that the 'countryhouse' is easier because it isfull of things to see. In fact ruins,without the accumulated junk ofthe past, can often be more stimu-lating for pupils. It can make themthink and use their imagination. Itis also an opportunity to investi-gate interpretations that people inthe present, and the recent past,have put on the remains.

Preparation is particularly impor-tant as pupils will not be used toseeing what is, essentially, a plan ofa building with, perhaps, somewalls surviving to roof height. Youcould use some of these ideasbefore you make a site visit:

Get your pupils tomake a plan of theirown

classroom. Make sure that theyadd the position of windows and,in particular, doors. They shouldplot in any features, such as built-in cupboards, sinks and radiators.Desks, worktops, bookcases andchairs should also be added.

Compare these with other plans,perhaps of ancient sites or build-ings so that they are familiar withthe idea.

Once on site you might use theseideas:

Ask your pupils to walk aroundthe site themselves, perhaps work-ing in pairs or small groups. Tellthem that they must only enterrooms through the doorwaysnever walk over the walls. Askthem to try to make sense of whatthey are investigating. Where are

the entrances Arethere any

windows)

If you provide them with a planof the site, they could identifyother features, such as fireplaces ora water supply.

Get them to look for clues toupper floors which have long sincegone - for example, holes for floorjoists, fireplaces and windows sethigh in a wall and the remains ofstaircases.

Ask them to question the evi-dence they can see - for example,does a room with fine decoration, agrand fireplace and large windowstell us that it was for someoneimportant? Do tiny slit-like win-dows, thick walls and stoutentrances indicate a defensivestructure?

Sometimes only the foundationsof buildings survive. Explain whatfoundations are and look for mod-ern ones in buildings being builtnow.

Back at school you might return tothe plan they prepared of theirclassroom and ask them how an

archaeologist of the futuremight interpret

the remains.How didpeople get inand out?What wasthe roomused for andby what sort

of people?

VISITING SITES

ORGANISATION CHECKLISTAlways check that you have:

made the purpose of the visit clear to all colleagues and helpers concerned

confirmed all bookings in writing

checked insurance cover

completed a Risk Assessment form if required by your school or LEA

obtained permission slips from all parents of pupils intending to go on the visit

received enough voluntary contributions to cover the cost of the visit

informed parents why the visit is taking place, what clothing pupils should wear, what timethe coach is due back at school, what the lunch arrangements are and how much money (ifany) their children might need

booked the coach and checked times with the company

organised adequate staff supervision/ratio

informed other colleagues that you will be out of school on the day

organised appropriate provision for any pupil with special needs

gathered all the necessary equipment and first aid boxes

compiled an accurate register of all pupils on the visit and that you have left a copy with the

school secretary

left emergency contact numbers for the site with the school secretary.

RESOURCES CHECKLISTThe following list contains basic requirements and would need to be amended in light ofthe planned on-site activities:

clipboards (one per pupil)

suitable paper for recording observations

(A4 size)

large drawing boards and paper (A3 size)

writing/drawing equipment for each pupil

(pencils are more useful than pens)

measuring equipment

a box of art equipment

tape recorder(s)

Polaroid or digital camera(s)

video camcorder(s)

plans of the site

first aid box.

HISTORICAL ENQUIRY

TAKE NOTEHow many times, on a visit to anhistoric site, have you said to yourclass something like 'Have a goodlook round and make a few noteson what you see'? But this can be ademanding task for many pupils,and the skill of note taking is tooimportant to be left to chance.

DEVELOPING NOTE TAKINGOne way to develop note taking isto encourage simple annotations ofsketches made on site. In the draw-ing of Coalport Bridge, the Y5pupil has used brief comments toaugment observations on thestructure of the bridge. Notice howtechnical, historical and personalinformation makes this a usefulworking document, not just a col-lection of random jottings. Simpleannotations, too, could be made onphotographs, perhaps Polaroids

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developed on site or added later inthe classroom

Initial sketchesThe use of notes on initial sketchescan be used in two ways First, toprovide prompts for furtherresearch back at school into, forexample, when the building wasconstructed Pupils might alsothink about whether all the sec-tions were built at the same time

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and why different materials wereused for different sections. Second,to provide working notes for amore detailed and revised sketch aspart of communicating history in avariety of ways.

MAKING OBSERVATIONSAnother strategy is to encouragelimited observation. In the open-ended activity sheet for a visit toHarlech Castle, the pupil has beenconfined to three observations.Notice, too, how this Y6 historianis beginning to make guesses andpose further questions. She usedfurther resources as the visit devel-oped to answer some of her ownquestions.

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PRE-VISIT PREPARATIONThere are useful activities that canbe done in school prior to any visitthat will encourage successful notetaking. These need not be relatedto the planned visit but will beginto develop the skills of note takingand annotating a sketch. Forexample:

give small groups of pupils anold artefact or object and ask themto write five words that describewhat they see

extend this activity by passingthe objects around and asking forone or two short sentences

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VISITING SITES

give pupils a short piece of his-torical narrative, for example asuitable news item from last week'slocal paper. Ask them to use ahighlighter to pick out the signifi-cant words. You could extend thisactivity to writing three key sen-tences that summarise the item.

OTHER RECORDINGMETHODSThere are, of course, other waysthat pupils can record theirobservations. Many schools nowhave an increasingly sophisticatedrange of equipment - from audioand video recorders to digitalcameras. You could also try pro-ducing specially-designed activitysheets or problem-solvingscenarios.

Note taking, however, remainsthe simplest and cheapest key skillto teach and to use.

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HISTORICAL ENQUIRY

RECORDINGGRAVESTONES

Whether your school is in anurban or rural area, it will not bevery far away from a churchyardor municipal cemetery. Here youwill find an exciting source of realhistorical evidence to examine,record and analyse. The moststriking aspect of graveyards in this

-

country is the number ofmemorials inside a relatively smallspace - perhaps as many as 20million survive in this countrytoday. You might find somemedieval memorials in yournearest church or churchyard, butyou are more likely to see grave-stones from the eighteenth andnineteenth centuries.

SYMBOLISMSymbols in carvings or statuesare often used on memorials toconvey a message about attitudesto death, as these examples show.

hour glasslscythe

MAKING A RECORDING Recording the information is important, andreal, historical work which your pupils can do.You could use a specially-designed recordingform (see page 70) but they should, at least, berecording the following information:

inscription

any decoration

shape of memorial

condition of memorial

type (s) of material Ased.

I P.BEST COPY AVAILM' LE

Try recording grave-stones and memorialswith a still or videocamera.

ANALYSING THE DATAA whole wealth of data can be col-lected from graveyard memorialswhich you can analyse back atschool, for example:

by putting the gravestones inchronological order and seeinghow decoration and inscriptionsvary from century to century

by showing the periods whensome parts of the graveyard wereused

ugf!Ts

by drawing family trees frominscriptions

by investigating mortality statis-tics (for example, the age at deathof all males)

by making a graph of the mostpopular first names of people whodied during a specific period (forexample, from 1850-1950) .

BEST COPY AVAILABLE is

VISITING SITES

IMPORTANTAlways get permisSiori to takeyour class to visit and record. thegravestones in a churchyard.Youwill need to be especially Oarefulabout going into

where burials still take place

visi-tors

which have been set aside for

Gravestones often have, .

lichen growing On them.Do not allow your pup*,to rub it off to read Sheinscription.qateful_observatiOn,times glancing light, willusually allow worn orobscured inscriptions to,be-read.''.

HISTORICAL ENQUIRY

AN OBJECT LESSONWHY USE OBJECTS?Don't you just hate those muse-ums or country houses whichmake it plain to you, the teacher,

that your class shouldn't eventhink of touching anything!Of course, there will be verygood reasons why someobjects, and even some build-ings, should be kept behindbarriers. But people like totouch things. You can onlylearn a certain amount byobservation. Objects (evenreplicas) brought into the

classroom may help you motivatepupils more than the written wordor discussion. 'Things' being han-dled by pupils will usually spark aninterest, then curiosity which youcan channel into further research.

DEVELOPING SKILLSHandling objects will help yourpupils develop a number of skillsincluding:

handling and observing

comparing, deducing and evalu-ating

recognising and identifying

expressing themselves clearly

classifying

recording and presenting.

Asking questionsGet your pupils to ask questions ofthe objects, perhaps using thechart opposite. You could encour-age your pupils to devise their ownquestions. The question youshould never start with is 'What is

it?' or ' What is the namefor this?'. This questionwill simply close downother observations anddeductions.

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RECORDINGClose observation can be accom-panied by recording. Think aboutusing a number of techniques tosuit your own pupils, for example:

careful drawing fromdifferent anglesHow many drawings might oneobject need to explain to otherswhat it was like?

-to

Close observationA good way to develop closeobservation is to start with a famil-iar object. It might be a piece ofclassroom furniture, such as achair, or something smaller,such as a pencil.You could talkyour pupils through the observa-tion and deduction stages. Useother objects or constructions inthe classroom to reinforce deduc-tions. For example, if they con-clude that the chair is made ofwood, look for other examples ofthe materials which surround themand you.

Think about asking older members ofyour community to talk with yourpupils about objects they once used.

written descriptionAsk your pupils to think carefullyabout the words they use. What isbig to one person, is quitedifferent to another.

tape-recorded orvideo-taped descriptionAlternative methods of recordingmay help pupils to developliterary skills.

LOOKING AT AN OBJECT

The main thingsto think about

Some furtherquestions to ask

Things found outby looking

Things to beresearched

WHAT DOESIT LOOKAND FEELLIKE?

Colour?Smell?Sound?Made of?Natural or manufactured?Complete?Changed/mended?Worn?

HOW WASIT MADE?

By hand?By machine?Fixed together by what?

WHAT WAS ITMADE FOR?

Used for?Has the use changed?

IS IT WELLDESIGNED?

Does it do its job?Made of the best materials?Decorated?How decorated?Like the look of it?Would others like the lookof it?

WHAT IS ITWORTH?

To those who made it?To those who used it?To you?To a museum?

THE MYSTERY OBJECT

One good way of encouraging I've never seenobservation and deduction is to one of theseprovide pupils with a mystery beforeobject. It is not always easy to findsomething whichno pupil will haveseen before. Fewmodern items willwork (althoughalmost no pupilsin urban schoolswill recognize aclay pigeon!).Some objectsfrom the last waror from theVictorian periodwill usually suf-fice. Which way up does it go? What does it do?

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What is it made of?

91

USING OBJECTS

It looks old andworn

The idea of the`mystery object' isto take away theknowledge of whatit is (what it iscalled). This helpspupils concentrateon thinking careful-ly and reachingconclusions basedon the evidencethey hold in theirhands.

(311J-013 WILVA LOH .axoas, v )

HISTORICAL ENQUIRY

OBJECT GAMESLEARNING FROMFRAGMENTSIt is one thing to use whole objectsin the classroom. It is quite anoth-er to ask pupils to cope with frag-ments of objects. Archaeologistswork mostly from fragments -pieces of broken bone, bits of pot-tery, discarded building materials.They usually only find a fragmentof what once formed the wholepicture. Many things rot away orare re-used in a completely differ-ent situation. Here are somegames to play with your classto help them look at evidence.

KEY STAGE IDEAS

At KS1

Play the 'Feely BagGame'. Put an object in acloth bag or pillow case. Askone pupil to put her handsinside and describe to theothers what she can feelbut without giving it aname. The others have toguess what the hiddenobject is.You could start with famil-

iar objects and move ontohistoric ones.

At KS 2

Play the 'Left LuggageGame'. Put a number ofobjects inside a suitcase. Aska group of pupils to investi-gate each object and try towork out what sort of per-son owned the suitcase andits objects. Do the contentsindicate where he (or is it ashe) was going to, or was hecoming from somewhere?

THE SKELETON GAMEAsk one of your class to 'playdead'. Tell them ' This isWhat can we find out aboutBut we can't ask her any questions.We have to figure out what kind ofperson she is only from what she iswearing and carrying.

Let's imagine has been buriedfor about 2000 years. What will beleft of and what she is wearingand carrying?'You can then dis-

cuss the difficulties of buildingup a picture from slender evi-dence.

THE POTATO GAME.Give each pupil in a groupa potato (or you couldequally use an apple) andask them to write down a

detailed description so thatother members of the groupcannot see what they have

written. When they havefinished, collect the potatoesand put them in the centre.Pupils must find the rightpotato as the descriptions areread out. Alternatively, thisexercise can be done bydrawn rather than writtendescriptions.

a

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Pupils playing the 'LeftLuggage Game'.

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THE DUSTBIN GAME

Here is a photograph of a 'slicethrough' a real dustbin.You couldeasily produce similar evidence bytipping out the clasroom's wastepaper basket after a day's use.There are two routes you canguide your class along:

Route 1Archaeologists are like policedetectives - looking for the small-est clues to help them find outwhat happened in the past.Whatdoes this rubbish tell us about thepeople who threw it away? Askpupils to give the evidence toanswer questions such as

Are there any children in thisfamily?

What kinds of food do they eat?

Do they have any pets?

What sort of pets and howmany?

What season of the year is it?Are they Easter eggs wrappers orbits of Christmas decorations?

Ask your pupils if the dustbinrubbish can tell us anything else.

Route 2In the past, people got rid of theirrubbish wherever they couldthey dug pits, threw it into ditches,filled hollows in the landscape,used old wells and spread it onfields. Let's imagine that this dust-bin-full has been buried some-where. After some time (depend-ing on soil conditions) quite a lotof it will have rotted away. Organicmaterial (that is, things whichwere once living such as paper orwood) will tend to rot quickerthan inorganic things (that is,things which were never 'alive',such as plastic or metal).

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The large dark areas here are rubbish pitsexposed by archaeologists at the Saxonsettlement of West Heslerton (see page 42)

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USING OBJECTS

TASKAsk pupils to work out what the archaeologist might be left with after all the organic material had rotted

away. How difficult might it be, then, to reach conclusions about the people who threw this rubbish away?

HISTORICAL ENQUIRY

EVIDENCE FROMDOCUMENTS

WHAT ARE DOCUMENTS?Documentary evidence comes inmany different forms - from hand-written parchments tophotographs. Though all docu-ments are important evidence forstudying the past, only some arestored securely in record offices(see below). You will find manyinteresting and useful sources inyour own locality.

TYPES OF DOCUMENTSThe list of documents below is byno means exhaustive but doesinclude the most useful for study-ing people and places with pupils.

Census records were first collect-ed in 1801 and a similar exercisehas been carried out every tenyears since then (with the excep-tion of 1941). From 1841 theinformation collected was moreprecise.

Parish registers were introducedto record the main events in thelives of Christians births andbaptisms, marriages and burialsand were kept (in theory) in eachparish from 1538 onwards.

Maps exist for some sections ofthe country from the medievalperiod. Maps of estates becomemore common from the sixteenthcentury. Maps were drawn upunder the Enclosure Acts of theeighteenth and nineteenth cen-turies. The Ordnance Surveybegan to map the whole countryon a scale of 1 inch to 1 mile fromthe beginning of the nineteenthcentury. Tithe maps and accompa-

Victorian store in Byfield,Northamptonshire.

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vying documents, called awards,were drawn up for most placesbetween 1836 and 1850 to workout how much each landowner ortenant owed the church in tithe.

Photographs exist in large num-bers from the nineteenth centuryonwards. They can catch the moodof the time and provide invaluableevidence for events, people andplaces.

Estate map of Goddard's Farm,Thaxted, Essex 1706.

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Local directoriesTrades or Post Office directorieswere like the Yellow Pages of thenineteenth century. They provide awealth of information, for exam-ple, lists of householders, tradesand shops, important buildingsand communication routes. Theseexamples come from Kelly'sDirectory of Essex, 1895.

Cure Rev. Lawrence Capel B.A. RetryRattee Rev. James E. (Congregatid)Barker Thos. S. frmr. Berwick's frm

Ludgater rev. Henry M.A. RectoryCOMMERCIAL.

Aldham Thomas Allaker, farmer &landowner, Highams

Aylett Elizabeth (Miss), Carpenters'Arms P.H

Clay Lieut.-Col. Albert Newby J.P.Slades

Howard Rev. John B.A. RectorycomummuL.

Blower John Parker, shopkeeper, Butthatch

ABBOT'S ROOMING.Blowes John, beer retailer & carrierKinsey James, farmer, Nether streetMetson Jacob, farmer, Parker's farm

AYTHROP ROOTHING.

Aylett John. beer retailerBelsham Thos. miller (wind & steam)Myth Charles, farm bailiff to Mr.

John Gingell, Friar's grangeCaton W. Draper, farmerClayden Thomas, grocer & draper

BEAUCHAMP ROOTHING.

Elliott Alfred, farmerHammond Arthur, builderHorsnell Geo. shopkeeper, Birds greenNewman George, farmer. Long BarnesSpeller Elizabeth (Mrs.), Swan inn,

Birds green

PARKESTON QUAY, formed by the Great EasternRailway Co. and oened for traffic in 1883, is situatedupon the Stour, 2i miles up the river, and was con-structed for developing their Continental traffic. Thisquay, with station and loop line, occupied four years inconstruction, and cost about £500,000. Although a littlehigher up the river than the old pier, there is a savingof time in starting from Parkeston quay, on account ofthe clearer course, and consequently the boat train leavesLondon later than hitherto. About 600 acres of land havebeen acquired by the company, the greater portion re-claimed from the bed of the river, by a curved embank-ment 24 miles long ; in the centre of the curve is thequay, 1,800 feet long, affording berths for seven vessels,-while seven more can be moored in the river. The quay-wall is formed by screw piles, those in front being 2 feetan diameter, and those at the back being z foot 6 in. ;between them are concrete cylinders of seven rings each,and 9 feet in outside diameter, sunk in pairs. On thequay are two goods warehouses, each 52o feet long by zoofeet wide. A passenger gangway 40 feet wide leads tothe central building of 350 feet frontage, which serves forthe station and hotel. All the buildings and platformsare erected upon piles, of which there are more thanz,000, sunk to the ancient bed of the river.

The church of St. Nicholas is a structure of white brickin the debased Perpendicular style, consisting of chancel,nave, tholes and an embattled western tower, with pinna-cles and spire, containing a clock and 8 bells : it was re-built and enlarged in 1821 by subscription and a rate :there are three partially-stained windows in the chancel,and in the vestry is a tablet containing the names of thevicars of this church from. 1336 to 1874: there are 1,500sittings, of which z,000 are free. The register datesfrom the year z55o. The living is a vicarage, averagettithe rent-charge £45, net yearly value .4i, in the gift-of J. E. A. Gwynne esq. F.S.A. of Folkington manor,Polegate, Sussex.

St. Nicholas Mission room, Bathside, erected in May,1879, is a wooden building, and will seat 4o persons.

There is an iron Mission church at Parkeston, seatingah 011 t rnn TtATIZATII G

FINDING THE RECORDSDocuments can be found in localor county record offices and inlocal study sections of publiclibraries.

Always work out in advancehow you want to use documentsas part of your curriculum work.

Go and see what records andfacilities are available.

Ask if the office or library hasan education officer or specialschool packs.

Try the internet to access localarchive information.

BEST COPY AVAILABLE

Parmenter Mary (Mrs.), Anchor P.HThurgood James, farmer, Rookwoode

& Abbot's halls

Dunmow John, farmer, Cut ElmsLivermore Charles, jun. farmer, Ay-

th rop hallMatthams James Barnard, farmerShead Mary Ann (Mrs.), blacksmithStokes William, farmer, Keers

Read James, farmer, Butt hatchWalden Joseph, farmer, Willie's farmWarder Nathan, farm bailiff to Messrs.

Duffield & Bruity, Wood endWhitbread Hy. beer ret. Birds green

Grafton (The) Fur Company Limited164 New Rood street, London WThe leading house for furs in London

International Far Store

Trade Mark.163 & tea Regent street W. Thelargest stock of furs of any house inLondon

Household removals

GREAT OAKLEY is a village and parish, on RamseyCreek, a feeder of the Stour, and on the road from Col-chester to Harwich, 5 miles north from Thorpe-le-Sokenstation on the Colchester and Walton-on-the-Naze line, and

4 south from Wrabness station on the Harwich and Man-ningtree branch of the Great Eastern railway, 6 south-westfrom Harwich, 7 south-east from Manningtree, 54 from Col-

chester and 65 from London, in the North Eastern divisionof the county, hundred, petty sessional division and unionof Tendring, Harwich county court district and in therural deanery of Ardleigh and Harwich,' archdeaconry ofColchester and diocese of St. Albans. The church of AllSaints is an ancient building of stone and brick, partly Nor-

man and consisting of chancel and nave and a belfry con-taining one bell : in the nave is a tablet to the Rev. Richard

Drake M.A. rector here 1718, who erected an almshouse for

four aged women of the parish : there is a fine Norman font

of polished marble, supported on five stone shafts thechurch was restored in 188o, wl 21.moved and the pews replaced by open bellow at a cost

of Alpo, defrayed by zeneral contributions: during the

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NATIONALSAVINGS

CERTIFICATES

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ROR 14 01.01r!CARD SIR RACE

At KS1Use a collection

of old photographsof people andbuildings with pho-tographs of sur-roundings whichare familiar to them(family, school,locality) and askpupils to look fordifferences (such asclothes, hairstyles,cars) andsimilarities (build-ings unchanged,postboxes).

Use the pho-tographs to extendtheir ideas aboutmodern, old, veryold, very very oldby gradually intro-ducing them tochanges such asfashion.

COMMUNITY RECORDSSources of documentary evidenceare easy to collect from parents,governors and friends. Most peo-ple have records of their familiesgoing back at least one generation.Some of the most common areillustrated here.

School recordsIf you are lucky your school willhave records stored there. If notyou should enquire at your nearestrecord office. Look out for:

Log books The principal teacherhad to make an entry at least oncea week. You will find informationabout a variety of subjects such asattendance, punishments, nationalevents, weather, illness and pupils'achievements.

KEY STAGE IDEAS

Introduce them tothe idea of docu-ments by compar-ing present-daydocuments (such asbus pass, passport,credit card, super-market till receipt,train ticket) witholder documents inthe original or fac-simile (such as shopreceipt, oldbus/train ticket,ration book).

At KS 2Use a modern

map/street plan toplot which parts oftheir local sur-roundings still existand which are nowmissing or havebeen changed.Compare with oldermaps from the localstudies collection.

Use old pho-tographs to look forthe number ofchanges which havetaken place, forexample fashions,technology, differ-ent building materi-als, words and stylesused for shop orindustry advertise-ments.

Using one or twoexamples, look atthe way languagehas changed indocuments. Forexample, comparethe words used todescribe a businessin a post officedirectory with theway a similar busi-ness is described intheYellow Pages.

DOCUMENTARY EVIDENCE

AN EYEFOR DETAIL

Photographs are an easy historicalsource to come by. Most townsand many villages have books ofold photos published about them.Your local record office, museumor library will have collections. Youcan find them in old newspapers aswell. You could also make yourown collection. Look out for post-cards in book or antique shops, butdon't forget to ask parents of yourpupils or other people in your area.

WHAT'S GOING ON HERE?This photo (RIGHT) was takenc1903. It shows the bandstandbuilt in 1889 when Clacton had aresident German band as well asvisiting regimental military bands.You could enlarge this picture andask pupils to think about thefollowing, perhaps using a magni-fying glass:

what are the clues which indicatethat the sea is in front of this pic-ture (man with binoculars, chil-dren looking over fence, people sit-ting in deckchairs facing that way,glass panels around the bandstandto keep the wind off?)

the sorts of clothes people arewearing (how many types ofhats?). Compare these with whatpeople would wear today at theseaside.

there is a pram and a pushchair.How do they differ from ones inuse today?

You might follow up by looking atdocumentary evidence. The censusand ticket returns show the popu-larity of Clacton on Sea:

Census 1891: 651Census 1901: 7,456Pier tickets 1883: 92,873Pier tickets 1893: 327,450

The Bandstand, Clacton on Sea.

SPOTTING CHANGESThese two photographs (Brow)are of Exeter, Devon, taken 42years apart. They are from EnglishHeritage's National MonumentsRecord. You could ask your pupilsto look out and discuss:

changes over time. For exam-ple, the 1946 photograph showsareas of bomb damage which havebeen filled in by 1988.

land use. For example, areasclose to the river were used forindustry in 1946 but had beenredeveloped for housing by 1988.

new roads. For example, whilesome main roads have survived onthe 1988 photograph, it is clearthat Exeter now has a major innercity road system with roundabouts,flyovers and bridges.

1946 027 1988

HISTORICAL ENQUIRY

INTERPRETINGHISTORY

`"T..

Different types of interpretation for thevisitor at Hai les Abbey, Gloucestershire.

"There is no such thing as a fact inhistory". Discuss.

This might be a good startingpoint for you to begin thinkingabout how to teach interpretationof history. Everything you see, hearor read has been presented to usthrough an interpreter. Theinterpreter might be

an historian reading a manu-script and giving a view of what itmeans

an archaeologist analysing the

arcjit--

Re-enactors from the Ermine StreetGuard group at Wroxeter RomanCity, Shropshire.

results of an excavation or a surveyof a landscape and publishing areport of what it appears to mean

a restorer of the physical fabricof an historic site who draws onevidence from elsewhere tore-create what a building mighthave looked like

an interpreter or writer whopresents a story of what aparticular part of the past seems tobe, through displays, exhibitions,guidebooks, guided tours orre-enactments.

In some places the interpretationcan be in the form of actualreconstruction. You can see exam-ples on pages 48-49 from TheJorvik Viking Centre. This physical

The main gate to the Roman fort atSaalburg, Germany.

reconstruction of part of a Romanfort in Germany was based onexcavation of the site. Archaeo-logists and Roman historians canargue about whether it is a'correct' reconstruction but at leastit provides the visitor with animpression of what it might havebeen like here in Roman times.

The refectory at RievazilxAbbey, North Yorkshire withan artist's impression Howmuch is based on the evidenceseen on site and how muchhas been left to the artist'sown interpretatzon

ARTISTS' IMPRESSIONSMany historic sites and museumsuse artists' impressions of what aplace or an object or an eventmight have looked like in the past.They are probably the most readilyaccessible resource for both class-room and on-site use (see page 71for further information). They areparticularly useful for site visitsbecause:

they recreate missing parts of asite to help pupils to understandabout life in the past

they can be used as an exampleof the way in which the past isinterpreted

they provide an additional typeof visual source to supplementphotographs, paintings or illustrat-ed manuscripts

they allow pupils to identifyaspects of the site which haveremained unchanged (continuity)and those parts which have beenaltered (change)

they help teachers show how abuilding might have looked at aparticular point in its history

they provide an accessibleresource not dependent on apupil's reading ability.

3 `^ {INTERPRETATIONS OF HISTORY

Part of the museum display atAvebury, Wiltshire.

ONLY HALF THE STORY?The photograph above shows howEnglish Heritage tried to encour-age visitors to the museum atAvebury Stone Circle to thinkabout evidence and how it mightbe interpreted. The museum exhi-bition and displays tell the story ofthe circle, something about life atthe time and how the circle wasexcavated in the 1920s and 1930s.

)11."Pis.

The siege of Dover Castle by the French in 1216dramatically presented in an artist's impression.

This full size Neolithic figure wasdeliberately dressed in two halves:

the half on the right shows arather raggedly-dressed man cop-ing with his existence. The clothesare dull and are based on survivingevidence.

the other half on the left shows amuch more colourful figure. Hisbody is painted and tattooed andhis clothes are much better madeand has different types of jewelleryattached.

The two halves represent theextremes of interpretation in tworespects. First they represent somepeople's view that prehistoricpeople lived dull, rather barbariclives while others that prehistoricpeople at this time were generallyquite sophisticated - or they wouldnot have been able to create a soci-ety which produced amazingmonuments such as Avebury andStonehenge. Second, the 'dull' halfis based purely on surviving evi-dence from fragments of fabricfrom graves, while the 'colourful'half uses evidence from elsewherein Neolithic Britain (and Europe)where tattooed skin and beautiful-ly-made jewellery has survived.

41.-

Kenilworth Castle,Warwickshire The castletoday seen from the air andan artist's impression ofwhat it might have beenlike in the Elizabethanperiod.

AN ANGLO-SAXONHISTORICAL BACKGROUNDLindisfarne Priory was founded in635 by Aidan, a monk from theisland monastery of Iona in south-west Scotland. King Oswald hadinvited him to convert his kingdomof Northumbria to Christianity.The island site provided a degree

of seclusion for the monks, towhich they had been accustomedon Iona, while bcing easily accessi-ble from the mainland and underthe protection the royal fortress ofBamburgh six miles away.The Priory's most famous inhabi-

tant in the seventh century wasCuthbert, who later becameBishop of Lindisfarne from 685-7.He was noted for his travels topreach to the north's scatteredcommunities, his desire to live asolitary life on St Cuthbert's Islandand the island of Inner Fame (bothare close to Lindisfarne), his affini-ty with birds and animals and hismiracles of healing. After his death,Cuthbert was canonised and hisgrave became the focus of pilgrim-ages, one of the most importantcentres of Christianity in Anglo-Saxon England.

THE TASKEnglish Heritage, the guardians ofLindisfarne Priory, wanted to showthe public, in guidebooks and exhi-bition displays, what St Cuthbert'shermitage on the island of InnerFame may have looked like in thelate seventh century AD. Themedium chosen was an artist'spainting. The painter chosen wasPeter Dunn, a reconstruction artistemployed by English Heritage.

THE PROCESSPeter used a number of sources tocomplete the reconstruction:

the remains of the site itself onInner Fame

BEST COPY AVAILABLE

documentary evidence, both pri-mary sources (such as theVenerable Bede's EcclesiasticalHistory of the English People andLife of Cuthbert) and secondarysources (such as archaeological orhistorical investigations).

photographs, plans and maps

information and opinion fromarchaeologists and historians.

Later Cuthbert.... entered upon thecontemplative life of a hermit insilent retreat from the world. Now itwas a place utterly barren of water,corn or trees, and unsuitable besidesfor human habitation because fre-quented by evil spirits. After drivingout these enemies he built for him-self on the island with the help ofthe brothers a small dwelling, con-taining only the essential buildings,an oratory and a communal living-room surrounded by an earthwork.

Bede, after visiting the islandaround 721.

Stage IThe first stage was to use thc mostaccessible sources to produce arough sketch. The finished paint-ing had to be based on real evi-

HERMITAGE

Rough sketch to show layout of thebuildings on Inner Fame.

dence, of course, but it also had tosuit its final use. An aerial view wasthought best because it wouldmore easily allow the visitors to getan idea of what the whole islandmay have looked like in Cuthbert'stime.The various sources of evidence

suggested that there was a landingplace, a guesthouse and an enclo-sure with several buildings.

Stage 2This stage included three detailedsketches which were graduallyaltered as archaeologists comparedPeter's drawing with the availableevidence and their own knowledge.The example below incorporatedsome of the questions asked byPeter and comments from thearchaeologists.

Second stage drawing with notes.

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Stage 3The final stage was to completethe reconstruction in colour, incor-porating all the latest comments.At this stage Peter had to ensurethat the right colours were being

used for the natural surroundingsof the hermitage (the rock forma-tions, for example) as well as forthe construction materials.

One of the second stage roughs.

Peter Dunn's reconstruction paintingof St Cuthbert's hermitage on InnerFarne as it might have appeared in thelate seventh century AD.

51

FABULOUS FRONTSThe next time you are walking down your local street, look at the fronts of the buildings.Then look up. Buildings are not just built simply of brick, stone or concrete. You will bevery surprised at how much decoration will catch your eye.Why do buildings have decoration on them? To help you work out the reasons, tick the

boxes below these pictures. A word of warning though! There is no single answer andthere could be other reasons which you could add yourself.

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33 BEST, COPY AVAILABLE

AREAS OF STTJDY: KEY STAGE 1

LOOKINGAT HOUSES

Key Stage 1 children already knowa lot about houses from their owndirect experience and from stories.You can build on this to explorehow people lived beyond ourmemories, by using the steppingstones of similarities and differ-ences. Start by asking your classfor all the things that go to buildup a house walls, roof, windows,doors. Then explore what theremight be inside.

bedroom

lighting

heating

hallsitting room

bathroom

kitchen

Now ask for the differences intypes of dwellings:

flats

terraced houses

detached houses

semi-detached houses

bungalows

caravans

bedsits.

Point out that although they are allvery different, they all have incommon most of the thingsoutlined in your first lists. In thesame way houses in the past lookvery different, but all have most ofthe facilities that we still needtoday. Use the pictures on the fol-lowing pages to make the point.

NOW AND THENUse the different features on theNow, Long Ago and Very Long Ago(pages 32-34) as a hook to hangon snippets of information aboutthe time. For example, windows inthe modern and Victorian periodare different in design but both arelarge because glass could be pro-duced cheaply and in large sheets,but in medieval times glass wasproduced by hand and was sovaluable that only rich peoplecould afford it, and they took itwith them when they movedhouse. As a result, most peoplehad glassless windows, protectedby wooden shutters or bars.

Similarly, lighting has changedover time. In the medieval period,beeswax candles were used by therich, and the poor had foul-smelling tallow ones or rushesdipped in mutton fat. All created asmoky atmosphere. The Victorianshad firstly oil lamps, then gas light,and now there is clean, very bright,electric light. A good way to showpupils at first hand the dim, flick-ering lighting available in medievaltimes is to bring a candle intoschool and light it in a darkenedclassroom (check smoke alarm tol-erance first!).

You can take comparisons furtherusing your own research with thepupils. For example, how clotheswere washed, or floors cleaned.

Sorting it outUse the pictures at the bottom ofthe Now, Long Ago and Very LongAgo pages for recognition and clas-sification exercises: photocopy thepages, cut the bottom strips offomitting the caption, and cut intoindividual features, then ask pupilsto put them into groups accordingto function, or match them up withthe features in the big pictures.Two sets of features, lavatories andcooking places, have been addedwhich are not in the main pictures:see if your pupils can assign theseto the right house by thinkingabout the technology or decorativetaste involved. Keep the captions ifyou want to use these as wordrecognition exercises as well.

Finding outEnlist the help of parents andgrandparents and ask for objectsfrom a 1950s' house. See if youcan fmd one near school to look at,even if it is just from the outside.Pupils can create a collage of a1950s' house from their ownsketches of the real thing, orcopied from books, or by collectingpictures from magazines. They canbe presented in the same format asthe pictures in this book, and dis-played on the wall or as informa-tion to accompany a class muse-um. Better still, ask a grandparentto come in and talk about whatdaily life was like then.

VisitsIf you go to visit an old house, usethe picture of the modern house

and its features as a checklist, dis-covering similarities and differ-ences. Alternatively, cut down ondistractions and home in on justone feature and examine it reallyclosely, like the cooking arrange-ments or the lighting, the windows,or the furniture.

CROSS CURRICULARIncorporate other subjects intoyour investigation of houses. Readthe story of The Three Little Pigs inthe Literacy Hour to introduce theidea that houses need to be madefrom appropriate materials. Followthis up by bringing some straw,twigs and a brick into school andleaving them outside for a coupleof days to see what happens tothem.Look at the houses in the imme-

diate vicinity of the school to seewhat they are made of, and usepotato prints to make pictures ofthem back in class. If you visit anunfurnished house, pace out thesize of the rooms, then get pupilsto do the same to their own livingrooms and compare the differ-ences.

Draw a stylised picture of asquare house with a triangularroof, rectangular windows and adoor with a circular door knob,then ask pupils how many of these'shapes they can see on their way toschool, or on a walk in the area.Ask pupils for words to describe

the different features in the pic-tures of the three different housesin this book, like wall, door, bed,roof, and bring in comparativewords, like bigger and biggest.Enter the words you want them toknow in a huge outline on theclassroom wall of a house with adownstairs, upstairs and attic; clas-sify the words first into easy(downstairs), less easy (upstairs)and hard (attic).When pupils canspell all the words downstairs, theycan move upstairs, and after thatthe attic, adding in their ownnames above the roof.

Use the Literacy Hour to readstories about how people lived, andwhat they ate. Make up a storyabout a child losing something inone of the houses in this book, andget your pupils to develop it bythinking of places where the objectmight be hidden.

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FAMOUS PEOPLEAND EVENTS

STORIES AS TIMELINESStories are generally more memo-rable if they are accompanied bypictures. You can go one betterthan this and make a connectionbetween imagination and reality byintroducing your class to three-dimensional material from the timeof the story. The simplest way todo this is to capitalise on what yourtown has to offer by way of build-ings or objects in your local muse-um. If your town is fairly old, pickout buildings or places associatedwith one particular period, andwork out a route that takes in someof them. Choose someone famousfrom that time and use the events

in that person's life, or notableinventions or discoveries that hap-pened during that time, to makeup a timeline in class. Then takeyour class on your trail aroundtown, making drawings or takingphotographs of features from thesame period to add into the time-line back in class.

MAKING A TIMELINEIntroduce the idea of timelines toyour class by starting with a time-line of a child of their age. Cut outpictures of a very small baby in acrib, a child in a pushchair, on atricycle or toy car, on a bike, andlastly a child in school. Give a pic-

ture each to five pupils, and let therest of the class, working together,move the holders of the picturesabout in a line until they havearranged them into chronologicalorder. Stretch a washing line onthe floor in front of the humantimeline, and attach the first pic-ture to it. Ask someone to measureout one foot's length from the firstpicture and add the second picturethere, and so on. Explain that eachfoot's span represents a year, thencalculate the age of the historicalfigure whose timeline you want todo, and ask one pupil to measure itout in foot spans along a new line.

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BIG PICTURE BOOKIf you are within travelling distanceof a place where a famous eventhappened, use it to help yourpupils create their own story usinga simple storyboard. Tell your ownversion of the event first, show anypictures you have, and then ask theclass for words which describe themain character. Why not make useof the Literacy Hour for this?Pupils can draw the main personin their storyboard, adding thename, and anything they can writeabout what he or she was like.

On site, encourage pupils torelate as much of the story as theycan remember, and fmd out wherethe events happened. Ask forwords to describe the place, andhow pupils think the character felt,and get a helper to note themdown. They can draw the differentevents of the story, using the back-ground they can see, but addingtheir own figures.

Back in school, group your pupilsinto sets of five and let them trans-fer one illustration each from their

Charles I with his family.

CarzsbrookeCastle.

A window like theone in which Charleswas stuck.

36--;

storyboard, including one madeinto a cover picture, onto largesheets of sugar paper. Use the pic-tures to remind pupils of the wordsthey collected, and discuss simplesentences that they can writeunder the pictures (or wordprocess and paste on) to form thestory. Bind these together to pro-duce big picture books, and swapthem around so that groups canread each other's work to the restof the class.

King Charles was captured by Parliament's army and wasimprisoned in Carisbrooke Castle on the Isle of Wight. He tried toescape through a window but got stuck between the bars. He was

caught and returned to prison.

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MAKE A DRAMAInstead of writing and drawing theevent, your class could make theirown play based on it. You mayactually live near to the scene of afamous event, like a battle, orwhere someone showed exception-al courage or where something waslaunched or used for the first time.If not, find out what historic placesthere are locally that would providesomewhere safe for you to workwith your class, and choose anevent from that period. Tell thestory during Literacy Hour, andagain on site, with the class fillingin the exciting bits.

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Boscobel House, Shropshire.

The open trap door to thepriest's hole is under thewindow.

Discuss with them how the char-acters might feel and react, and ifthe place that they are in mighthave an effect on this. For instance,is it a cold, windy place whichwould make the historical charac-ters shiver and hunch themselvesup, or is it a huge, intimidatingroom, which might make them feelsmall and nervous?Talk together about how emotions

can be expressed not just in theface but also by body language, bygetting them to freeze into differ-ent appropriate poses. You mayneed to start with situations that

they already know about first, likefinding a spider in the bath. Workthe 'freezes' up into groups form-ing tableaux of the story, and thentalk together about what each char-acter might say, or think, at thatpoint.You can either finish your drama

here, as a series of tableaux witheach pupil contributing a line oreven just a word, and you provid-ing the linking storyline betweeneach group, or use the tableaux asan end or starting point to a scene,with pupils acting out the story.

Charles and a friend hide in the oaktree, while soldiers search below.

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Charles escapes with LadyJane Lane.

Prince Charles, son of Charles L escaped to Boscobel House after being defeated in battle. Firstly he hid inan oaktree all day whilst the army searched in the bushes underneath, and the next day he crouched in a priest hole,

about one metre square, just beneath the floorboards at the top of the house. Charles was nearly two metres tall.He escaped by dressing up as the servant of Lady Jane Lane, who lived nearby, and they fled to France. Charles

later returned and became King Charles II.

4

THE ROMANS INBRITAIN

WHO WERE THE ROMANS?The Romans were a whole mix ofdifferent peoples 60 million peo-ple living in a number of differentprovinces which made up theRoman Empire. Although it is dif-ficult to say exactly when Romebegan to develop, the Romansused to teach their children thatthe city was founded in 753BC. It was over a thousandyears later that the RomanEmpire came to an end.

ROMAN BRITAINBut how did Britain fitinto this huge empire?The province ofBritannia was added inthe first century AD andwas on the furthest limitsof the Roman world.While it is clearly importantto us, as a significant part ofour early history, it was only avery small, and mostly insignifi-cant, part of the Roman Empire.

It is important to help pupilsunderstand that the Romans didnot come to an empty barren land-scape, inhabited only by a fewuncivilised tribes but that thenative Britons already had com-plex societies and sophisticatedcultures.

ConquestThe Romans invaded Britain onthree separate occasions. JuliusCaesar led expeditions in 55 and54 BC and, after winning somebattles, made treaty arrangementswith and imposed taxes on some ofthe tribes.The conquest of Britain did not

begin until AD 43 when an armyof 40,000, sent by the EmperorClaudius, landed at Richborough

and defeated the tribes of thesouth east and established Britainas a province of the RomanEmpire, with a permanent Romanpresence.

A province of RomeThe first Roman sites were builtfor and by the army. Civilian settle-ments (called vacs) grew up aroundthe forts As the army moved on toconquer more of the island, someof these sites became towns, oftenpopulated by retired soldiers. Byabout AD 60 most of Englandsouth and east of a line from theWash to the Bristol Channel wasunder Roman control.

By the second century a verylarge part of Britain was Roman.Its limits to the north were definedby Hadrian's Wall (Hadrian visitedBritain in AD 122) and later by theAntonine Wall.

In the end Britain was a prosper-ous province for some time but bythe late third century was

4I

beginning to suffer attacks alongits southern shores from Saxonsand Gauls. In the fourth centurythe power of the Roman Empirewas waning and Britain was ruledby usurpers who had seized power.In the early years of the fifth cen-

tury more troops were removedand from about AD 407 the

Roman administration proba-bly ceased to pay the few

troops left m Britam InAD 410 the EmperorHonorius wrote to theBritish that they couldno longer rely on theRoman Empire for sup-port and that they mustlook to their own

defences.

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Building Hadrian's Wall.

Building Hadrian's WallThe stone and earth frontier ofHadrian's Wall stretched 117 kilo-metres across northern Britain. Atthe time of the conquest of Britain,soldiers did not normally serve inthe province where they had been

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Hadrian's Wall.

born. The Wall was built andmanned by soldiers from a numberof the provinces in the north-west-ern parts of the empire, fromHungary and Bulgaria, for exam-ple, as well as those from Gaul andGermany.

LIFE IN ROMAN BRITAINThe occupation of Britain by theRomans brought a number of newaspects to life for people in theprovince. Each of these topics pro-vides opportunities for extensionwork in other curriculum subjects.

LeisurePeople all over the Roman worldwent in very large numbers to seeperformances of various sorts:

to attend plays, concerts andpoetry readings in a theatre

to see shows of gladiatorial com-bat, often involving fights with wildanimals in an amphitheatre

to watch, and bet on, chariot rac-ing in a stadium.

Civic prideRoman citizens expected to findthe same sorts of buildings, andfacilities, all over the Empire. Thetown council needed to develop

buildings for town administrationand business - a forum (a large

An artist's impression of the marketplace at Letocetum (Wall inStaffordshire) in the second centuryAD.

open space) for business, open airmeetings and ceremonies, perhapsa macellum (a market hall), abasilica (a very large aisled hall) fortown administration, law courts orbusiness

places for entertainment andleisure - public baths, perhaps atheatre or amphitheatre

a range of temples

basic services, such as streets,rubbish collection, water supplyand sewage facilities.

IndustrySome industries, such as the min-ing of metal ores, came under gov-ernment control but many otherswere carried out by individualcraftsmen working inside towns,such as potters and leather workers.

ReligionFor the Romans, religion was partof everyday life. Every house had asmall shrine where the statues ofthe lares, the gods of the house-hold, were kept. In towns youwould expect to find temples, stat-ues and altars to a number of dif-ferent gods, for example:

the main Roman gods and god-desses, Jupiter, Juno and Minerva

lesser gods but connected with aparticular aspect of life such astrade

the Emperor

native gods and Roman godscombined, such as Sulis (Celtic)Minerva (Roman) and in laterperiods Christian churches.

BurialIt was forbidden, under Romanlaw, to bury anyone within the lim-its or walls of a town. Roads lead-ing out of settlements were usuallylined with tombs and simpler bur-ial places. You will find evidencefrom Roman burials in tombstonesin museums.

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AREAS OF STUDY: KEY STAGE

LULLINGSTONEROMAN VILLALullingstone Roman Villa lay atthe heart of a large agriculturalestate. Dating from the firstcentury AD, it was occupied fornearly 250 years. In the secondcentury the villa was remodelledand a bath suite added. At the endof the third century an underfloorheating system was installed inthree rooms and intricate mosaicslaid. Towards the end of the fourthcentury the villa building wasaltered to accommodate aChristian chapel.

A ROMAN VILLA

AD 100-150EvidenceSmall villa building constructedof timber and clay on footingsof mortared flint (locally avail-able stone). A block of roomshad a verandah in front and twoprojecting wings, one of whichhad a cellar below.

InterpretationThe quality of the building'sconstruction suggests that theowner was a Romano-Britishfarmer. The plan of the villa istypical of many built in thisperiod of prosperity in RomanBritain. The cellar may havebeen used for storing food.

Plan of the first masonry villa. F01

AD 150-275EvidenceThe villa is extensively altered. The basicplan was added to on each end. The cellarnow has other stairs built and has elabo-rate wall paintings. In the second phase ofalterations a bath-suite is added to thesouthern end of the villa. Finds from theexcavations of this period include finequality pottery and glass.

InterpretationThe wealth shown in both the finds andthe alterations to the house suggest a veryrich owner. The baths alone indicate greatexpense, not only in the construction butalso in the slaves/servants needed to main-tain and run it.

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Plan of the remodelled villa, with the baths added, AD 150-200.

44

AD 275-350EvidenceAt the end of the third century thevilla is remodelled again with arow of heated rooms added. Thebaths were converted andenlarged. In the mid-fourthcentury a large dining room wasadded in a style found in other vil-las and town houses throughoutthe Empire. Mosaic floors are alsolaid including one with a Latintext. Carved busts from this peri-od were found stored in the cellarafter AD 350. A large granary anda temple-mausoleum were built atthis time outside the main villabuilding.

InterpretationThe owners were clearly wealthyto rebuild and decorate the villabut the busts, which were carvedin the Mediterranean style, indi-cate an important person comingto the province of Britain from amore central part of the RomanEmpire.The size of the granary suggests

that the villa was the centre of alarge agricultural estate.

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Plan of the villa, about AD 275-350, with a row ofheated rooms at the north end.

Mosaic floor in the main room of the villa.

AD 350-425EvidenceThe heated rooms and rooms overthe cellar on the north side of thevilla are converted into a chapeland ante room. Wall paintings withChristian symbols and figures dec-orated the walls. There was evi-dence of occupation into the fifthcentury but the baths were in dis-use. A serious fire gutted much ofthe house.

InterpretationThe family had adoptedChristianity and were still usingthe house. Perhaps in the earlyfifth century the villa becameunoccupied but we think thechapel remained in use.

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Plan of the villa after AD 350-425, showing the large apsed dining room.

THEANGLO-SAXONS

WHO WERE THEANGLO-SAXONS?Before the end of the fourthcentury AD, the coasts aroundBritain were under attack from anumber of new invaders. The Irishand the Picts attacked the west andthe north. Saxons and other peo-ples, together known as Anglo-Saxons, sailed across from Europe.Anglo-Saxon is the name we use

now to describe several differentpeoples:

Angles, Saxons and Jutes camefrom northern Germany andScandinavia

Frisians and Franks came fromlands which are now part ofFrance, Holland and part ofGermany.

DUMNONIA Celtic and British kingdomsESSEX Anglo-Saxon kingdoms

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An artist's impression of the Anglo-Saxon village of West Heslerton in NorthYorkshire which has been excavated. Archaeologists found houses andworkshops dating from about AD 450 to 650.

SETTLING IN BRITAINBy the middle of the fifth centurythere were Anglo-Saxons settled inthe eastern part of Britain, fromnorth of the Humber to the southcoast. Gradually the Anglo-Saxonsmoved west, driving out the Britishwarlords and, by the beginning ofthe sixth century, they had settledwidely in Britain.

Villages and cemeteriesArchaeologists have discoveredand excavated a number of Anglo-Saxon settlements (see page 44)and burial sites. Anglo-Saxonswere often buried with objectswhich they might need for theirjourney to the afterlife such asclothes, jewellery and othervaluable possessions. Swords andspears are often found buried withmen but everyday objects are alsocommon - combs made of bone,knives and brooches, for example.

Anglo-Saxon clothesEvidence from burial sites allowsus to tell what some Anglo-Saxonswore. Women often wore longflowing gowns fastened at theshoulder with big brooches, and atthe waist they had a purse hangingfrom a belt. They wore jewellery ofall sorts including necklaces, pins,rings and bracelets. Men usuallywore short tunics, leggings andlaced boots. They also wore cloaksfastened with big brooches.

Sutton HooOne of the most remarkable dis-coveries from this period was thegrave of an Anglo-Saxon leader atSutton Hoo in Suffolk. The leader,who may have been Raewald, aking of East Anglia who died inabout AD 625, was buried in aship with a remarkable collectionof fine objects (now to be seen inthe British Museum).

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THE COMING OFCHRISTIANITYChristianity had been introducedinto Ireland in the fifth centuryand an Irish monk, Columba,founded a monastery on the islandof Iona on the west coast ofScotland. Missionaries came fromthere to settle on the island ofLindisfarne in the kingdoin ofNorthumbria (see page 26).In AD 597 Pope Gregory I sent agroup of about fifty missionaries,led by Augustine, to convert theEnglish. King Aethelbert of Kentreceived the missionaries andallowed them to build a church inCanterbury. Augustine becameEngland's first archbishop.

Monasteries and learningBetween AD 650 and 850 Anglo-Saxon kings and their bishops builthundreds of monasteries. Theseearly monasteries included a vari-ety of people as well as priests,nuns and monks. The monasteries,with churches which were oftenelaborately built in stone, becamecentres of learning and art. Somemonks, skilled in calligraphy anddrawing, copied the stories of the

Bible and the lives of saints forothers to read. These manuscriptswere often beautifully decorated.

In the monastery at Jarrow inNorthumbria, the greatest Anglo-Saxon scholar, Bede, wrote hisEcclesiastical History of the EnglishPeople, finished in AD 731.

PROTECTING THEKINGDOMSBy the time of Bede Anglo-Saxonkings were becoming more power-ful and ruled over larger areas ofthe country. In the seventh andeighth centuries the kingdom ofMercia was the richest andstrongest. The Mercian king, Offa,who ruled from AD 738 to796, controlled more resourcesthan any other king and wasregarded by some as the king of allEngland.

Excavations at Sutton Hoo in 1939 revealed onlythe impression of the ship's timbers. The helmetwas only one of a number of finely-made metalobjects. It is made of iron with overlays of bronze,silver and gold picturing scenes of fighting.

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In the 780s Offa decided to put astop to the Welsh tribes who keptraiding his western borders. Hebuilt a great ditch up to 2.5 metreshigh and up to 20 metres wide tokeep them out. His great dyke canstill be seen.

But Anglo-Saxon power was notto last. Towards the end of theeighth century everything was tochange again as new invadersappeared (see page 46).

47

AN ANGLO SAXON VILLAGEA large number of Anglo-Saxonsettlements have been identifiedfrom land surveys, aerial photogra-phy and from excavation. Therewere different types of settlement,from farmsteads for a single familyto villages. Some villages are quitesmall (perhaps up to eight houses)but others are more extensive. Thesettlement at Mucking in Essexwas found to have over two hun-dred buildings when excavated.

WEST STOWThe Anglo-Saxon village of WestStow in Suffolk has been almostcompletely excavated and partlyreconstructed. The site was exca-vated between 1965 and 1972 andis now open to the public. AnAnglo-Saxon cemetery had beendiscovered there in the nineteenthcentury. The village itself survivedbecause it was protected by a sanddune which had blown over it in agreat storm around 1300.Anglo-Saxon settlers chose West

Stow to live in around AD 420. By

about AD 600 the villagers began The village and its buildingsto drift away and by AD 650 West Only three or four families lived inStow was completely abandoned. the small village of West Stow -

called Stowa in the DomesdayBook. Each family had two sorts ofbuildings, both made of wood withthatched roofs. One (called a hallby archaeologists) had a hearth inthe centre. The other type of build-ing is called a sunken house. It hada wooden tent-like structure over adug-out area below the woodenfloor. Sometimes people livedin these sunken houses, but usuallythey were workshops or stores.

Skilled craftspeople came to thevillage regularly to make pottery,pins and combs from bone andobjects of iron, such as knives.Sunken floor building.

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Reconstructed building at West Stow.

The river was a source of water, fishand birds and was also a means ofcommunication.

Food and farmingThe people of Stowa farmed theland around them. Archaeologicalevidence tells us that they cultivat-ed wheat, rye, barley, oats andpeas in the fields around the vil-lage.We know that they bred ani-mals because the bones of cattle,sheep, pigs, geese and chickenshave been found. We also knowthat they hunted (deer and wildfowl) and fished to add to theirdiet. They also kept horses, dogsand cats.

USING WEST STOWThe village is Open'forvisiting. Schools (detailson page71) and has avisitor centre as well as .agood range of resourcematerial for teachers andpupils. SeVeral buildingshave been reconstructedwith some furniture andfittings and sometimesthere are costumedinterpreters on site.

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THE VIKINGSWHO WERE THE VIKINGS?The Vikings came fromScandinavia, countries now knownas Norway, Sweden and Denmark.The name 'Viking' comes from theword vikingr which means pirateor raider. Vikings were not alwaysraiders, some were also traders andtravelled throughout Europe sellinggoods and slaves. They firstattacked Britain in AD 793 atLindisfarne and continued to raidand attack until they controlledlarge areas of north and eastEngland.

Why they came to BritainThey first came to plunderseeking treasure and slaves, attack-ing all down the east coast ofEngland. They knew of the wealthdonated by kings to monasteries.As the Scandinavian population

increased the division of landcould not support large families.Many Norwegian Viking farm-steads clung to the sides of moun-

tains or the sides of fjords wherethere was not much arable land todivide up. Britain and NorthEurope, however, had a muchwarmer climate than the home-lands of the Vikings and the landwas often much easier to farm.When they settled they becamefarmers and fishermen.

Artist's impression of the quayside at Viking Jorvik (York).

This gravestone from Lindisfarne isbelieved to show Vikings attacking theisland with their swords and axespoised for attack.

How did they get here?The Vikings sailed to other lands inlongboats. These were cleverlydesigned and could sail fast undersail power or manpower. Theywere ideal for exploration andas a weapon of conquest. The hullwas shallow for river travel andshaped to run ashore at speed onbeaches. It was light enough to becarried overland to the next riveror rolled along on logs. The shipscould be up to 25 metres long and6 metres wide. Around 36 mencould man the oars. The sails were10 metres broad and 6 metreshigh. The prow was carved into amonstrous figure of a dragon tostrike terror into an enemy.

VIKING WARRIORSAn Arab traveller who came acrossViking warriors in Russia wrote:`They have huge bodies and great

courage. Each warrior usuallycarries with him some craftsman'stools such as an axe. He fights onfoot with a spear and a shield. He

carries a sword and dagger and hasathrowing spear slung across hisback.'The warriors fighting in Russia

probably wore tunics of paddedleather with heavy chain-mailshirts over the top. On their headsthey wore helmets with protectivestrips which covered their nosesand surrounded their eyes. Thesehelmets did not have horns.Chain-mail protected their necks.

WeaponsTheir weapons included spears,axes with a blade needing twohands, and brightly colouredwooden circular shields.

Swords were highly prized, withnames like 'Leg-biter' and 'Gleamof Battle'.

VIKING LIFENot all Viking men were warriors.Most were farmers, growing cropssuch as wheat, barley and rye andkeeping animals such as sheep,goats, cattle, pigs, and chickens.Others hunted or fished usinghooks, nets and harpoons to catchfish, seals, walruses and whales.The women worked in the home,preparing meals, looking after chil-dren, making clothes and looking

The ends of leather straps were oftenfinished with a decorative end. Thistiny one (6.2 cm long), found in VikingYork, has been carved with plantdecoration.

after the animals.They lived as large extended fam-

ilies usually in one house. Themain room was used for sleepingand eating and was heated by anopen fireplace or hearth in themiddle with only a hole in the roofto let out the smoke. Windows didnot have glass; wooden shutterswere used instead. They slept onraised platforms and wrappedthemselves in rugs and animal fursto keep warm.

Viking clothesMost of their clothes were madefrom wool or linen. Rich peoplecould afford more expensive mate-rials such as silk. They liked towear colourful clothes and bothmen and women wore jewellery.Viking men and women liked tolook good, and some ironed theirclothes using heavy lumps of glassheated on a fire. We know that theyalso combed their hair, beards andmoustaches as beautifully carvedcombs have been found madefrom deer's antler or bone.

Men hung their personal belong-ings such as a knife, comb or pursefrom their belt. From a broochwomen hung personal objects

Shallow wooden platter.

A variety of Viking woollen textiles

such as a knife, comb, and keys(valuables were stored in chestswith strong locks).Women wore long dresses and

shawls which were often patterned.They wore their hair long andknotted. Those who could affordjewellery wore brooches, hugearm-rings and glass beads.

Men wore a shirt, trousers andlong tunic. Their cloaks were fas-tened at the right shoulder or hip(so keeping the sword arm free) bya brooch or ring pin. On their feetthey wore shoes made of leather.

VIKING AFTERLIFEViking warriors believed death incombat was the greatest honouryou could achieve. Once dead theywere immediately taken to Asgard,the home of the gods. Odin'shandmaidens, the Valkyries, wouldtake them to his hall, Valhalla,where they would be served drinkas their wounds healed.Wealthy warriors were often

buried or cremated with all thegoods that they would need for thelife hereafter food and drink,clothes, sword, horse, dog and ship(to carry them to the next world).Longboats were used for the buri-als of Viking kings and queens andlegends say that some Viking war-lords were cremated in theirlongships as they sailed into thenight.

VIKING GODSThe Vikings believed in manygods. Some of our weekdays arenamed after Viking gods.Tuesday is named after Tyr, godof warriors.Wednesday is named afterWoden (Germanic spelling) orOdinThursday is named after Thor,god of thunderFriday is named after Freya, thegoddess of fertility

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The bustling modern city ofYork,now a place which attractsthousands of tourists, has a verylong history revealed byarchaeologists in recent excava-tions throughout the city. It wasonce a legionary fortress and wasthen one of the main towns ofRoman Britain. Roman records tellus it was called Eburacum. Later itbecame the Anglo-Saxon capital ofNorthumbria and was calledEoforwic.

THE COMING OF THEVIKINGSIn AD 865 a 'great army' (as theEnglish called it) of Vikings landedin East Anglia to begin an extend-ed campaign in England. Theyheaded straight for Eoforwic andattacked the town on 1 November866. They captured the city easilyas the Northumbrians were divid-ed by civil war. The Vikings left anAnglo-Saxon called Egbert to rulein their name.

Although the Northumbriansregrouped in an attempt to driveout the Vikings in 867, they wereunsuccessful and a great numberwere killed. In 876 part of the`great army', under the leadershipof Halfdan, settled in and aroundthe town which they now calledJorvik and made it the capital ofthe kingdom ofYork. Jorvikremained the centre of theViking kingdom until 954.

A trading centreWhen the Vikings first came toYork it was already a busy tradingcentre. It stands on the River Ouseand ships could easily reach itfrom the North Sea. Viking Jorvikwas a large bustling place of about10,000 people, described by onewriter who visited it as 'filled withtreasures of merchants from manylands'. But Jorvik was also knownfor its crafts and industries. Many

After excavations in York's city centre,some Viking remains were preservedand a reconstruction built for visitors.

Combs made from antler, found atCoppergate.

different goods were made thereincluding glass beads, combs, hair-pins, needles and gaming countersof bone and a large variety ofleather objects, such as shoes andpurses.

Viking housesArchaeologists have found a num-ber of Viking houses in a streetcalled Coppergate. The word gatais a Danish Viking word for 'street'.The word 'copper' comes from thecupmakers (koppr means cup) whohad their workshops there. Theremains of the houses show us howordinary people lived. The houses

were quite small (about 7 by 4.4metres) built inside long strips ofland running back from the streetand divided from neighbouringplots by wooden wattle fences. Thehouses were also built of wood andwere open inside with no innerwalls. The family slept and ate inthe one space with an open fire inthe centre. There may have beenbenches against the walls and per-haps a table and a chest to storevaluables, bedding and clothes.The area at the back of houses wasfilled with workshops, yards, stor-age and rubbish pits and cesspits.

The remains of a side wall of a Vikinghouse at Coppergate showing the con-struction of planks and posts.

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THE JORVIK VIKINGCENTREAfter the excavations atCoppergate were finished a projectwas developed to preserve some ofthe remains in situ. The JorvikViking Centre now welcomes visi-tors to investigate the real remainsof the houses and the thousands ofobjects which came from them aswell as careful reconstructions andwhat archaeologists think the evi-dence tells us. The Jorvik VikingCentre is therefore a good placefor schools to

see real evidence from the Vikingperiod

find out about the archaeologicalprocess from excavation toconservation of objects

observe and ask questions aboutthe reconstructions.

Information on page 71 includesdetails about the Centreand also about the nearbyArchaeological Resource Centre(ARC).

Model of the an archaeological labo-ratory at the Centre showingmaterial from Coppergate beingstudied and conserved.

Visitors travel in 'Time Cars' (with aspoken commentary) through areconstructed street alongside thequay in the Jorvik Viking Centre.

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VIKING NAMESThe names of many of our townsand villages can be attributed tothe Vikings. This is as a result ofland distribution which saw largeareas broken up into smallerunits which would need newnames. Endings to place namesoften have Viking origins:

by - villagebeck - streambiggin(g) - buildingborough - fortcar(r) - brushwood, especially onswampy grounddale - valleyfell - hillforce - waterfallforth fjordgarth - enclosure or gardengate track/pathgill - deep glen with stream atbottomhaven - harbourshesket /hesketh - horse-race orhorse trackholm - small island in river or baying - pasture/meadowkeld - well or springkirk - churchlund - grovemire - bog or swampnes - headlandraise - cairnscale - housescarlskear - isolated rock in theseascough /scow - woodslack - slope on edge of mountaintarn - pondthorp - a smaller settlement oroutpost of an estatethwaite - clearingtoft - piece of groundwath - fordwick market placeswith - wood

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A reconstruction of a Viking house atthe Jorvik Viking Centre.

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TUDOR LIFETHE TUDOR PERIODThe Tudor period began whenHenry Tudor was crowned HenryVII after defeating Richard IIIin a war which practically annihi-lated the aristocracy. Following aperiod of peace and consolidation,his son, Henry VIII, stirred up rad-ical changes when he broke withRome, closed the monasteries andprovoked invasion from France.The pot of religious unrest sim-

mered quietly throughout the shortreign of Edward VI, and boiledover under Catholic Mary. Onlyunder the last Tudor monarch,Elizabeth I, who died in 1603, wasa sense of tolerance and continuityrestored.

Many buildings from the periodare left to show the changes thathappened. The ruins of the oncepowerful abbeys remain, as do themassive fortifications along thesouth coast. The new breed ofopportunistic courtiers, whoreplaced the aristocracy, builtthemselves great houses (some inthe remains of monasteries) toshow off their new status, andsome went further and foundedcolleges, schools and other publicbuildings. Not so grand, but morelikely to be in travelling distance ofyour school, are the town houses ofthe merchants, or the brick or tim-ber-framed halls of the smalllandowners.

CLUES TO LOOK FOR INTUDOR BUILDINGSWhen King Henry VIII closed themonasteries, he also displaced theleaders of architectural fashion. Upuntil then the grand palaces hadtended to copy the gothic door-ways and traceried windows of theabbeys. With a temporary halt puton ecclesiastical building, the clas-sical influence, which had beenslowly creeping in, began to gain

more ground.Major elements, like symmetry,

and the rectangular shape of win-dows, were adopted, anddecorative details, like classicalcolumns, pediments and friezesbegan to appear on grandbuildings. But people still favouredelements from the previous age,

like the towers, turrets andbattlements which had been anessential feature of castles, andwhich now became busyadditions to private and publicbuildings. When the popularity ofthese started to fade they werereplaced by the Elizabethan love ofdevices like initials and scrolls.

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Titchfield Abbey, Hampshire, was converted into a Tudor mansion. Thegatehouse, with its battlements and towers, looks back to the medieval period,but the clean straight lines of the windows and the balanced towers make thebuilding look symmetrical.

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Building materialsAdvances in technology had ahuge influence on how buildingslooked. Developments in themanufacture of glass made it moreavailable and at less cost, so win-dows became larger. The panes ofglass were still small, held togetherwith lead strips often in decorativepatterns.

Brick became the new prestigiousbuilding material. It was easier tohandle than stone, uniform in sizeand as it was more resistant toheat, it enabled people to have asmany fireplaces as they couldafford, and led to a proliferation ofchimney stacks. Up until now,most ordinary homes had a centralhearth from which smoke escapedthrough the roof, and were there-fore usually single storied, or thehearth was in a hall which rose thewhole height of the house. Nowmore storeys could be added, andthe old high-ceilinged hall had adividing floor inserted.

Fireplaces were a tremendousadvance in terms of comfort, and italso encouraged decoration of ceil-ings where before the sootydeposits left by smoke made thisimpracticable.

New techniques in carpentrygave rise to fashionable, highlyornate staircases, and widespreaduse of wainscotting, or woodenpanels, to line interior walls, mak-ing rooms warmer. Many ofthese were carved to representfolds of linen.

BUILDINGS FOR DEFENCEAs protection against the threat of

attack from France, Henry VIIIbuilt a string of forts along thesouth coast.The forts accommodated a huge

number of cannon, but they alsohad to withstand fire as wellas deliver it. For this they neededvery thick walls, and a roundedshape to deflect and reduce the

The gatehouse of Stokesay Castle inShropshire has a timber-framedstructure with carved ornamentation.

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impact of the cannon balls. Unlikemedieval castles, these forts werenot baronial homes, but were gar-risons for trained men, and accom-modation was basic.

TIMBER-FRAMED HOUSESIn areas where stone, or clay forbrick-making, were not plentiful,people lived in timber-framedhouses. The wooden parts weremade to fit before they were putup, rather like a kit. Carpenters'marks, identifying the pieces, areoften still visible.As trees became scarcer, shorter

straight sections of wood wereused, and the pattern of closeuprights gave way to more widely-spaced timbers strengthened bycross braces. Later still, even

Deal Castle in Kent has a central,drum-like living area with cannonson it, surrounded by two lower levelsof semi-circular gun platforms.

smaller sections were used, givingrise to intricate patterns. The infillwas often wattle and daub, whichconsisted of interwoven branchesplastered over with mud, rein-forced by dung or chopped straw.As bricks became cheaper theywere used in a herringbone patternas the infill.To give extra space and stability,the upper storeys could be builtslightly larger than the onebeneath, creating an overhangcalled a jetty. In towns this led tostreet houses leaning out towardseach other, blocking out light andincreasing the fire hazard.

Throughout the medieval periodand into Tudor times, the dwellingsof the rich were home to largehouseholds, including not only theowner's family, but also high-ranking servants, semi-permanentguests and extended family, and avast range of servants. Housing allthese at the beginning of themedieval period had been simple;everyone lived, ate, slept, and car-ried out business in a great hall,except for the lord's family andguests, who used a private room atone end, and cooking, which wenton in rooms or buildings at theother end.

KIRBY HALLKirby Hall in Northamptonshirewas completed in about 1590 bySir Christopher Hatton, a favouritecourtier of Elizabeth I. It is nowroofless in parts. It was designed tomake a grand statement about itsowner, and from a distance givesan impression of symmetry andorder, with matching windows,chimneys and gables. Guestsentered via a long avenue of treesinto an outer courtyard, and thenan inner courtyard before enteringthe interior. The prolonged accesswas a deliberate ploy to ensure vis-itors were aware of the magnifi-cence of the building and thereforethe wealth and power of the owner.

Inside, another long walk awaitedguests. After waiting in the GreatHall, a massive room used forentertaining, while a servantinformed the lord, they wouldascend the great staircase and passthrough the State Rooms, a seriesof progressively higher statusrooms, until, if they were impor-tant enough, they reached thelord's Best Bedchamber. This wasa public, not a private room likebedrooms now. The State Roomsincluded the Great Chamber,where family meals were served,

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Artist's impression of Kirby Hall.

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Kirby Hall, Northamptonshire.

the Great Withdrawing Room,which may have contained, amongother things, a billiards table, andthe Best Bedroom. Smaller rooms,called pallet chambers, lay betweensome of the bedrooms; this waswhere personal servants slept on aremoveable pallet or mattress.Another important room was the

Long Gallery, which has now dis-appeared, and which was whereexercise was taken on rainy days,and where the family portraits

The South Range at Kirby, showingthe huge symmetrical windows,pilasters, frieze and the highlydecorated porch. The bust andbalcony are later additions.

were hung. It spread along thewhole of the upper floor of onerange of the courtyard; the rest ofthe ranges were high-ranking ser-vants' and guests' quarters. Thereare no bathrooms at Kirby - waterwas carried to hip baths in bed-rooms, and the equivalent of thelavatory was a close stool, whichcontained a pot to be emptied by aservant.The kitchens were well away from

the State Rooms, in their tradition-al position at the other side of theGreat Hall. This was to ensure thatno smells or sounds of cookingpermeated there, but it did meanthat servants had a long way tocarry food.

The fashionable houseThe man employed to build Kirbywas Thomas Thorpe, who usedfashionable classical detailsfrom the new books on architec-tural design which were comingover from the continent. Theinner courtyard shows many ofthese copied designs; a loggia,columns, friezes, scallop shells,vases and carvings. Huge windowsoccupy either side of the entranceporch to the house. At this pointthe old fights with the new thewindow on the right is largebecause it is part of the impressivetwo-storey hall, and importantrooms always had large windows.The window to the left of theporch matches it to display thenew trend for classical symmetry,but the rooms behind it belong tothe service area, which would notnormally have large windows. Thespace behind is actually dividedhorizontally to accommodate thefirst floor rooms.The Elizabethans lived in an age

of exploration of new lands, inwhich voyagers brought backexotic plants and fruit. This fed aTudor desire for impressive

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gardens, full of new plants. Kirby'sgarden is symmetrically arranged,and was regarded as a place forformal recreation - an extension ofthe living space. In order to createit, the village church and graveyardwere removed.

VISITING HOUSESIf you intend to visit a furnishedhouse, ask pupils to write a list ofthe rooms they would find in amodern house. On site, they canuse this as a checklist, adding to itall the extra rooms which have nomodern equivalent, like the GreatHall, which will give you theopportunity to open up the discus-sion about difference in lifestylebetween now and then. The check-list will also lead to questions aboutrooms which they might expect tofind, but which are missing in aTudor house, like the bathroom.Preparation for visiting an unfur-nished or partly ruined houseis different, as the indications tothe function of the room have tobe looked for more carefully.Clues to look for are:

size - the larger and taller theroom the more important it gener-ally was

windows high status rooms hadthe largest windows

doors impressive rooms oftenhad impressive doorways

fireplaces the presence of a fire-place indicated a living room,rather than one used for storage.Size and decoration reflected theroom's status, except for thekitchen, where the fireplace washuge but plain

wall, floor and ceiling coveringthe quality of these reflects theimportance and sometimes thefunction of the room. Channels inthe floor leading to drains shows akitchen or storage area

position where a room is inrelation to other rooms may tellyou about its function. For exam-ple, an undecorated, windowlessroom near a kitchen is likely to bea storage or service area.

Pupils can enter what they thinkthe function of the rooms wereonto a blank plan, and thencompare their deductions with theofficial plan. A good exercise inencouraging pupils to think hard

The Great Hall as it isnow, and (right) as itmay have looked in theTudor period.

about what the house was likewhen lived in is to ask them to cre-ate their own interpretation panelsfor the site, telling others, perhapsyounger pupils, how the roomswere used and furnished. This canbe a stimulus for their ownresearch back in school and couldlead to their own drawings, basedon sketches they make during thevisit, on how each room may haveoriginally looked.

An artist's impression of the Best Bedchamber.

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VICTORIA'SENGLAND

Queen Victoria reigned from 1837till 1901. Her long reign sawcandle lighting give way to gasthen to electricity, the introductionof state education, transport revo-lutionised by the spread of the rail-ways, and Charles Darwin's ideason evolution challenging the basisof society. Throughout all thesechanges the figure of Victoriaremained constant, as the head ofthe country and its empire.

WHO WAS QUEENVICTORIA?Victoria was born in London, in1819. Her father, the Duke ofKent, died when she was only eight

months old and heruncle, King

William IV, hadno children,so Victoriabecame theheir to thethrone. Fromthe age ofthirteen shekept a diary,writing it

daily until shedied, filling 122

volumes withdetails of her

thoughtsand activities.In 1840, the young

Queen married hercousin, Prince Albertof Saxe-Coburg. InNovember the sameyear their first child,Victoria, was born;she was followed byeight more brothersand sisters.

OSBORNE HOUSEThe family had three royal resi-dences: Buckingham Palace,Windsor Castle and the RoyalPavilion at Brighton, but none ofthese was suitable for the privateneeds of a young, growing family.Victoria longed for a place whereshe could relax, away from thepublic eye, and Albert wanted toreplicate some of the experiencesof his own childhood for his chil-dren.The Queen knew and liked the

Isle of Wight, having visited ittwice as a child. Osborne Housewas chosen as the family's holidayhome. It was close enough toLondon, yet its island locationensured its seclusion. However, thehouse was too small for the royalfamily and the household. ThomasCubitt was employed to build anew wing, and then to demolishthe existing house and to build fur-ther wings for the royal householdand guests. The entire cost was tobe met from the private income ofVictoria and Albert. The familymoved in after the first phase ofbuilding was completed in 1846.

The children had a 'Swiss Cottage' inthe grounds, where they played andlearned about housekeeping, cookeryand woodwork.

Life at Osborne HouseThe royal family established aregular pattern of visits toOsborne, usually visiting fourtimes a year. The Queen lovedfresh air, and spent as much timeas possible outdoors, starting withbreakfast. Her journal makes manyreferences to the time she spentreading and writing under the shel-ter of trees or a small tent, in thegrounds of the house. She alsorecorded her first experience of seabathing:

`Drove down to the beach with mymaid and went into a bathingmachine, where I undressed andbathed in the sea (for the first time inmy life) where a very nice womanattended me. I thought it was delight-

ABOVE Osborne House and grounds.LEFT. Prince Albert and Queen Victoria, paintedon porcelain, after Winterhalter.

fid until I put my head under water,when I thought I would be stifled.'Queen Victoria's Journal, quoted inDear Osborne, by John Matson

Prince Albert spent much of histime on managing the estate atOsborne, putting into practice histheories on landscaping, drainageand recycling. Each of the childrenlooked after their own piece of gar-den. In the evenings, the familyentertained themselves by puttingon concerts and amateur dramat-ics, or by playing charades.

INFLUENCE OF ALBERTAlthough the Prince was nevercompletely accepted by Britishsociety, his influence on Victoria,the upbringing of their children,the running of the royal householdand the encouragement of the artsand sciences in Britain wasimmense. He had a great interestin architecture, and was involved inseveral schemes, including the con-struction of Balmoral Castle andrebuilding at Buckingham Palace.Albert was President of the Royal

Society of Arts, which, under hisleadership, staged the Great

Exhibition of Arts andManufacturers in 1851. This wasthe world's first international exhi-bition, set up in Hyde Park,London, in the Crystal Palace, abuilding specially designed in ironand glass. It aimed to celebrate theachievements in arts, industry andtechnology of Britain and herempire. The exhibition was atremendous success. Six millionpeople visited it, and proceedsfrom the tickets left a surplus.Prince Albert persuaded thegovernment to use this money topurchase and develop land to thesouth of Hyde Park, building aseries of institutions to promotethe study of arts and sciences.The museum complex at SouthKensington, and the Albert Hall,are the result of this initiative,which was not completed till afterAlbert's death.

The Albert MemorialThe death of Albert from typhoidin 1861 changed Victoria's lifecompletely. She went into deepmourning, and led a very secludedlife for the next ten years.To commemorate her husband and

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his work, and as a focus for thenation's grief, a memorial wasplanned.The winning design, chosen by

the Queen, was by George GilbertScott, and was in the Gothicrevival style. The centrepiece wasan outsize bronze statue ofthe Prince, seated, with the cata-logue of the Great Exhibition inhis hand. The memorial containeddozens of statues, representingAlbert's many different interestsand works, including statues toagriculture, commerce, manufac-ture and engineering.

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VICTORIAN CIVIC PRIDEThe economic accomplishments ofBritain during the nineteenth cen-tury made it a world dominatingindustrial power. The Victoriansshowed off this new confidenceand wealth by building largeimposing buildings, usually in citycentres.

In 1835 a law was passed allow-ing towns and cities to administertheir own affairs by the election ofa town council. Previously, townswere run by the aristocracy thelocal lord of the manor. Now manytown councils embarked upon aredevelopment of their cities.The Victorians believed in

improving people's health andminds. To this end much of theredevelopment by town councilsinvolved not just the provision ofclean water supplies and effectivesewage treatment, but also thebuilding of museums, schools andcolleges.As the British Empire grew so the

need for commercial organisationssuch as banks and insurance com-panies grew. Many were located inthese new city centres.

BIRMINGHAM CITY CENTREDuring the nineteenth centuryBirmingham became a centre ofmanufacturing. It was known as`the workshop of the world'. Thecity grew and became verywealthy. Factories were built andthe population rapidly increased.

began to make improvements. Ledby J H Chamberlain (below), it

took control of thecity's public utili-

4 ties such as thewater supply. Theinstallation of pipesand pumping sta-tions providedclean water across

the city. The profits made fromthese municipal works paid for theredevelopment of the city centre.

In the 1850s to 1880s, the slums

Two new streets developed - ColmoreRow and Waterloo Street. Thisphotograph was taken in 1896.

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were cleared and a new city centrewas created with new streets, forexample Corporation Street andNew Street. It contained civicbuildings, shopping arcades, the-atres, schools and colleges, com-mercial centres and railway sta-tions.New Street Station was opened in

1854. The station was enlarged in the1880s.

This placed pressure on housingareas which became overcrowdedslums with open sewers and pollut-ed water supplies.

In 1838 Birmingham was granteda municipal charter of incorpora-tion entitling it to elect its owntown council. With administrativecontrol of the city, the council

WHAT EVIDENCE IS THEREOF VICTORIAN LIFE INBIRMINGHAM CITY CENTRE?

Historical enquiryYou can use a question like this toframe your historical enquiry intoan aspect of Victorian Britain. Itwill provide your pupils with theopportunity to investigate a

The new Council House in CouncilHouse Square around 1880. Thesquare was later renamed VictoriaSquare.

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question using a variety of histori-cal sources to ask questions andto record their findings. You willfind similar sources in your ownlocality.

Historical sourcesSources can be found in theBirmingham Central Library andby visiting the city centre.

MapsCompare the 1889 map ofBirmingham city centre with amodern map of the same area.What changes have occurred?What remains? What hasdisappeared? Look at the names ofstreets and buildings. What cluesdo they give of Victorian develop-ment? Why do you think thesechanges occurred? What does it tellus about the Victorians?

PhotographsPhotographs of Birmingham's pastand present can also be used toshow change over time. They pro-vide evidence of the life of the citycentre and the people who livedand worked there.

ArchitectureThe Victorians favoured two typesof architectural style for their civicbuildings.

Classical: Similar style to Greekand Roman temples columns andporticos. Strong use of squares,circles and triangles.

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Corporation Street around 1899.Work began in 1878 to build thisstreet, once a former slum area.

Detail from the Council House.

Gothic: Narrow windows, turrets,bell towers and high gables.Pointed or perpendicular archesand 'mock' battlements.

Get pupils to look for these archi-tectural styles as clues to dating abuilding. Occasionally buildings, aswith the Council House, have afoundation stone. Encourage yourpupils to look closely at a buildingbecause it can often provide manyclues to answer their enquiry.Also ask pupils to look at the deco-ration on buildings as theVictorians often used decorativefriezes on their civic buildings toshow off their importance.

MonumentsIn Birmingham city centre thereare various monuments that youcan use as evidence of Victorian

Part of Golmore Row today with asurviving Victorian building.

This statue of Queen Victoria (left)was originally carved in marble in1901. It was cast in bronze and re-sited on this stone pedestal in 1951.

The Chamberlain memorial (right)was erected in 1880 and was designedby f H Chamberlain who wasPresident of the Board of Trade.

development. The most obvious isthe statue of Queen Victoria inVictoria Square. Another is theChamberlain Memorial fountain inChamberlain Square.

One of the entrances of Queen'sCollege which commemorates a visitby Queen Victoria in 1887.

NamesThe names of streets and buildingscan be a clue to their history.Encourage pupils to gather evi-dence of names from maps andfrom observing names whilevisiting the city centre.

177 77:17r-77,;'; 17"'''"77.717

Brodsworth Hall was built in 1861-63 by Charles Sabine Thellussonafter inheriting a substantial sumof money in a family will. It wasbuilt in the Italianate style, replac-ing an earlier hall on the site.

The south (sunnier side) provid-ed comfortable accommodationfor the family while the north sidecontained the servants' wing,reusing materials from the earlierhall.The garden is typically Victorian,

consisting of mown lawns, formalflower gardens, a rose garden, awalled garden, a summer houseand a quarry garden with a ferndell.When the Hall was built fifteen

servants were employed. Howeverover time this number wasreduced.

fj

The entrance hall and the hallsleading off it show the tastes andinterests of the family. They aredesigned to impress and are usedto display many possessions.

THE FAMILY AT LEISUREMany rooms had a specific leisurefunction. In addition to a libraryand study, Brodsworth Hall has aBilliard Room and a DrawingRoom. After dinner, ladies andgentlemen retired separately. Theladies would go to the DrawingRoom, where music could beplayed and the men would go tothe Billiard Room. This roomwould also be used to smoke anddiscuss mutual interests which, forthe Thellusson family, wouldinclude racing and sailing. TheLathe Room was used by CharlesThellusson for his woodworkhobby.

8.

The entrance hall.

Different areas of the house seg-regated the family, their childrenand their servants. Even the maleand female servants slept on differ-ent floors and had their own hier-archy depending upon status. The Billiard Room.

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The garden was also used forrecreation - walking, cycling, rid-ing, sledging and skating. TheTarget House allowed the family topractise archery in bad weather,while in summer they would playcroquet on the specially createdlawn. The garden could also be avenue for social events such asfamily gatherings or garden par-tiesChildren too had their own partic-

ular living areas. These were wellaway from the main family roomsdownstairs so that they would notdisturb the adults or distract theservants.

THE SERVANTS AT WORKWhen looking at the work of theservants it is useful to keep asking:

what has changed

what caused these changes

what effect did this have on therunning of the Hall.

The KitchenThe kitchen contains many mass-produced objects and basic labour-saving devices. They show howattempts were made to reduce theamount of manual labour an timeneeded for specific functions.These developments would ulti-mately require fewer servants anddemonstrate the impact of massproduction on working life.Look particularly at:

B cooking methods what fuelsand processes were used

Rather than trying to study everythingin the kitchen give each pupil aspecific item or problem to research.For example this late nineteenth-cen-tury refrigerator solves the problem ofkeeping food fresh and demonstratesadvances in manufacturing processes.Explain what effect this item wouldhave on the work of kitchen servants.

storage methods how andwhere food was stored

which objects are still in usetoday and how have they changed

which gadgets are still in use andhow have they been improved

what materials were used forcooking implements.

Contrast the room where food wasprepared to the room where it wasserved and consumed by thefamily. Compare the utensils in thekitchen to those used in the diningroom. How do they differ? Why dothey differ? Would the servants usethe crockery and cutlery in thedining room inthe same wayas those m thekitchen)

This room was used not only toentertain but also to impress. Howcan pupils tell this?

When the Hall was built there wasno supply of water or source ofpower. Look at:

how the servants delivered coldand hot water to different roomsand then disposed of it. Originallythere was only one bathroom.What does this suggest about sani-tary arrangements? How pleasantwould this be for the servants?

how would the servants havekept the Hall warm and well-lit.What specific tasks would berequired? How easy would thishave been? What were the implica-tions for the servants of coal firesor oil lamps? What changes haveoccurred since the Hall was built?

This photograph highlights the differ-ent functions of a bedroom.Identifying each function will helpshow what tasks servants wereexpected to do. How does the level ofcomfort compare with a bedroom inthe servants' wing?

Identify what technologicalachievements made life easier forthe servants at Brodsworth, but atwhat eventual cost.

Woodlands Colliery VillageThis village was built 1907-9on Thellusson land to providethe workers of BrodsworthMain Colliery with improvedliving conditions. It wasdesigned as a 'garden village' inthe Arts and Crafts traditionand all houses have gardens.The houses are built of brickand in blocks of twoto five. Some homeshad a large livingroom,.scullery andthree bedrooms,others had a par-lour, kitchen,scullery, three bed-rooms and a bathroom. Land in thecentre of the villagewas designated for aschool, a co-opera-tive store, anAnglican and aWesleyan churchand a Methodistchapel.

Aerial view of Woodlands. Note the symmetrical layout, indicative ofadesire for order, and the enclosed green spaces, used for communal andrecreational purposes.

EAS oFstvilyqTYSTAGE

BRITAIN SINCE

The advantage of studying a peri-od of history within living memoryis that we can take advantage ofprimary sources from those whowere actually there. There are pho-tographs, newspapers, documen-tary films and the reminiscences ofpeople who remember There willalso be many artefacts survivingfrom the period itself

Look out for old photographs,newspapers and magazines

Speak to people you know

Search for interesting things con-nected with the war.

Valuable sources of informationare local newspapers, often storedin the local library on microfilmPupils can use a number of differ-ent sources to study the social atti-tudes, wartime dangers and depri-vation, financial problems,rationing and life after the war inthe welfare state. Many peoplewho remember the thirties and for-ties are only too willing to sharetheir experiences and pupils cantalk to them, ask questions andestablish useful links.Your studycould be based around the SecondWorld War or could follow themesthrough a longer period. You will

ti

sti The house on the left, photographedin 1947, had been altered by 1960(above). The front porch has beenturned into a 'waiting room' for theDental Surgery located in the frontroom. The balcony above has alsobeen converted into a small bedroom.A canopy has been built above thenew front door.In 1947 a Kodak folding camera

using 120 black and white roll filmwas used for family 'snaps'. By 1960this had been replaced by a compact35mm camera using colour slide film.

Activity

What design features wereincluded in a typical suburban1930s' house?

Consider both inside and outside"'°the house.

How were the new suburbs of thethirties different from the ter-races of the Victorian period?

How would families have heatedrooms and water?

Visit a typical thirties suburb inyour town. Note the original fea-tures and the new additions.

need to consider how lives inBritain changed as a result of theSecond World War.

Look out for information in:

LibrariesMuseumsLocal Records OfficesLocal History LibrariesTourist Information Offices

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MID-CENTURY

Typical suburban house, SouthCroxton Road, London.

HOW HAVE PEOPLE'SLIVES CHANGED SINCETHE 1930s?

At homeIn the 1930s it was possible to buyan average suburban semi-detached house for about £400.Mains water, gas and electricitywere available in most townsalthough not in rural areas.Furniture was being produced on alarge scale making it cheaper andmore affordable. This enabledlarge numbers of people to furnishtheir homes in the new style whichused pastel colours, geometricshapes and decorative motifs.Many of the new houses of the1930s had gardens and a garageeven though most families did notpossess a car. Although there wasaccess to a better standard of livingfor many, unemployment andpoverty were not far away. Theeconomic depression and highunemployment were a constantthreat to the new standard of liv-ing. Large areas of big cities suf-fered from high unemployment,poor housing and poverty.

The role of womenThe main type of work for womenin the 1930s was in domestic ser-vice, as shop assistants or in

offices. For many women, mar-riage meant automatic dismissalfrom their paid jobs, so most wivesand mothers did not work outsidethe home. The outbreak of theSecond World War brought a dra-matic change to the lives of manywomen. As men were ordered toserve in the armed forces, theirpeacetime jobs still had to be done.Women had to do these jobs, manygoing out to work for the first time.The Women's Land Army wasformed to fill the places of thethousands of farmworkers whohad gone to serve in the armedforces. Millions of women went towork in factories and shipyardslearning to do mechanics and engi-neering.As the war continued women

were called on to join the armedforces themselves and eventuallymost women between the ages of18 and 50 were working towardsthe war effort. Only mothers withyoung children were exempt.

6c-

A soldier, a farm worker and a land-girl at East Grinstead, May 1943.

LeisureIn 1938, an Act of Parliament enti-tled a large number of workers toholiday pay which meant that forthe first time, workers could go onholiday for a week without a loss ofearnings. Many people were ableto go on holiday for the firsttime. Holiday camps became pop-War and cheap rail travel gave peo-ple the opportunity of travellingfurther afield. Holidays abroad,

Roehampton Swimming Pool.

,

EAS Y:WEYSTAGE 2

Broadcasting House, London.

however, were still rare and onlybegan to gain in popularity fromthe 1950s onwards. At home,popular pastimes were gardening,following the cricket, football andtennis matches. Day trips and holi-day excursions were also popularespecially on Bank Holidays.

Radio and televisionListening to the radio becamemore frequent during the war.Radio broadcasts by the BBC werean invaluable source of informa-tion and entertainment and alarge number of households hadaccess to a wireless. The radiobrought news of national andinternational events, sport andentertainment into the home. Alltypes of information were availablefrom medical advice to cookingideas. Entertainment includedcomedy programmes. After thewar, two new programmes wereadded - the Light Programme in1945 and the Third Programme in1946.The BBC began a regular televi-

sion service in 1936 which wassuspended during the war butresumed in 1946. Initially therewere very few viewers but televi-sion gradually gained in popularityand by the Coronation over 20million people watched as QueenElizabeth II was crowned. This wasthe first time such an event had

been televised and watched by somany. The increase of television inthe 1950s led to the closure ofhundreds of cinemas but it openedup a new cultural experience,which has had an increasing effecton our lives ever since.

CinemaCinema-goers grew from 20 mil-lion in the 1930s to 32 million afterthe war. Most films were in blackand white but Technicolour wasbeing introduced. In addition tothe main film, cinema programmesincluded newsreels, general infor-mation films and often an organ

Odeon, Ramsgate.

recital by the resident organist!Cinema audiences soondropped off when TV becamecommon in the 1950s.

HealthIn the 1930s, many places still hadlarge areas with poor housingwhich caused illness and infectiousdiseases to spread quickly. Lack ofmoney also led to a poor dietwhich caused yet more illness.Only the very poor were entitled tofree medical treatment. Everyoneelse had to pay for medicines, stay-ing in hospital, dental care andspectacles. Diphtheria and tuber-culosis were still common andmedical and dental care was stillfairly basic in comparison withtoday's standards.

In 1948, the National HealthService was set up to care for allcitizens in need of medical treat-ment. If the cost had stopped peo-ple from visiting a doctor or

dentist or optician before, it was nolonger to be the reason. Drugs andtreatment could be prescribed,regardless of the ability to pay. Itwas paid for out of taxes.

TransportDespite petrol rationing andwartime priorities, motor car own-ership grew from 1.7 million in1938 to 4.4 million in 1950. TheRoad Traffic Act of 1934 intro-duced driving tests and in 1935 a30 mph speed limit. The volumeof traffic in the 1930s was very dif-ferent to today. The new townplans created after the war includ-ed larger numbers of houses withtheir own garage.

RationingWith the war, everyone could fmda job which meant people now hadmoney but they had nothing tospend it on! Supplies wererationed to ensure that everyonehad a fair chance of obtainingbasic foodstuffs and other items.Britain depended on importedfoods and supply ships were vul-nerable to attack, so food was inlimited supply. Waste food, potatopeelings and tea leaves were col-lected for pig swill. Old newspa-pers were used as wrappingpaper. Clothes rationing was intro-duced because factories wereturned over to making uniforms.

VOCABULARYYou will want to introduce yourpupils to words which were com-mon in the recent past but per-haps are no longer used, or theirmeaning has changed. Forexample:

alliedblitzconscriptionempire

(fascistradarrecruit

Anderson Sheltercensorcouponevacuationidentity cardrationingrefugee

GI

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EVENTS IN EUROPE

1929 Wall Street Crash leads to Great Depression of the 1930s1933 Hitler gains power in Germany and starts to build up army,

navy and airforce1936 Jarrow Hunger March

Abdication of Edward VIII1937 Outbreak of Spanish Civil War1938 Holidays with Pay Act1939 Germany invades Poland

National register set up. Identity cards issued1940 Evacuation of children from British cities, food rationing1940 Germany invades Denmark, Norway, Holland, Belgium and

France1940 British forces evacuated from France Dunkirk

Italy declares war on Britain and FranceStart of war in North AfricaBattle of BritainBlitz in BritainFood rationing beginsGermany and Italy invade Yugoslavia and Greece1941 Germany invades Russia

Japanese attack American fleet at Pearl Harbour1942 Germans defeated in North Africa El Alamein

Millions of Jews murdered in concentratior.campsBaedeker raids on Britain's architectural heritage

1943 Main German army defeated in Russia1944 Allies land in Normandy - D Day

Most of France in Allied handsRussians advance on all frontsHeavy bombing of German cities

1945 Butler's Education Act Germans surrender. Hitler is deadAtom bombs dropped on Hiroshima and NagasakiUnited Nations to he set up to keep world peace after the war

1946 Bread rationingNuremberg Trials for war crimes

1947 Fuel crisis1948 National Health Service1949 NATO founded1950 Outbreak of war in Korea1951 The Festival of Britain1954 No more food rationing!

FROM TOP: The Jarrow March,Plymouth in the blitz, Evening Standard12 April, 1940, Newsboy, FE celebrationsin London, 8 May 1945, The Festival ofBritain, 1951.

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AREAS OF STUDY: KEY STAGE 2

m,oclrusiDujINVESTIGATING A LOCALITYThis case study looks at buildings,maps and other sources for thevillage of Buckminster inLeicestershire. It is taken from asurvey of three Leicestershire vil-lages by a local research group (seepage 72).You may find similarpublished research in your area. Ifnot you will be able to look out forbuildings to investigate and a rangeof easily accessible associatedsources in your local library orrecord office.

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THE CRESCENTThe houses in The Crescent werebuilt in 1892 replacing those inBull Row which were put up in the1830s. The census return for 1851lists 166 people living here.

Today: houses are used mainly byestate workers and hardly altered.

BRICKYARD CLOSEThe tithe award map of 1841shows this area pockmarked withponds created by the digging ofclay. The census return of 1841lists Charles Hopkins and ThomasParkinson as brickmakers. The sale

notice for Mune 1873 says,"At the Buckminster BrickYardthe property of Mr Henson, Hovelboards, Planks, Brick Press, WellSinking Frame, eight centres ninefeet long, three Morticed Posts andRails, 1000 Bundles of Reeds,Pantiles, Ridge Tiles and Bricks,quantity of Firewood and numer-ous effects."

Today: Brickyard pond is usedfor fishing and is a haven forwildlife.

BUCKMINSTER VILLAGEINSTITUTEThe Institute "for the benefit ofthe working men of Buckminsterand the surrounding villages" wasfounded in 1886 and paid for bythe Earl of Dysart, the local squirewho owned the entire village. TheInstitute had a large playroom withbilliards, bagatelle, draughts anddominoes; a reading room withLondon and provincial papers, alibrary of 250 books and a tableand writing materials; a committee

at

room and caretaker's quarters. Theannual subscription was 5s "butthe committee have the power toadmit lads and labourers at 1 d perweek".

Today: hall used is by localgroups for meetings, as a pollingstation and for social gatherings.

BUCKMINSTER SCHOOLThis school building was complet-ed in 1899 on a new site oppositethe former school which had beenconstructed in 1841. The Earl ofDysart paid for its constructionand it was named 'TheBuckminster Unsectarian School'.

St John the Baptist's Church . MausoleumVicarage

The BlueCow

(formerly)Mu Street The Blue

Bull Inn

1'

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Top Street

Cow Row

Cow Row.

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Hack's Farm

Buckminster 1885

A house for the Head teacher wasbuilt opposite the school.

Today: still the village school withbuilding additions in 1989, and atemporary classroom added in1997.

IVY HOUSEThis was once a public housecalled 'The Blue Bull'. Kelly's PostOffice Directory of 1855 lists thelandlord as Henry North andrecords that he was also a veteri-nary surgeon. The Blue Bull'slicence was allowed to lapse at thewish of the Earl of Dysart. Its auc-tion inventory contains a detailedinventory of each room and store.

Today: a private house.

suckintaster.GENTRY.

Dysart Right Hon. Earl, Buckmin-ster Hall

Lawson Rev. James, N.A. (vicar)TRADER&

Adcock John, 'Blue Cow,' baker &fanner

Ash George, butcher & shopkeeperBertram Richard, cheirmakerBertram William, ehairmakerBeardeell Edward, grocer, seedsman, &

agent to the East of England lifeassurance

Benson William, brick & tile makerBrown John, tailor, & linen & woollen

draperBrown Richard, tailorBurton John, bailiff to Earl DysartCoulson Thomas, cabinet makerExton John, farmer & grazierGlassup Joseph, farmer & grazierHack William & Robert, farmersHand Thomas, farmerHill John, bricklayer

Hill Joseph, bricklayerManners Alfd. agent to Earl DysartMarshall Arthur, farmer & grazierMarshall John, grazierNorth Henry, 'Blue veterinarystag=

Sharpe Southern, butcherSpencer John, farmer & grazierStevens Thomas, boot & shoe maker, &

shopkeeper\Vateborn Timothy, blacksmithWeston Thos. saddler & harness makerWoollerton William, boot & shoe maker

Mewszera.Atter William. esqHolmes Rev. Henry Courtley, m.4

TRADER&Almond John, cattle dealerBertram John, chairmakerBertram Joseph, carrierBowder William, farmer & grazierBright Benjamin Priestrnan, grocerBurrowsWm.' Weggenklforms,'&frmrChalland John, 'lied Lion'Christain Esther (Mrs.), grazier

BUCKMINSTER 1851 CENSUS

ANALYSIS OF EMPLOYMENT

FARMING 45%

Farmers 6Farmers Sons etc. (Working) 3Graziers 2Agricultural Labourers 57Farm Servants 6Gamekeeper 1

Shepherd 1

Poultryman 1Dairymaid 1

Waggoner 1

79

DOMESTIC 21%

Servants 24Gardeners 3Housekeepers 3Housemaids 2Groom 1Stableman 1

Watchman 1Cook 1Porter 1Nursemaid 1

38

CRAFTS 15%

Tailors (inc1.1 J) 4Dressmakers 4Joiners 3Carpenters 2Chairmakers 2Lace Runners 2Lace TrimmerStonemasonMasonSaddlerHarness MakerCooperBrickmakerCordwainerBlacksmithShoemaker

27

A= PRopEss cr.i t-

B = uNsoart_oven

TRADES 9%

Grocers (incl.IA) 4Drapers 3Bakers 2Butchers 2Innkeepers 2Errand Boys 2

15

PROFESSIONAL 7%

Land Agents 2Writing Clerks 2Schoolmistresses 2Schoolmaster 1

Vicar 1

Arbitor/Treasurer 1

Treasurer 1

Inspec t ress 1

Vice Inspector 1

Parish Clerk 1

13

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UNEMPLOYED 3%

Paupers 3Independent 1

Annuitant 1

5

Note:A = ApprenticeJ = Journeyman

69

Christain Robert, farmer & grazierCramp William, carpenterDoubleday Henry, farmerDoubleday John, farmerDunmore William, carrierEaton Thomas, farmer & grazierGrice John, cattle dealerOrice Mary (Mrs.), farmerGrice Richard, 'Blue Dog'Hardy John, grocerHarvey Thomas, tailor & draperHarvey William, shoemakerHerring Thomas, farmer& grazierNorth Jaseph, blacksmithParker Marl (Mrs.), shopkeeperRemington John, farmerRobinson Samuel, boot & shoe makerRoyce Joseph, farmer & grazierRoyce Mark, horse dealer & farmerSmith Thorpe, miller & bakerThraves Samuel, tailorTinker William, grazierTownsend George, carpenterWard John, farmerWorcuell Mary (Mrs.), shopkeeper

THE GREENAn annual village feast was held onthe Sunday after 6 July. The annual`club day' of the local BuckminsterFriendly Society turned intoanother feast day for the whole vil-lage from the 1880s. There was achurch service and processions ledby village bands from the areaaround. In 1859 the localGrantham Journal reported:

"In the evening the membersparaded the village, the Band play-ing at most of the principal houseswhere they were regaled with plen-ty of 'Sir John Barleycorn'. Allpassed off quietly excepting oneinstance. A poor imbecile musicianof the violin tribe who annoyedpeople by performing the part of`Punch and Judy' got so drunk thathe was obliged to be waited on bya gentleman in blue."

Levi Briggs (`imbecile musician')from the village of Skillington wascharged with drunkenness andfined 5s.

Today: still an open space andthe place for the annualBuckminster Festival.

AREAS OF STUDY: KEY STAGE 2

C&Ea g3TUTDYZ

NATIONAL EVENTS -LOCAL STORIESEveryone has seen films about theSecond World War, with politiciansand generals taking life and deathdecisions, the evacuation ofDunkirk, and battles being foughtat sea, in the air and on land. Buthow can we relate these events andactivities to the local area where weteach? Traces of the Second WorldWar are all around us - in buildingsand open spaces, in people's mem-ories, in photographs and in offi-cial records. In fact there is somuch information that sometimesthe problem is one of selectionfrom the vast mass available.Teachers, as well as pupils, can getbogged down in detail. The trick isto focus on a specific event orplace that can provide a startingpoint for a thorough local investi-gation.

The last shell to fall on DoverThe town of Dover was in a vul-nerable position after the fall ofFrance in May 1940. The townwas in firing range of shells fromheavy German guns across theChannel as well as in danger frombombing raids. Shells could fall atany time of the day or night. Thetown was hit by 2,226 shells (com-pared with 464 bombs), makingshells the more feared hazard.The place where each shell or

bomb fell was carefully noted.Towards the end of the war a mapwas published by the local newspa-per, showing these locations. Thisinformation would have been clas-sified during the war, but presum-ably, by 4 May 1945, just beforeVE day, these restrictions werelifted.The map can tell us something

about the vulnerability of Dover,and which streets are likely to havebeen substantially rebuilt after thewar. But it tells us nothing about

THE IMPACT OF WAR

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Extract from a map, originally published in the DoverExpress, in May 1945 at the very end of the war, showingwhere bombs and shells fell in Dover.

what it was like to live in the townat that time, and gives no detailsabout the physical effects of theshells and bombs.When the last shell fell on Dover,

no-one was aware that this reallywas the last one until afterwards.There are eye-witness accounts,although these are not verydetailed, presumably because theevent was not recalled until sometime later.All air raid damage was fully

recorded as it happened. Dover,like other towns, was divided intosections, each with its own reportcentre. The Air Raid Precaution(ARP) personnel on duty wouldrecord, on specially printed forms,

I WAS THEREMr A.E.Whittamore remembers:`I know where the last shell fell,because I was at the top of the streetwhere it fell....I was at the top ofCastle Street at the time, goinghome to where I lived downthere.... there was, I think it was anumbrella shop, Hubbards, there,and that's where the very last shellhit, on the very last day of shelling,which is the TSB bank now...Iheard it fall and ran, although itwas silly running after it fell...!

JBEST COPY AVAILABLE 7V

the position of the occurrence, anydamage to essential utilities,whether there was a fire, whichservices were on the spot, as wellas the exact time of the event.Thus, when it was suggested thatthe shell which hit Hubbardsumbrella shop was the 'last shell tohit Dover' it was possible to checkin the records whether this was so.

Castle Street, Dover, today.

Castle Street todayAlthough a great deal of Dover hasbeen completely rebuilt after thewar, Castle Street is still quiterecognisable, partly because of thelandmark of Dover Castle. Whenyou are asking your pupils to corn-

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The ARP report, detailing damagedone by the shell that fell on CastleStreet.

pare old and new photographs, orold photographs with places, getthem to look for easily identifiablebuildings to orientate themselves.Get them to look up, above theground floor. Roof lines andshapes are often a useful orienta-tion device. Sometimes theremains of old painted advertisingor shop names can be found onthe sides of buildings. Sometimesyou can see the line of an earlier

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roof where an older building hasbeen demolished. Comparing pre-war maps with modern equivalentscan also help your pupils identifywhere the road layout has changedor where, for instance, a car parkor open space replaced bomb-damaged buildings.

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Bomb damage to Priory Gate Road, close to Dover Priory Station.INSET: Priory Gate Road today, with the gap in the terrace of houses filled by ablock of flats.

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Shell damage in Castle Street. Laterthis was found to be the last shell tofall on Dover. The view of DoverCastle is very similar today.

DO YOU REMEMBER?Memories of those whO livdthrough the events of the SecondWorld War help bring the moreofficial records alive. Get yourpupils to make a list of the ques-tions they would like to ask some-one about their experiences.

How old were you?Where did you Eire?Did you go to school? Was the-schoOl evacuated to a safe area?What can you remember-aboutthe food? What did you miss? .

Do you remember using adairraid shelter? What was it like?Was your street damaged by:bombs or shells? .

What one memory or experienceof the war would you like to tellus about?Do you remember the end of thewar?

Pupils can interview and recordlocal residents or members oftheir own family to create theirown oral history archive.

-{-71REAS OF STUDY: KEY STAGE 2

CA= grODUt

There is still plenty of evidence forthe Second World War in Britam.How many examples can you spotin the place where you live)

BOMBING THE CITIESBetween the summer of 1940 andthe spring of 1941 the Germansmaintained aerial bombing raidson Britain. On the first night of theBlitz (from the German blitzkriegmeaning 'lightening war') nearly2000 people were killed or injuredin London. Apart from London,Birmingham, Manchester,Coventry, Liverpool, Plymouth,

THE REMNANTS OF WAR

Here's an air raid shelter convertedinto a fence!

Bristol and Glasgow were also keytargets. In 1942 the Germansbombed Britain's historic cities, inparticular Bath, Norwich,Canterbury, Exeter and York. Theair raids were nicknamed the`Baedeker raids' on the

This street in Southampton showsevidence of where one bomb fell. Thisterrace of houses, built around 1900,has had a single bombed housereplaced in a different style.

assumption that the Luftwaffe hadconsulted the cultural guidebooksfor locations.

This aerial photograph was taken by the RAF in 1948 and shows the damage caused by war-time bombing raids onCoventry. On the night of November 14, 1940 German bombs destroyed 40 acres (16 ha.) of the city. The front of thecathedral you can see here was left as an approach to a newly-built cathedral.

An air raid shelter converted into ashed.

SHELTERING FROMENEMY BOMBSAir raid shelters like this one werebuilt in thousands of gardensacross the country. Many were dis-mantled after the war but othershave survived as reminders of theconflict.

This pillbox near Harwich guardedinland routes.

GUARDING THE LANDWhen it was thought that theGerman army would cross over theChannel to Britain, a whole seriesof defences were put in to stop, or

slow down, an invasion. Till-boxes'of reinforced concrete were builtfor soldiers to guard strategicpoints, such as river crossings.

REMEMBERING THE WARHONOURING THE DEADAlmost every town and village hasa war memorial commemoratingthe dead of the two World Wars.Memorials were often placed atimportant places in the locality,such as at crossroads, in church-yards or in public parks andsquares.This is part of a report in the

local newspaper for Harwich,Essex in May 1919,

`A meeting was held in the vestry ofHarwich Church to consider thequestion of a war memorial to themen and women connected withHarwich Parish Church who fell inthe war, and also what form thismemorial should take. Many sugges-tions were made including a clock,a brass plate inside the church, astained glass window in the east ofthe church and there was also a sug-gestion to put a large cross in thechurchyard like many churches weredoing. The putting up of anartistic oak screen in front of thechancel appeared the most popular ofthe suggestions, and it was unani-mously decided.'

LOCAL STUDIES

ONTGOMERY ROA

Roads were often named after peopleor events of the war. This one com-memorates a famous general whocommanded the Eighth Army inNorth Africa.

The dedication ceremony for an Essexvillage memorial in 1920.

In 1946 the war memorial wasre-dedicated to the dead of the SecondWorld War.

THE CASE OF THE MISSING RAILINGS

Iron railings outside houses were removed to be melted down and trans-formed into tanks, guns and ammunition. This picture was taken in April1940 in Chalk Farm, London.

Look out for the evidence of where the iron railings oncewere. Sometimes the lead which held the railings inPlace survives.

Yr"

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BEST COPY AVAILABLE

PRIMARY HISTORY

FURTHER READINGAND INFORMATION

* indicates resources suitable forpupils

indicates video# indicates the English Heritage

Education on Site series for teach-ers. The series includes titles onlocal studies (such as UsingHistoric Parks and Gardens), his-toric sites (such as Using Castlesand Using Industrial Sites),National Curriculum subjects(such as Art and the HistoricEnvironment) and other aspects ofteaching and learning (suchas History through role play). Thefull range of English HeritageEducation titles is included in ourcatalogue, Resources (informationon page 72).

General® The Big History Action Pack,English Heritage, 75 minutes

1999. A journey ofdiscovery intoEngland's history,packed with activitiesto engage children'sinterest in the past, inor out of school.*

Corbishley, M,Gillingham, J, Kelly,R, Dawson, I &Mason, J, The YoungOxford History ofBritain & Ireland,

Oxford University Press, 1996.ISBN 0-19-910035-7. From theearliest prehistory to the 1990s.*® Teaching Primary History,English Heritage, 58 minutes,1998. An in-service video whichreflects on successful practice inteaching classroom history inrecent years.® The Key Stage 1 Curriculum,English Heritage, 19 minutes,1991. This in-service video follows

a school planning a visit to a sev-enteenth-century house with fol-low-up in the classroom and evalu-ation.

Local environmentDavid, R, History at Home, EnglishHeritage, 1996. ISBN 1- 85074-591-9. Activity ideas for parentsand teachers to use in studyingtheir immediate locality with chil-dren.# ® History at Home: familydetectives finding the past is present-ed by David Bellamy. English

Heritage, 18minutes,1995.® Doorstep

i. Discovery:

-"-brera

working on alocal historystudy. EnglishHeritage, 30minutes,1993. Followsa group oftrainee teach-

ers carrying out local history stud-ies around their college and onteaching practice in a primaryschool.® Investigating History. Two pro-grammes with teacher's notes andphotocopiable sheets looking atwork on ancient sites and in thelocality. Produced by the BBC inassociation with English Heritage,58 minutes, 1995.

IssuesBarnicoat, J, Newspapers andConservation, English Heritage,1994. ISBN 1-85074-511-0.#Keith, C, Using Listed Buildings,English Heritage, 1991. ISBN 1-85074- 297 -9. Introduces the com-plex and sometimes conflictingissues in the protection of the his-toric buildings.

BEST COPY AVAILABLE

Recording gravestonesMytum, H, Recording and analysinggravestones, Council for BritishArchaeology, early 2000. ISBN 1-902771-09-5. Contains an exam-ple of the gravestone recordingform.

ObjectsDurbin, G, Morris, S & Wilkinson,S, Learning from objects, EnglishHeritage, 1990. ISBN 1- 85974-259-6.#® Archaeological Detectives, fourA3-poster games and a video,English Heritage, 79 minutes,1990/91.*

DocumentsDavies, I & Webb, C, UsingDocuments, English Heritage, 1996.ISBN 1-85074-492-0.#

Purkis, S, Using School Buildings,English Heritage, 1993. ISBN 1-85074- 379 -7.#

PhotographsCopeland, T, Teacher's handbook forLocal Studies, NationalMonuments Record, 1998. ISBN1-873592-37-X. A guide to usingaerial photographs and local build-ings.

,.E.e7p.14 :I

VA-r)

<"'--d

.t'774.7k7A.2.1

Interpreting history® According to the Evidence,English Heritage, 30 minutes,1998. Looks at the way in which

evidence for thepast is presented.Some sequencesfor classroom

cshowing.

4Interpreting the

Past, EnglishHeritage, 1999.ISBN 1- 85074-737-7. Pack of 6A3 full colourposters for theclassroom with an

illustrated booklet of notes forteachers.

Looking at housesAllen, S, Hollinshead, L &Wilkinson, S, Using Houses andHomes, English Heritage, 1998.

ISBN 1- 85074-398-3.#

Barden, H,Houses and Homes,Wayland, 1994.ISBN 1 -7502-0331- 5.*

Durbin, G, UsingHistoric Houses,English Heritage,1993. ISBN 1-

85074- 390 -8.#Gee, A, Looking at Houses,

Batsford, 1983. ISBN 0 -7134-0845-6.*

StorytellingMaddern, E, Storytelling at HistoricSites, English Heritage, 1992.ISBN 1-85074-378-9.# 2x90minute cassettes also available.

RomansRoman Britain Poster Pack, 8 A3full-colour posters, English

Heritage, 1997.ISBN 1- 85074-692-3.

Corbishley, M &Cooper, M, RealRomans: digital

FURTHER-READING AND INFORMATION

time traveller, TAG& English Heritage, 1999. ISBN 1-9028- 0400 -7. Introducing theRomans through a cartoon-illus-trated book and CD-ROM featur-ing Housesteads fort, Wroxeter cityand Lullingstone villa.*

Corbishley, M, What do we knowabout the Romans?, Wayland, 1993.ISBN 0-7500-0852-0.*Watson, I, Using Roman Sites,

English Heritage, 1997. ISBN 1-85074- 334 -7.#Watson, I, A teacher's handbook to

Hadrian's Wall, English Heritage,1997. ISBN 1-85074-375-4.Watson, I, A teacher's handbook to

Lullingstone Roman Villa, EnglishHeritage, 1998. ISBN 1- 85074-684-2. For information about visit-ing Lullingstone see page 72.

Talkin' Roman, EnglishHeritage, 25 minutes, 1996.*

Anglo-Saxons® Talkin' Saxon, English Heritage,20 minutes, 1997.*

Stoppleman,M, Anglo-SaxonVillage, A & CBlack, 1994.ISBN 0 -7136-3813-3.* Thestory of WestStow. For infor-mation aboutvisiting WestStow and theresources/ser-

vice for teachers contact: WestStow Country Park and Anglo-S axon Village, The Visitor Centre,Icklingham Road, West Stow, BurySt Edmunds, Suffolk, IP28 6HG.Tel: 01284 728718.

VikingsTalkin'Viking, English Heritage,

25 minutes, 1998.*Hall, R, Viking York,

Batsford/English Heritage, 1996.ISBN 0-7134-7720-2.

Richards, J, Viking Age England,Batsford/English Heritage, 1991.ISBN 0-7134-6519-0.

BEST (Y)PV F3LF

PiOngdomnkTy 01.1

:x1;r1:112000 van NAN;WIPP.

**Oa"' NOMPORIPs .1=4*1141.101IMMISno,....,nulti.1.1110.**Iss.12.

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rokTolhurst, M, Viking Street, A & C

Black, 1994. ISBN 0- 7136 -3814-1.* For information about visitingthe Jorvik Viking Centre and theArchaeological Resource Centreand the resources/service forteachers contact 01904 543 402.

TudorsBagenal, A & M, Tudor England,Longman, 1987. ISBN 0 -582-18828-8.*Girouard, M, Life in the English

Country House, Penguin, 1980.ISBN 0-14-00-5406-5.

Reynoldson, F, The Tudors:History starts here, Wayland, 1999.ISBN 0-7502-2364-2.*Yaxley, S, Tudor Home Life: The

way it was, Chambers, 1980. ISBN0-550-755300-6.*For information about visitingKirby Hall (English Heritage) seepage 72.

VictoriansAllen, E, Civic Pride, A & C Black,1979. ISBN 0-7136-1896-5.*Girouard, M, The Victorian

Country House,Yale UniversityPress, 1979. ISBN 0-300-034572-5.

Life on a Royal Estate: A documentpack for Osborne House, EnglishHeritage, 1986. ISBN 1- 85074-126-3. 39 facsimile documentswith teacher's notes.

Little, B, Birmingham Buildings:The Architectural Story of aMidlands City, David &Charles, 1971. ISBN 0-7153- 5295 -4.

Overy, C, A teacher'sguide to Charles Darwin:his life, journeys and discov-eries, English Heritage,

s

FURTHER READING AND INFORMATION

1997. ISBN 1-85074-688-0.® Paws on the Past, EnglishHeritage, 20 minutes, 1996. KS1pupils investigate life in a Victoriancountry house.*Tolhurst, M, A teacher's handbook

to Osborne House, EnglishHeritage, 1990. ISBN 1- 85074-289-8.

Victorians at Work, NationalMonuments Record, 1998. ISBN1-873592-43-4. 8 A3 photographs

with teacher's notes.Victorian Transport,

English Heritage,1999. ISBN 1-873592-46-9. 8 A3photographs withteacher's notes.Wood, R, Family

Life in VictorianBritain, Wayland,1994. ISBN 0-

7502- 1008 -7.*For information about visiting

Brodsworth Hall, Down Houseand Osborne House (EnglishHeritage) see below.

mAtiONALfres

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VICTORIANS AT WORKTEACHUR'S PHOTOPACK

Mid-century BritainAllen, E, Wartime Children 1939-1945, A & C Black, 1983. ISBN 0-7136- 1503 -6.*

Britain since 1930, NationalMonuments Record, 1998. ISBN1-873592-44-2. 8 A3 photographs

with teacher'snotes.

Corbishley, G,Ration BookRecipes, EnglishHeritage, 1990.ISBN 1- 85074-288-X.Corbishley, G,

Appetite forChange: food and

cooking in twentieth-cen-tury Britain, EnglishHeritage, 1993. ISBN1-85074-400-9.® The Milk lugMystery, EnglishHeritage, 20 minutes,1997. KS1

e.pabfaia...

pPetitnfOr ChangeFr... and Codify flIseedeth Glittery prinl

0110kbishtey ,

pupils comparing life today withthe late 1940s.*

Parsons, M, Rationing, Wayland,1999. ISBN 0-7502-2400-2.*

Local studiesClinton, D, When Bacon wasSixpence a Pound: Victorian Life inBuckminster, Sewstern and Sproxton,Workers EducationalAssociation, 1989.

Planel, P, Battlefields, defence, con-flict and warfare, English Heritage,1995. ISBN 1-85074-590-0.#Purkis, S, Using memorials,

English Heritage, 1995. ISBN 1-85074- 493 -9.#Willis, H, Pill-boxes, Secker &

Warburg, 1985. ISBN 0- 43657-360 -1.

OrganisationsThe Historical Association wasfounded in 1906 to bring togetherpeople who share an interest in thepast. It promotes and assists thestudy of history at all levels and isvery active in primary education.Membership gives the magazine`Primary History' and many otherbenefits. For information contact:The Historical Association, 59aKennington Park Road, LondonSE 11 4JH. Tel: 0171 735 3901.Email: enquiry@history.org.ukWEB site www.history.org.uk

Young Archaeologists Club is opento all 9-16 year olds and gives aregular magazine, local branches,archaeological holidays and theNational Archaeology Days. Forinformation contact: YoungArchaeologists Club, Council forBritish Archaeology, BowesMorrell House, 111 Walmgate,YorkY01 2UA. Tel: 01904

can 1,431°1

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WOMEN!Farmers Can't

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1111siel;

671417.Emai1: archaeology@com-puserve.comThe Council for BritishArchaeology also provides aservice and publications for teach-ers. WEB site wwwbritarch.ac.uk/cha

ENGLISH HERITAGEEDUCATION SERVICE

We arc the nation's leading ser-vice provider in the field of her-itage education. We aim to helpteachers make better use of theresource of the historic environ-ment, wherever you arc or what-ever subject you are teaching.Educational group visits to over400 sites cared for by EnglishHeritage arc absolutely free. Weprovide free information forteachers on all these sites, includ-ing those used as Case Studies inthis book. For further informa-tion on our Free EducationalVisits Scheme, how to join ourWindows on the Past teacher'smembership scheme, a samplecopy of Heritage Learning, ourfree termly teacher's magazine,our catalogue Resources, or anyother aspect of our service, con-tact us at:English Heritage Education

Service, Freepost 22(WD214),London

W1E 7EZ.Tel 020-7973 3442Fax 020-7973 3443

www.english-heritage.org.uk

_76

,,A

77

ENGLISH HERITAGE

PRIMARY HISTORYUSING THE EVIDENCE OF

THE HISTORIC ENVIRONMENT

This book has been especially written to help busy primaryteachers make the best use of a whole range of evidence forteaching history in schools today, covering areas of study atboth Key Stages 1 and 2.11= the pages and discover allyou need to know to excite pupils with investigativediscovery of the past. Inside you will find:

Clear, richly-illustrated explanatory text for the non-expert, with practical advice and project ideas

How to ask the right questions, teach key skills, useobjects, games, documents and interpretations of the past

'r'; Ideas for Key Stage 1, from looking at houses, or famouspeople and events, to using stories and timelines

The Romans in Britain

The Anglo-Saxons and The Vikings

'Ilidor Life

Victoria's England and Britain Since 1930

Case studies of places relating to each period

Photocopiable activity sheets for classroom use or on sitevisits

BEST COPY AVAILABLE 78 9

ISBN 1650746SO-8

aso 4650

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