Adapting to climate change in Umkhanyakude district, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

Research 2008

Report written by Dr Alison Misselhorn on behalf of Oxfam Australia

3

Contents

1. Summary 5

2. Background 6

3. An overview of what adaptation to climate change means 7

4 Vulnerability to climate change in Umkhanyakude 8

5. Supporting adaptation to climate change in Umkhanyakude 10

5.1 Introduction 10

5.2 Agricultural risk reduction and better natural resource management 10

5.3 Building resilience through livelihood diversification and flexibility 14

5.4 Understanding local needs and resource constraints to build capacity 14

5.5 Strengthening community social capital resources and institutions 16

5.6 Engaging with planning and implementation processes across sectors and scales 17

6. Summary of considerations for supporting climate change adaptation in Umkhanyakude 20

7. Conclusion 22

8. Glossary of technical terms 24

9. References 25

10. Contact details 27

Acknowledgements

Oxfam Australia acknowledges the

input of partners and community members

from the Umkhanyakude Partnership

Program who participated in an earlier

research process that informed the

development of this publication.

Thanks also go to Oxfam Australia staff

in Melbourne and South Africa as well as

editor Cathy Moloney for her contribution.

Front cover: Nthombifuthi Mbhele helps to look after the gardens. She has been taught how to farm basic crops like corn, beans, potatoes and tomatoes. The ground is not rich in nutrients so much care needs to be taken with watering and spreading manure to help the crops grow. Photo: Matthew Willman/OxfamAUS.

Left: Children playing at a local trading store in Umkhanyakude district. Photo: Matthew Willman/OxfamAUS.

2

3

Contents

1. Summary 5

2. Background 6

3. An overview of what adaptation to climate change means 7

4 Vulnerability to climate change in Umkhanyakude 8

5. Supporting adaptation to climate change in Umkhanyakude 10

5.1 Introduction 10

5.2 Agricultural risk reduction and better natural resource management 10

5.3 Building resilience through livelihood diversification and flexibility 14

5.4 Understanding local needs and resource constraints to build capacity 14

5.5 Strengthening community social capital resources and institutions 16

5.6 Engaging with planning and implementation processes across sectors and scales 17

6. Summary of considerations for supporting climate change adaptation in Umkhanyakude 20

7. Conclusion 22

8. Glossary of technical terms 24

9. References 25

10. Contact details 27

Acknowledgements

Oxfam Australia acknowledges the

input of partners and community members

from the Umkhanyakude Partnership

Program who participated in an earlier

research process that informed the

development of this publication.

Thanks also go to Oxfam Australia staff

in Melbourne and South Africa as well as

editor Cathy Moloney for her contribution.

Front cover: Nthombifuthi Mbhele helps to look after the gardens. She has been taught how to farm basic crops like corn, beans, potatoes and tomatoes. The ground is not rich in nutrients so much care needs to be taken with watering and spreading manure to help the crops grow. Photo: Matthew Willman/OxfamAUS.

Left: Children playing at a local trading store in Umkhanyakude district. Photo: Matthew Willman/OxfamAUS.

2

54 5

1. Summary

1. Summary

Adaptation to climate change describes

the adjustments people make in response

to, or in anticipation of, a changing climate.

This includes changes to the things they do,

the way they do them, or to the organisational

or physical elements of their environment.

Climate change is only one of the many

stressors that affect resource-constrained

communities such as those living in

Umkhanyakude. It is about addressing

the multiple development shortfalls of the

district that prevent people from being able

to adapt, and make them more vulnerable,

to climate change. This is fundamentally

what building adaptive capacity is about.

In KwaZulu-Natal, there has been

very little research that has specifically

looked at community strategies to adapt

to climate change. In this document,

support for adaptation in Umkhanyakude

is discussed under five themes.

1. Reducing agricultural risk and

improving natural resource

management.

2. Building livelihood diversification.

This refers to increasing the variety of

ways people can make a living.

3. Working at the local level to

understand adaptation needs through

participatory processes. People’s

resources and their vulnerability and

adaptive capacity vary enormously

between communities and even between

households. Locally specific coping and

adaptation strategies, as well as farmers’

knowledge about adapting to climate

variability, are therefore an indispensable

part of the adaptation picture.

4. Strengthening social capital

resources in communities. The

importance of social capital resources

such as community institutions is

too well documented to ignore in

programming. This will require close

work with stakeholders across the district

to develop an understanding of local

political issues and power dynamics

between individuals and groups.

5. Looking more broadly to support

programs and policies across sectors

and scales that relate to climate

change adaptation. A critical component

of this is facilitating community access

to relevant (and timely) information and

services that will increase people’s

knowledge and choices, as well as

link them with planning and policy

processes to convey lessons learned

in Umkhanyakude for better policy

development and institutional support.

This document presents a range of

adaptation and program support strategies

that have been employed in communities

in KwaZulu-Natal and elsewhere in South

Africa and Africa, discusses these as

considerations for programming, and

offers recommendations.

Successful adaptation is not easy to

identify or assess, particularly given that

measures that appear effective in the

short term might carry long-term negative

consequences that are not immediately

evident. Adaptation responses also need to

be flexible enough to cope with uncertainty,

and with meeting different needs that

might rapidly change with time.

Left: Joseph Bongi is the Chair of the Ubombo Community Care Centre. He regularly attends community meetings and sees to the basic running of the feeding schemes in the greater Nsinde Tribal Authority (Josini and surrounding areas).Photo: Matthew Willman/OxfamAUS.

54 5

1. Summary

1. Summary

Adaptation to climate change describes

the adjustments people make in response

to, or in anticipation of, a changing climate.

This includes changes to the things they do,

the way they do them, or to the organisational

or physical elements of their environment.

Climate change is only one of the many

stressors that affect resource-constrained

communities such as those living in

Umkhanyakude. It is about addressing

the multiple development shortfalls of the

district that prevent people from being able

to adapt, and make them more vulnerable,

to climate change. This is fundamentally

what building adaptive capacity is about.

In KwaZulu-Natal, there has been

very little research that has specifically

looked at community strategies to adapt

to climate change. In this document,

support for adaptation in Umkhanyakude

is discussed under five themes.

1. Reducing agricultural risk and

improving natural resource

management.

2. Building livelihood diversification.

This refers to increasing the variety of

ways people can make a living.

3. Working at the local level to

understand adaptation needs through

participatory processes. People’s

resources and their vulnerability and

adaptive capacity vary enormously

between communities and even between

households. Locally specific coping and

adaptation strategies, as well as farmers’

knowledge about adapting to climate

variability, are therefore an indispensable

part of the adaptation picture.

4. Strengthening social capital

resources in communities. The

importance of social capital resources

such as community institutions is

too well documented to ignore in

programming. This will require close

work with stakeholders across the district

to develop an understanding of local

political issues and power dynamics

between individuals and groups.

5. Looking more broadly to support

programs and policies across sectors

and scales that relate to climate

change adaptation. A critical component

of this is facilitating community access

to relevant (and timely) information and

services that will increase people’s

knowledge and choices, as well as

link them with planning and policy

processes to convey lessons learned

in Umkhanyakude for better policy

development and institutional support.

This document presents a range of

adaptation and program support strategies

that have been employed in communities

in KwaZulu-Natal and elsewhere in South

Africa and Africa, discusses these as

considerations for programming, and

offers recommendations.

Successful adaptation is not easy to

identify or assess, particularly given that

measures that appear effective in the

short term might carry long-term negative

consequences that are not immediately

evident. Adaptation responses also need to

be flexible enough to cope with uncertainty,

and with meeting different needs that

might rapidly change with time.

Left: Joseph Bongi is the Chair of the Ubombo Community Care Centre. He regularly attends community meetings and sees to the basic running of the feeding schemes in the greater Nsinde Tribal Authority (Josini and surrounding areas).Photo: Matthew Willman/OxfamAUS.

6 76

2. Background

2. Background

In 2005, Oxfam Australia initiated a food

security program in the Umkhanyakude

district of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa,

with the aim of strengthening food and

nutrition security within the context of

HIV and AIDS. Suffering from extreme

poverty, underdevelopment and high levels

of unemployment, Umkhanyakude is the

poorest district within Kwa-Zulu Natal. The

district has a large number of orphans and

households run by young children, a direct

result of the high rate of HIV and AIDS.

Water is scarce in the area and more than

half of households lack clean water and

sanitation, which often results in cholera

outbreaks. Umkhanyakude also has the

highest incidence of malaria in South

Africa. The Umkhanyakude Partnership

Program aims to build capacity and develop

strategies among local communities to

strengthen food security responses, as

well as ensuring safety nets are in place

for those who are unable to cope.

In 2006, Oxfam Australia conducted

participatory research on community

perceptions of climate change in six

communities of the district. This research

indicated a perceived absence of long-term

successful adaptation strategies to cope

with climate variability and change. This

was attributed to the need for addressing

immediate short-term needs with

limited livelihood resources.

Multiple stressors were also seen to

constrain response options, including

population growth, the demands on

household and government resources

already placed by HIV and AIDS and the

pressing need for improved water access

and sanitation throughout the district.1

Water supply was re-emphasised as a

key vulnerability during Oxfam Australia’s

second Partner Platform Meeting for

Umkhanyakude, held in June 2007. The

need for stronger emergency relief skills

and strategies, and the challenges of

climate change were also included among

the key issues identified. These issues are

of particular concern in the face of future

climate change impacts, which are likely to

include decreased rainfall and deteriorating

water and sanitation access. An increased

incidence of natural disasters, such as

drought and flood, appear possible if not

likely from the broader climate change

literature. Should this occur, the capacity

to reduce disaster-related vulnerabilities

will become as important as development-

based strategies to adapt to climate change

in the long term.

In line with the development needs in

Umkhanyakude, together with climate

change threats, Oxfam Australia

commissioned this report to determine

adaptation strategies in the area, evaluate

their sustainability, and review options to

support adaptation to climate change.

7

3. Overview

3. An overview of what adaptation

to climate change means

Adaptation to climate change describes

the adjustment people make in response

to, or in anticipation of, a changing climate.

This includes changes to the things

they do, the way they do them, or to the

organisational or physical elements of their

environment. Adaptation can be the actions

people take or choices they make that are

unplanned (or reactive), and they often take

place independently of policy support.2

Climate change is only one of the many

stressors that affect resource-constrained

communities such as those living in

Umkhanyakude. The capacity to adapt,

particularly in developing countries,

is thus known to be defined by the

potential or ability of a system, region,

or community to adapt to the effects or

impacts of climate change within the

context of multiple stresses.3 Adaptation

research has broadened from a focus on

future climate impacts to consider a wide

variety of economic, social, political and

environmental circumstances that affect

the ability to adapt.4 Successful adaptation

thus hinges not on discerning appropriate

responses to climate change per se, but

rather on first addressing vulnerability

through “climate-aware” development —

including issues of governance.5

In Umkhanyakude, the adaptation

options and strategies will, for example,

be shaped by agricultural policies and

the extent to which vulnerable groups

are able to negotiate the impacts of such

policies. In the context of development,

it is useful to recognise two forms of

adaptation. The first involves changing the

biophysical environment; the development

of technology or infrastructural changes

that allow for the maintenance of

livelihoods. The second involves

adjustments in human behaviour that

might be needed to adapt livelihoods to

new climatic conditions.6 Despite all the

complexities and uncertainties, there are

urgent reasons to immediately seek ways

to support adaptation to climate change.

1 Sterrett (2007).

2 Schipper (2007).

3 Kelkar (2005).

4 Ibid.

5 O’Brien et al (2006).

6 Schipper (2007).

Left: Elias Mabuza helps to run a community garden that provides vegetables such as beetroot, spinach and carrots for his fellow community members . Photo: Paul Weinberg/OxfamAUS.

6 76

2. Background

2. Background

In 2005, Oxfam Australia initiated a food

security program in the Umkhanyakude

district of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa,

with the aim of strengthening food and

nutrition security within the context of

HIV and AIDS. Suffering from extreme

poverty, underdevelopment and high levels

of unemployment, Umkhanyakude is the

poorest district within Kwa-Zulu Natal. The

district has a large number of orphans and

households run by young children, a direct

result of the high rate of HIV and AIDS.

Water is scarce in the area and more than

half of households lack clean water and

sanitation, which often results in cholera

outbreaks. Umkhanyakude also has the

highest incidence of malaria in South

Africa. The Umkhanyakude Partnership

Program aims to build capacity and develop

strategies among local communities to

strengthen food security responses, as

well as ensuring safety nets are in place

for those who are unable to cope.

In 2006, Oxfam Australia conducted

participatory research on community

perceptions of climate change in six

communities of the district. This research

indicated a perceived absence of long-term

successful adaptation strategies to cope

with climate variability and change. This

was attributed to the need for addressing

immediate short-term needs with

limited livelihood resources.

Multiple stressors were also seen to

constrain response options, including

population growth, the demands on

household and government resources

already placed by HIV and AIDS and the

pressing need for improved water access

and sanitation throughout the district.1

Water supply was re-emphasised as a

key vulnerability during Oxfam Australia’s

second Partner Platform Meeting for

Umkhanyakude, held in June 2007. The

need for stronger emergency relief skills

and strategies, and the challenges of

climate change were also included among

the key issues identified. These issues are

of particular concern in the face of future

climate change impacts, which are likely to

include decreased rainfall and deteriorating

water and sanitation access. An increased

incidence of natural disasters, such as

drought and flood, appear possible if not

likely from the broader climate change

literature. Should this occur, the capacity

to reduce disaster-related vulnerabilities

will become as important as development-

based strategies to adapt to climate change

in the long term.

In line with the development needs in

Umkhanyakude, together with climate

change threats, Oxfam Australia

commissioned this report to determine

adaptation strategies in the area, evaluate

their sustainability, and review options to

support adaptation to climate change.

7

3. Overview

3. An overview of what adaptation

to climate change means

Adaptation to climate change describes

the adjustment people make in response

to, or in anticipation of, a changing climate.

This includes changes to the things

they do, the way they do them, or to the

organisational or physical elements of their

environment. Adaptation can be the actions

people take or choices they make that are

unplanned (or reactive), and they often take

place independently of policy support.2

Climate change is only one of the many

stressors that affect resource-constrained

communities such as those living in

Umkhanyakude. The capacity to adapt,

particularly in developing countries,

is thus known to be defined by the

potential or ability of a system, region,

or community to adapt to the effects or

impacts of climate change within the

context of multiple stresses.3 Adaptation

research has broadened from a focus on

future climate impacts to consider a wide

variety of economic, social, political and

environmental circumstances that affect

the ability to adapt.4 Successful adaptation

thus hinges not on discerning appropriate

responses to climate change per se, but

rather on first addressing vulnerability

through “climate-aware” development —

including issues of governance.5

In Umkhanyakude, the adaptation

options and strategies will, for example,

be shaped by agricultural policies and

the extent to which vulnerable groups

are able to negotiate the impacts of such

policies. In the context of development,

it is useful to recognise two forms of

adaptation. The first involves changing the

biophysical environment; the development

of technology or infrastructural changes

that allow for the maintenance of

livelihoods. The second involves

adjustments in human behaviour that

might be needed to adapt livelihoods to

new climatic conditions.6 Despite all the

complexities and uncertainties, there are

urgent reasons to immediately seek ways

to support adaptation to climate change.

1 Sterrett (2007).

2 Schipper (2007).

3 Kelkar (2005).

4 Ibid.

5 O’Brien et al (2006).

6 Schipper (2007).

Left: Elias Mabuza helps to run a community garden that provides vegetables such as beetroot, spinach and carrots for his fellow community members . Photo: Paul Weinberg/OxfamAUS.

8 9

4. Vulnerability to climate change

in Umkhanyakude7

A report on vulnerability to climate

change in Umkhanyakude was developed

concurrently with the adaptation review

presented in this document. From this

report it is clear that interventions aimed

at enhancing food security be developed

with the awareness that food security is

determined by multiple factors in addition

to agricultural production. These factors

include food availability (eg food markets);

food access (such as being able to afford to

buy food); consistency of food supply; and

food utilisation and safety factors, which are

affected by health and sanitation. Thus the

impact of climate change on food security is

highly complex and extends beyond direct

environmental impacts.

In terms of exposure to future climate-

related risks, a number of vulnerabilities in

Umkhanyakude stand out: average annual

rainfall is likely to decrease; temperatures

are likely to increase; rainfall is likely to

become less predictable, with higher risk

of extreme rainfall and low rainfall years/

droughts; less water is likely to be available

for crops, livestock, drinking and sanitation;

and sea-levels are likely to rise, possibly

threatening some fresh water resources.

Overall, changes in water resources and the

hydrological system are arguably the most

profound environmental changes expected

with climate change. Of further importance,

however, is that climate changes can vary

within just a few kilometres, producing

highly localised patterns of response.

Key environmental responses to these

changes are likely to include a decrease

in crop production potential locally,

which will affect subsistence agriculture,

local market availability, and household

incomes from food sales. National or

regional reductions in crop production

have additional implications for people’s

vulnerability, particularly with regard to

food pricing. Rangelands may be affected,

and thus livestock grazing potential may

also be reduced. Losses may also occur in

biodiversity, including threats to indigenous

forests and conservation areas, which will

affect wild food availability and grazing

and have negative impacts on tourism.

Further, conflicts of interest may arise

between the need to conserve biodiversity

in conservation areas and needs such as

crops, grazing and habitation.

There is a strong two-way relationship

between human health and food insecurity.

There is a likelihood of less water being

available for drinking and sanitation,

and thus a greater risk of water-borne

disease. Water is also necessary for food

preparation and protecting against disease.

Further, despite less water availability

overall, the climate is likely to become

more suitable for malaria. This is because

mosquito larva development, mosquito

ranges, and malarial transmission rates

are affected by a number of climatic factors

including rainfall variability, humidity,

standing water, extreme rainfall, rainfall

timing, and extreme temperatures. This

means that malaria management and

control measures will have to be closely

monitored and maintained. Although poorly

researched, a number of other health

risks are associated with climate change

including risks such as the impact of heat

stress on maternal health.

8

4. Vulnerability

9

7 There are considerable overlaps between ‘vulnerability’ and ‘adaptation’. The report on vulnerability that was prepared in parallel with this report offers additional programming considerations. These two reports should be read together.

Right: For the world’s poorest people, climate change is a matter of life and death. It is threatening their food, their families, their homes and their health. Photo: Matthew Willman/OxfamAUS.

8 9

4. Vulnerability to climate change

in Umkhanyakude7

A report on vulnerability to climate

change in Umkhanyakude was developed

concurrently with the adaptation review

presented in this document. From this

report it is clear that interventions aimed

at enhancing food security be developed

with the awareness that food security is

determined by multiple factors in addition

to agricultural production. These factors

include food availability (eg food markets);

food access (such as being able to afford to

buy food); consistency of food supply; and

food utilisation and safety factors, which are

affected by health and sanitation. Thus the

impact of climate change on food security is

highly complex and extends beyond direct

environmental impacts.

In terms of exposure to future climate-

related risks, a number of vulnerabilities in

Umkhanyakude stand out: average annual

rainfall is likely to decrease; temperatures

are likely to increase; rainfall is likely to

become less predictable, with higher risk

of extreme rainfall and low rainfall years/

droughts; less water is likely to be available

for crops, livestock, drinking and sanitation;

and sea-levels are likely to rise, possibly

threatening some fresh water resources.

Overall, changes in water resources and the

hydrological system are arguably the most

profound environmental changes expected

with climate change. Of further importance,

however, is that climate changes can vary

within just a few kilometres, producing

highly localised patterns of response.

Key environmental responses to these

changes are likely to include a decrease

in crop production potential locally,

which will affect subsistence agriculture,

local market availability, and household

incomes from food sales. National or

regional reductions in crop production

have additional implications for people’s

vulnerability, particularly with regard to

food pricing. Rangelands may be affected,

and thus livestock grazing potential may

also be reduced. Losses may also occur in

biodiversity, including threats to indigenous

forests and conservation areas, which will

affect wild food availability and grazing

and have negative impacts on tourism.

Further, conflicts of interest may arise

between the need to conserve biodiversity

in conservation areas and needs such as

crops, grazing and habitation.

There is a strong two-way relationship

between human health and food insecurity.

There is a likelihood of less water being

available for drinking and sanitation,

and thus a greater risk of water-borne

disease. Water is also necessary for food

preparation and protecting against disease.

Further, despite less water availability

overall, the climate is likely to become

more suitable for malaria. This is because

mosquito larva development, mosquito

ranges, and malarial transmission rates

are affected by a number of climatic factors

including rainfall variability, humidity,

standing water, extreme rainfall, rainfall

timing, and extreme temperatures. This

means that malaria management and

control measures will have to be closely

monitored and maintained. Although poorly

researched, a number of other health

risks are associated with climate change

including risks such as the impact of heat

stress on maternal health.

8

4. Vulnerability

9

7 There are considerable overlaps between ‘vulnerability’ and ‘adaptation’. The report on vulnerability that was prepared in parallel with this report offers additional programming considerations. These two reports should be read together.

Right: For the world’s poorest people, climate change is a matter of life and death. It is threatening their food, their families, their homes and their health. Photo: Matthew Willman/OxfamAUS.

10 1110

5. Support

5. Supporting adaptation to climate

change in Umkhanyakude

5.1 Introduction

In principle, the following broad factors

are considered critical to successful

adaptation: technological advances,

changed institutional arrangements,

financing availability, and information

exchange.8 All of these factors are linked to

broader development concerns. In Africa,

key adaptation practices that have been

observed include the diversification of

livelihood activities (or strategies); changes

in institutional architecture (including rules

and norms of governance); adjustments

in farming operations; income-generation

projects and selling of labour (eg migrating

to earn an income); and the move towards

off- or non-farm livelihood incomes.9

There has been very little research in

KwaZulu-Natal on community strategies to

adapt to climate change. What is known is

that multiple stresses act together to shape

vulnerability and hinder adaptive capacity.

From a Sustainable Livelihoods Framework

perspective, the ability of farmers to adapt

to climate stress is shaped by:

1. the impacts of HIV and AIDS;

2. education (schooling and adult

education);

3. difficulties in accessing water and land;

4. low incomes (diversification of income-

generating activities would arguably raise

resilience to financial stress);

5. institutional problems such as poor water

pipes maintenance; difficulties with

transport availability and cost; difficulties

with access to markets and water and

sanitation; poor inter-farmer collaboration;

conflicts of interest between crop and

livestock owners; lack of faith in the

Department of Agriculture; lack of

communication between the Department

of Agriculture, farmers and the local chief;

and poor water governance;

6. problems with extension services which

theoretically provide commercial farmers

with relevant climate and agricultural

information; and

7. the inability of smaller- and medium-scale

farmers to access social networks and

farmer support groups.

Many of the above findings are typical of

research findings on wider development

issues elsewhere in KwaZulu-Natal.10

5.2 Agricultural risk reduction and

better natural resource management

Adapting farming strategies to drought

and rainfall variability

Drought and extreme rainfall, as well

as intra-seasonal (or within one season)

factors, are important elements of climate

variability in relation to crop production.

Climate factors affect what is planted and

when. Farming strategies that reduce

risk are commonplace among resource-

constrained farmers, and the variety of

strategies used is enormous. Strategies

might include changes in planting methods,

changes to crop inputs (such as fertiliser),

and planting a combination of crops. 11

Many farmers also diversify to include

livelihood activities other than farming.

Unfortunately, some strategies are

unsustainable or might involve

significant loss (see table one).

11

Table one: Potential impact of climatic variation on household assets and strategies.

Source: Ziervogel and Calder (2003).

8 Kelkar (2005).

9 Boko, et al (2007).

10 Misselhorn (in prep.).

11 Jarvis et al (2006).

Source of livelihood

(assets and strategies)

Prolonged drought Delayed onset of rains Normal rains Above-normal rains

Economic Crop failure, livestock death,

deterioration of dwellings

(due to diminished thatch

grass), erosion of savings,

depletion of seed resources

in granaries, trees cut down

for income generation, wealth

and productive resources

liquidated, reduced animal feed

Shortage of water resources,

delayed planting leads to short

maturing and lower yielding

crop varieties and less sales,

animals get weak and sick,

vegetation suffers, resources

not as plentiful for crafts such

as weaving or thatching, wealth

resources liquidated

Potential good harvest

improves food security and

excess for sale, good grazing

conditions, adequate water

supplies, housing can be

repaired, nearby sources of

firewood, animals strengthen

Water logging and increased

pests destroy crops, increased

diseases affect humans and

livestock, water damages

housing and grain stores,

increased pests in grain stores,

small animals drown or washed

away, disrupted transport

reduces sale of goods

Human Increased labour migration,

malnutrition, under nutrition,

disease epidemics (cholera,

dysentery, AIDS) due to

poor sanitary conditions and

increased unsafe sex as

income-generation activity,

morbidity and mortality of

income earners

Malnutrition, Under-nutrition,

education suffers as children

can’t concentrate and

sometimes have to stop school

until money is acquired to pay

school fees

Malnutrition, Under-nutrition,

education suffers as children

can’t concentrate and

sometimes have to stop school

until money is acquired to pay

school fees

Disease epidemics, schools

and clinics might be structurally

damaged or closed because

of restricted access

Natural Firewood depleted, poor

pastures, limited water supply,

dry soils, increased erosion,

gathering of wild food

Firewood depleted, poor

pastures, limited water supply,

dry soils, increased erosion,

gathering of wild food

More firewood available,

improved pastures, moist soils,

increased pests

Abundant pastures, areas

of flooding and water logging,

increased pests

Social Kinship networks weakened as

resources depleted (claims not

met) and increased migration,

exploitation of common property

resources, increased conflict

Temporary exploitation of

communal resources, minor

claims not met

Kinship networks able to

support poorest households,

personal resources used so

communal resources can

improve, increased competition

as many households try to

sell goods

Kinship networks weaken

as resources are depleted

(claims not being met),

increased conflict, safety

nets destroyed, employment

opportunities decrease,

increased migration for work

10 1110

5. Support

5. Supporting adaptation to climate

change in Umkhanyakude

5.1 Introduction

In principle, the following broad factors

are considered critical to successful

adaptation: technological advances,

changed institutional arrangements,

financing availability, and information

exchange.8 All of these factors are linked to

broader development concerns. In Africa,

key adaptation practices that have been

observed include the diversification of

livelihood activities (or strategies); changes

in institutional architecture (including rules

and norms of governance); adjustments

in farming operations; income-generation

projects and selling of labour (eg migrating

to earn an income); and the move towards

off- or non-farm livelihood incomes.9

There has been very little research in

KwaZulu-Natal on community strategies to

adapt to climate change. What is known is

that multiple stresses act together to shape

vulnerability and hinder adaptive capacity.

From a Sustainable Livelihoods Framework

perspective, the ability of farmers to adapt

to climate stress is shaped by:

1. the impacts of HIV and AIDS;

2. education (schooling and adult

education);

3. difficulties in accessing water and land;

4. low incomes (diversification of income-

generating activities would arguably raise

resilience to financial stress);

5. institutional problems such as poor water

pipes maintenance; difficulties with

transport availability and cost; difficulties

with access to markets and water and

sanitation; poor inter-farmer collaboration;

conflicts of interest between crop and

livestock owners; lack of faith in the

Department of Agriculture; lack of

communication between the Department

of Agriculture, farmers and the local chief;

and poor water governance;

6. problems with extension services which

theoretically provide commercial farmers

with relevant climate and agricultural

information; and

7. the inability of smaller- and medium-scale

farmers to access social networks and

farmer support groups.

Many of the above findings are typical of

research findings on wider development

issues elsewhere in KwaZulu-Natal.10

5.2 Agricultural risk reduction and

better natural resource management

Adapting farming strategies to drought

and rainfall variability

Drought and extreme rainfall, as well

as intra-seasonal (or within one season)

factors, are important elements of climate

variability in relation to crop production.

Climate factors affect what is planted and

when. Farming strategies that reduce

risk are commonplace among resource-

constrained farmers, and the variety of

strategies used is enormous. Strategies

might include changes in planting methods,

changes to crop inputs (such as fertiliser),

and planting a combination of crops. 11

Many farmers also diversify to include

livelihood activities other than farming.

Unfortunately, some strategies are

unsustainable or might involve

significant loss (see table one).

11

Table one: Potential impact of climatic variation on household assets and strategies.

Source: Ziervogel and Calder (2003).

8 Kelkar (2005).

9 Boko, et al (2007).

10 Misselhorn (in prep.).

11 Jarvis et al (2006).

Source of livelihood

(assets and strategies)

Prolonged drought Delayed onset of rains Normal rains Above-normal rains

Economic Crop failure, livestock death,

deterioration of dwellings

(due to diminished thatch

grass), erosion of savings,

depletion of seed resources

in granaries, trees cut down

for income generation, wealth

and productive resources

liquidated, reduced animal feed

Shortage of water resources,

delayed planting leads to short

maturing and lower yielding

crop varieties and less sales,

animals get weak and sick,

vegetation suffers, resources

not as plentiful for crafts such

as weaving or thatching, wealth

resources liquidated

Potential good harvest

improves food security and

excess for sale, good grazing

conditions, adequate water

supplies, housing can be

repaired, nearby sources of

firewood, animals strengthen

Water logging and increased

pests destroy crops, increased

diseases affect humans and

livestock, water damages

housing and grain stores,

increased pests in grain stores,

small animals drown or washed

away, disrupted transport

reduces sale of goods

Human Increased labour migration,

malnutrition, under nutrition,

disease epidemics (cholera,

dysentery, AIDS) due to

poor sanitary conditions and

increased unsafe sex as

income-generation activity,

morbidity and mortality of

income earners

Malnutrition, Under-nutrition,

education suffers as children

can’t concentrate and

sometimes have to stop school

until money is acquired to pay

school fees

Malnutrition, Under-nutrition,

education suffers as children

can’t concentrate and

sometimes have to stop school

until money is acquired to pay

school fees

Disease epidemics, schools

and clinics might be structurally

damaged or closed because

of restricted access

Natural Firewood depleted, poor

pastures, limited water supply,

dry soils, increased erosion,

gathering of wild food

Firewood depleted, poor

pastures, limited water supply,

dry soils, increased erosion,

gathering of wild food

More firewood available,

improved pastures, moist soils,

increased pests

Abundant pastures, areas

of flooding and water logging,

increased pests

Social Kinship networks weakened as

resources depleted (claims not

met) and increased migration,

exploitation of common property

resources, increased conflict

Temporary exploitation of

communal resources, minor

claims not met

Kinship networks able to

support poorest households,

personal resources used so

communal resources can

improve, increased competition

as many households try to

sell goods

Kinship networks weaken

as resources are depleted

(claims not being met),

increased conflict, safety

nets destroyed, employment

opportunities decrease,

increased migration for work

12 1312

Farmers have become accustomed to

changes in the region and have begun to

take action. They are increasing planting

distances of crops; introducing short-

maturing varieties of maize and other crops;

building stone bunds to reduce soil erosion;

accessing newly available land beyond

the village; and taking collective action

(eg maize cooperatives and community

horticulture projects).12 In devising

strategies, farmers consider total rainfall

changes and the timing and nature of rain,

soil condition and moisture, and other

factors such as irrigation availability or

reliability.13 Social networks and other

forms of social capital, including farmer

extension services, have also played a

key role in making information available

that enhances adaptation.

Making use of seasonal forecasting

Farmers’ actions in response to seasonal

forecast information are one kind of

adaptation to seasonal climate variability.14

Forecast information is extremely useful

not only for farmers; it has, for example,

been successfully used in Mozambique

to reduce fatalities in the event of flooding

(see text box one).15 The South African

Weather Services is the institution

formally responsible for forecasting

and dissemination.

Once seasonal weather forecasts are

available for dissemination, their uptake

and use have been influenced by factors

such as the extent of dependence on

production for income; perceived credibility

of the forecast; access to credit; access to

land; and their method of dissemination.16

Methods used to access weather

information include internet, word-of-mouth

through extension, regional officers and

heads of households (this method is not

so efficient), and through radio and SMS

contact. An SMS notification system was

piloted during 2004/2005 in a joint initiative

by the South African Sugar Association

and the KwaZulu-Natal Department of

Agriculture, which has been billed as a

success. Several sugar cane growers in the

Bivane irrigation project in KwaZulu-Natal

received weekly irrigation advice by SMS

on their cell phones.17

Weather forecast information is a critical

aspect of enhancing adaptation to climate

change. Its questionable availability needs

to be addressed and the most suitable

dissemination methods for different user

groups in Umkhanyakude district need

to be investigated.

Technological and scientific innovations

Community needs and resources,

together with the specific climate risks

they face, might call for specific scientific

information or technology. The design of

adaptation work therefore includes scoping

for adaptation measures that require

further research and information, or even

technologies that are new or untested.

13

Enhancing capacity to adapt to flood risks through early warning in Mozambique

“From Mozambique, Moisés Benessene of the National Institute for Meteorology presented lessons learnt in flood related disaster management. Mozambique is vulnerable to flooding due to its location as well as the vulnerability of much of the country’s population (60 per cent of whom live below the poverty line). In 2000, more than 700 fatalities occurred due to flooding that occurred as a result of Cyclone Eline; in 2007, floods of greater magnitude resulted in less than 20 deaths. This decline in fatalities is largely due to changes introduced after 2000, when it was recognised that Mozambique had limited capacity to respond to disasters. GTZ and INGC (National Institute for Disaster Management) undertook a disaster risk reduction project that sought to increase the coping capacity of local communities by, in part, introducing a people-centred early-warning system (SIDPABB) in the region of the Buzi river basin. This system enables communication of weather information to and from the local level, and ensures that communities are ready to use this information. The SIDPABB warning system alerted communities to danger in February of 2007. This warning was heard and taken seriously, and those at risk reacted appropriately. This system, accompanied with the downscaling of weather information and strengthening coordination between government and civil defence, reduced the loss of life in 2007.”

Source: The Adaptation Workshop Report, Plenary Session One (IISD, 2007:8)

An example from KwaZulu-Natal is

rainwater harvesting techniques in

the Thukela Basin of KwaZulu-Natal.

Techniques have included concentrating,

storing and collecting surface run-off

in different mediums for domestic or

agricultural use. Run-off can be

collected from roofs or ground surfaces

(rainwater harvesting) as well as from

seasonal streams (flood water harvesting).

The Thukela Basin research indicates

these techniques hold much promise

in reducing run-off and increasing

agricultural potential.18

RECoMMENDATIoNS

organisations working to support

agricultural risk reduction and natural

resource management need to:

1. identify through participatory research

what farming strategies are being used

to cope with climate variability;

2. examine the potential for introducing

new farming methods (eg conservation

agricultural techniques);

3. identify the role and value of

agricultural extension services

— are they weak or strong in the most

vulnerable communities? Is there

room for programming to support

Department of Agriculture initiatives?

4. determine what seasonal forecasting

information farmers need:

•Whatinformationaretheyreceiving

(if any) and from what sources (for

example agricultural extension)?

•Howcanwarningsaboutfloodsand

droughts be disseminated in areas

that are not receiving these?

•Whoneedstheinformationin

the community?

•Howshouldtheinformationbe

disseminated — SMS notification,

radio, extension services?

5. identify the potential for supporting

the development of rainwater

harvesting techniques.

12 Thomas et al (2005).

13 Ibid.

14 Ziervogel et al (2006b).

15 IISD (2007).

16 Archer (2003).

17 South African Sugar Cane Journal (2005).

Above: Strengthening community awareness and social capital institutions through community meetings and forums. Photo: Matthew Willman/OxfamAUS. 18 Kongo et al (2006)

NB: Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ). GmbH is an international cooperation enterprise for sustainable development with worldwide operations. It is a federally owned organisation that supports the German Government in achieving its development-policy objectives.

12 1312

Farmers have become accustomed to

changes in the region and have begun to

take action. They are increasing planting

distances of crops; introducing short-

maturing varieties of maize and other crops;

building stone bunds to reduce soil erosion;

accessing newly available land beyond

the village; and taking collective action

(eg maize cooperatives and community

horticulture projects).12 In devising

strategies, farmers consider total rainfall

changes and the timing and nature of rain,

soil condition and moisture, and other

factors such as irrigation availability or

reliability.13 Social networks and other

forms of social capital, including farmer

extension services, have also played a

key role in making information available

that enhances adaptation.

Making use of seasonal forecasting

Farmers’ actions in response to seasonal

forecast information are one kind of

adaptation to seasonal climate variability.14

Forecast information is extremely useful

not only for farmers; it has, for example,

been successfully used in Mozambique

to reduce fatalities in the event of flooding

(see text box one).15 The South African

Weather Services is the institution

formally responsible for forecasting

and dissemination.

Once seasonal weather forecasts are

available for dissemination, their uptake

and use have been influenced by factors

such as the extent of dependence on

production for income; perceived credibility

of the forecast; access to credit; access to

land; and their method of dissemination.16

Methods used to access weather

information include internet, word-of-mouth

through extension, regional officers and

heads of households (this method is not

so efficient), and through radio and SMS

contact. An SMS notification system was

piloted during 2004/2005 in a joint initiative

by the South African Sugar Association

and the KwaZulu-Natal Department of

Agriculture, which has been billed as a

success. Several sugar cane growers in the

Bivane irrigation project in KwaZulu-Natal

received weekly irrigation advice by SMS

on their cell phones.17

Weather forecast information is a critical

aspect of enhancing adaptation to climate

change. Its questionable availability needs

to be addressed and the most suitable

dissemination methods for different user

groups in Umkhanyakude district need

to be investigated.

Technological and scientific innovations

Community needs and resources,

together with the specific climate risks

they face, might call for specific scientific

information or technology. The design of

adaptation work therefore includes scoping

for adaptation measures that require

further research and information, or even

technologies that are new or untested.

13

Enhancing capacity to adapt to flood risks through early warning in Mozambique

“From Mozambique, Moisés Benessene of the National Institute for Meteorology presented lessons learnt in flood related disaster management. Mozambique is vulnerable to flooding due to its location as well as the vulnerability of much of the country’s population (60 per cent of whom live below the poverty line). In 2000, more than 700 fatalities occurred due to flooding that occurred as a result of Cyclone Eline; in 2007, floods of greater magnitude resulted in less than 20 deaths. This decline in fatalities is largely due to changes introduced after 2000, when it was recognised that Mozambique had limited capacity to respond to disasters. GTZ and INGC (National Institute for Disaster Management) undertook a disaster risk reduction project that sought to increase the coping capacity of local communities by, in part, introducing a people-centred early-warning system (SIDPABB) in the region of the Buzi river basin. This system enables communication of weather information to and from the local level, and ensures that communities are ready to use this information. The SIDPABB warning system alerted communities to danger in February of 2007. This warning was heard and taken seriously, and those at risk reacted appropriately. This system, accompanied with the downscaling of weather information and strengthening coordination between government and civil defence, reduced the loss of life in 2007.”

Source: The Adaptation Workshop Report, Plenary Session One (IISD, 2007:8)

An example from KwaZulu-Natal is

rainwater harvesting techniques in

the Thukela Basin of KwaZulu-Natal.

Techniques have included concentrating,

storing and collecting surface run-off

in different mediums for domestic or

agricultural use. Run-off can be

collected from roofs or ground surfaces

(rainwater harvesting) as well as from

seasonal streams (flood water harvesting).

The Thukela Basin research indicates

these techniques hold much promise

in reducing run-off and increasing

agricultural potential.18

RECoMMENDATIoNS

organisations working to support

agricultural risk reduction and natural

resource management need to:

1. identify through participatory research

what farming strategies are being used

to cope with climate variability;

2. examine the potential for introducing

new farming methods (eg conservation

agricultural techniques);

3. identify the role and value of

agricultural extension services

— are they weak or strong in the most

vulnerable communities? Is there

room for programming to support

Department of Agriculture initiatives?

4. determine what seasonal forecasting

information farmers need:

•Whatinformationaretheyreceiving

(if any) and from what sources (for

example agricultural extension)?

•Howcanwarningsaboutfloodsand

droughts be disseminated in areas

that are not receiving these?

•Whoneedstheinformationin

the community?

•Howshouldtheinformationbe

disseminated — SMS notification,

radio, extension services?

5. identify the potential for supporting

the development of rainwater

harvesting techniques.

12 Thomas et al (2005).

13 Ibid.

14 Ziervogel et al (2006b).

15 IISD (2007).

16 Archer (2003).

17 South African Sugar Cane Journal (2005).

Above: Strengthening community awareness and social capital institutions through community meetings and forums. Photo: Matthew Willman/OxfamAUS. 18 Kongo et al (2006)

NB: Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ). GmbH is an international cooperation enterprise for sustainable development with worldwide operations. It is a federally owned organisation that supports the German Government in achieving its development-policy objectives.

14

5.3 Building resilience

through livelihood diversification

and flexibility

Diversifying livelihoods into non-farm

activities is a common adaptation practice

for rural families in the face of climate

and other environmental stresses.19

Attempts to diversify are, however, often

constrained. Obstacles include a lack of

access to information and technology, or

to employment opportunities which are

highly dependent on education and

other household resources.20

RECoMMENDATIoNS

Organisations working to diversify

livelihoods need to:

1. identify and support successful

livelihood diversification strategies

in Umkhanyakude;

2. gather and document community

and household-specific knowledge

to support potential of alternative

diversification strategies;

3. identify the constraints and

opportunities for people to access

markets;

4. provide, or support the provision of,

technical knowledge and skills; and

5. explore options for enhancing

finance or credit access.

5.4 Understanding local

needs and resource constraints

to build capacity

Climate stressors have highly localised

dimensions and livelihood dynamics, such

as resource constraints and opportunities,

which vary between communities and

between households. Ongoing work at

the local level is required to investigate

what strategies might work best, identify

alternatives that may not apply elsewhere,

and identify specific community needs

such as information requirements.

Research in KwaZulu-Natal elicited

inputs from a panel of 35 food security

practitioners experienced in addressing

food insecurity in the province. Among the

findings emphasised were those related

to in-depth, participatory work in

communities including:

1. the importance of community

participation in developing solutions;

2. building skills and capacity in

communities; and

3. seeking the energies and opportunities

to build on in communities.

(See tables two and three.)

RECoMMENDATIoNS

organisations working to understand

local needs, resource constraints and

opportunities need to:

1. continue to work closely in and with

communities and with partners working in

Umkhanyakude to understand the district’s

specific vulnerabilities and opportunities;

2. identify the human capacity strengths

and weaknesses in communities such as

skills gaps that hinder income generation

or employability. Schooling and education

levels are low across the district and

initiatives need to be developed urgently to

support basic adult education and literacy;

3. support groups or individuals who are

already seeking ways to generate income;

4. facilitate community and household

access to information on:

•agriculturalandnon-agricultural

market opportunities;

•employmentopportunities;

•skillsandeducationtoinitiate

income-generating activities.

5. help to identify constraints to water and

sanitation access and reliability, and work

with communities to identify solutions or

lobby for better service delivery.

19 Reid & Vogel (2006). 20 Soini, (2005).

ToP CRITICAL SUCCESS FACToRS

1 Participation of community members in needs analysis and project development

— project beneficiaries identified project themselves and were thus 100% committed

2 Human capacity building is a critical part of any project development

3 Long-standing relationship with community

4 Beneficiaries have existing entrepreneurial interests and skills

5 Working with community initiatives/resources, and where there is passion among

community members for change

Table two: Factors cited as critical to the success of interventions/projects reviewed

by a panel of food security practitioners in KwaZulu-Natal.

Most valuable food security interventions or change in project or development

approach if used by non-government bodies

Index of

Value

Making better use of networking between non-government organisations,

government, and community-based organisations to avoid duplication of efforts

and work towards more integrated and effective development.

53

Developing people’s skills, capacity and knowledge, thus facilitating people

to find their own solutions and opportunities and to manage these for long-term

sustainable development.

53

Projects that address community needs holistically; taking into consideration

short-term “crisis” needs, without neglecting the long-term livelihood, physical,

spiritual and capacity building needs of communities.

53

True community participation in project development and implementation, so that

ways of meeting needs are identified by the community rather than the agent of change.51

Building good relationships with beneficiaries through long-term involvement in the

community — a minimum of three to five years.47

Adopting an opportunity-focused approach by asking “what are people getting

right? Where is their positive energy?”, thus building on strengths and resources in

communities rather than focusing on fixing problems with pre-determined solutions.

41

Table three: Interventions with high potential value for non-government bodies

to enhance food security, as rated by food security practitioners in KwaZulu-Natal.

14

5.3 Building resilience

through livelihood diversification

and flexibility

Diversifying livelihoods into non-farm

activities is a common adaptation practice

for rural families in the face of climate

and other environmental stresses.19

Attempts to diversify are, however, often

constrained. Obstacles include a lack of

access to information and technology, or

to employment opportunities which are

highly dependent on education and

other household resources.20

RECoMMENDATIoNS

Organisations working to diversify

livelihoods need to:

1. identify and support successful

livelihood diversification strategies

in Umkhanyakude;

2. gather and document community

and household-specific knowledge

to support potential of alternative

diversification strategies;

3. identify the constraints and

opportunities for people to access

markets;

4. provide, or support the provision of,

technical knowledge and skills; and

5. explore options for enhancing

finance or credit access.

5.4 Understanding local

needs and resource constraints

to build capacity

Climate stressors have highly localised

dimensions and livelihood dynamics, such

as resource constraints and opportunities,

which vary between communities and

between households. Ongoing work at

the local level is required to investigate

what strategies might work best, identify

alternatives that may not apply elsewhere,

and identify specific community needs

such as information requirements.

Research in KwaZulu-Natal elicited

inputs from a panel of 35 food security

practitioners experienced in addressing

food insecurity in the province. Among the

findings emphasised were those related

to in-depth, participatory work in

communities including:

1. the importance of community

participation in developing solutions;

2. building skills and capacity in

communities; and

3. seeking the energies and opportunities

to build on in communities.

(See tables two and three.)

RECoMMENDATIoNS

organisations working to understand

local needs, resource constraints and

opportunities need to:

1. continue to work closely in and with

communities and with partners working in

Umkhanyakude to understand the district’s

specific vulnerabilities and opportunities;

2. identify the human capacity strengths

and weaknesses in communities such as

skills gaps that hinder income generation

or employability. Schooling and education

levels are low across the district and

initiatives need to be developed urgently to

support basic adult education and literacy;

3. support groups or individuals who are

already seeking ways to generate income;

4. facilitate community and household

access to information on:

•agriculturalandnon-agricultural

market opportunities;

•employmentopportunities;

•skillsandeducationtoinitiate

income-generating activities.

5. help to identify constraints to water and

sanitation access and reliability, and work

with communities to identify solutions or

lobby for better service delivery.

19 Reid & Vogel (2006). 20 Soini, (2005).

ToP CRITICAL SUCCESS FACToRS

1 Participation of community members in needs analysis and project development

— project beneficiaries identified project themselves and were thus 100% committed

2 Human capacity building is a critical part of any project development

3 Long-standing relationship with community

4 Beneficiaries have existing entrepreneurial interests and skills

5 Working with community initiatives/resources, and where there is passion among

community members for change

Table two: Factors cited as critical to the success of interventions/projects reviewed

by a panel of food security practitioners in KwaZulu-Natal.

Most valuable food security interventions or change in project or development

approach if used by non-government bodies

Index of

Value

Making better use of networking between non-government organisations,

government, and community-based organisations to avoid duplication of efforts

and work towards more integrated and effective development.

53

Developing people’s skills, capacity and knowledge, thus facilitating people

to find their own solutions and opportunities and to manage these for long-term

sustainable development.

53

Projects that address community needs holistically; taking into consideration

short-term “crisis” needs, without neglecting the long-term livelihood, physical,

spiritual and capacity building needs of communities.

53

True community participation in project development and implementation, so that

ways of meeting needs are identified by the community rather than the agent of change.51

Building good relationships with beneficiaries through long-term involvement in the

community — a minimum of three to five years.47

Adopting an opportunity-focused approach by asking “what are people getting

right? Where is their positive energy?”, thus building on strengths and resources in

communities rather than focusing on fixing problems with pre-determined solutions.

41

Table three: Interventions with high potential value for non-government bodies

to enhance food security, as rated by food security practitioners in KwaZulu-Natal.

16 17

5.5 Strengthening community social

capital resources and institutions

Social capital resources

enhance livelihoods

The ability to be part of or engage with

institutions to achieve collective action

and decision making describes one

aspect of an individual’s, household’s or

community’s social capital. Social capital

includes trust, reciprocity and exchange,

common rules, norms and sanctions, social

connectedness, and social networks and

institutions and groups.21 In KwaZulu-Natal,

strengthening community social capital,

together with the participation of vulnerable

people in developing food security

initiatives, has been found to be critical to

strengthening food security interventions

and enhancing livelihoods.22 Strong,

community-sanctioned institutions ensure

people are able to lay claim to shared

resources and engage in collective action.23

Social capital shortfalls in KwaZulu-Natal

In KwaZulu-Natal, case study research has

found a number of “breakdowns” in social

capital associated with food insecurity.

These included the increasing dissolution

of nuclear families, disagreements between

religious groups in the community, weak as

well as ambiguous leadership (traditional

versus elected), poor access to the

ward councillor, and changes in cultural

norms.24 All of these breakdowns hinder

the ability to access or exploit resources

and opportunities within and beyond

the community (such as government

resources), including the ability to

act collectively and lobby for

community interests.

Focusing on social capital to support

adaptation is not straightforward

Unfortunately, the fact of being poor, or

having other resource constraints, can

lead to exclusion from accessing social

capital resources. The interactions between

household resources are highly complex

and vary from household to household.

Human relationships, conflict and power

dynamics, property rights, as well as the

wider political context, all affect access

to and use of social capital in the pursuit

of food security.25

While the concept of social capital is

abstract, and focusing on it in programming

is not straightforward, its important role is

too clearly documented for it to be ignored

in developing programming that will support

adaptation in Umkhanyakude.

RECoMMENDATIoNS

Organisations working to strengthen

social capital and increase the capacity

of communities in Umkhanyakude to

adapt to climate change need to:

1. investigate the social resources

(such as stokvels or savings clubs,

leadership groups, the role of

traditional leaders versus ward

councillors) that communities use

to understand how they access,

or fail to access, social capital;

2. work with and elicit the knowledge

that other stakeholders have about

institutions in the communities

where they work. This will yield

an understanding of household or

community livelihood strategies and

the role of social capital; and

3. through the above, develop a better

understanding of how women can

overcome the constraints they face

to accessing social capital. This often

results from women’s disadvantaged

property rights.

5.6 Engaging with planning and

implementation processes across

sectors and scales

National adaptation strategies

The structure and nature of climate change

institutions across scales is a significant

issue in supporting climate change

adaptation. It is important to consider

how programming can engage with these

structures to find opportunities for better

collaboration. A wider consideration of

the municipal, provincial and national

policy planning and development process

is critical in supporting adaptation. This

is considered the most vital stage of

the Adaptation Policy Framework (APF)

process developed by the UNDP to guide

the process of adaptation policy-making,

with the overall aim of supporting wellbeing

in the face of climate change.26 (Refer to

text box two.)

Successful adaptation to climate change

will depend on greater coordination

between institutions at all levels, including

civil society.27 Organisations working

in South Africa to help vulnerable

communities adapt to climate change

have a particular role to play in sharing

information, lessons learned, and

adaptation strategies.

The Adaptation Policy Framework (APF) Source: Kelkar (2005); UNDP (2004).

The APF was developed with the key aim of integrating adaptation into key policy and planning processes, and is structured around four major principles:

1. Adaptation to short-term climate variability and extreme events is included as a basis for reducing vulnerability to longer-term climate change.

2. Adaptation policy and measures are assessed in a developmental context.

3. Adaptation occurs at different levels in society, including the local level.

4. Both the strategy and the process by which adaptation is implemented are equally important.

Placing a strong emphasis on the broad engagement of stakeholders, the APF is comprised of the following five components:

1. Scoping and designing an adaptation project involves ensuring that a project is well integrated into the national policy-planning and development process. This is the most vital stage of the APF process. The purpose is to put in place an effective project plan so that adaptation strategies, policies and measures can be implemented.

2. Assessing current vulnerability involves responding to questions such as: Where does a society stand today with respect to vulnerability to climate risks? What factors determine a society’s current vulnerability? How successful are the efforts to adapt to current climate risks?

3. Assessing future climate risks focuses on the development of scenarios of future climate, vulnerability, and socio-economic scenarios.

4. Formulating an adaptation strategy in response to current vulnerability and future climate risks involves the identification and selection of a set of adaptation policy options and measures, and the formulation of these options into a cohesive, integrated strategy.

5. Continuing the adaptation process involves implementing, monitoring, evaluating, improving, and sustaining the initiatives launched by the adaptation project.

21 Adger (2003).

22 Misselhorn (2006).

23 Meinzen-Dick & Di Gregorio (2004).

24 Misselhorn (in prep.)

25 Maluccio et al (1999).

26 UNDP (2004). 27 Naess et al (2005).

16 17

5.5 Strengthening community social

capital resources and institutions

Social capital resources

enhance livelihoods

The ability to be part of or engage with

institutions to achieve collective action

and decision making describes one

aspect of an individual’s, household’s or

community’s social capital. Social capital

includes trust, reciprocity and exchange,

common rules, norms and sanctions, social

connectedness, and social networks and

institutions and groups.21 In KwaZulu-Natal,

strengthening community social capital,

together with the participation of vulnerable

people in developing food security

initiatives, has been found to be critical to

strengthening food security interventions

and enhancing livelihoods.22 Strong,

community-sanctioned institutions ensure

people are able to lay claim to shared

resources and engage in collective action.23

Social capital shortfalls in KwaZulu-Natal

In KwaZulu-Natal, case study research has

found a number of “breakdowns” in social

capital associated with food insecurity.

These included the increasing dissolution

of nuclear families, disagreements between

religious groups in the community, weak as

well as ambiguous leadership (traditional

versus elected), poor access to the

ward councillor, and changes in cultural

norms.24 All of these breakdowns hinder

the ability to access or exploit resources

and opportunities within and beyond

the community (such as government

resources), including the ability to

act collectively and lobby for

community interests.

Focusing on social capital to support

adaptation is not straightforward

Unfortunately, the fact of being poor, or

having other resource constraints, can

lead to exclusion from accessing social

capital resources. The interactions between

household resources are highly complex

and vary from household to household.

Human relationships, conflict and power

dynamics, property rights, as well as the

wider political context, all affect access

to and use of social capital in the pursuit

of food security.25

While the concept of social capital is

abstract, and focusing on it in programming

is not straightforward, its important role is

too clearly documented for it to be ignored

in developing programming that will support

adaptation in Umkhanyakude.

RECoMMENDATIoNS

Organisations working to strengthen

social capital and increase the capacity

of communities in Umkhanyakude to

adapt to climate change need to:

1. investigate the social resources

(such as stokvels or savings clubs,

leadership groups, the role of

traditional leaders versus ward

councillors) that communities use

to understand how they access,

or fail to access, social capital;

2. work with and elicit the knowledge

that other stakeholders have about

institutions in the communities

where they work. This will yield

an understanding of household or

community livelihood strategies and

the role of social capital; and

3. through the above, develop a better

understanding of how women can

overcome the constraints they face

to accessing social capital. This often

results from women’s disadvantaged

property rights.

5.6 Engaging with planning and

implementation processes across

sectors and scales

National adaptation strategies

The structure and nature of climate change

institutions across scales is a significant

issue in supporting climate change

adaptation. It is important to consider

how programming can engage with these

structures to find opportunities for better

collaboration. A wider consideration of

the municipal, provincial and national

policy planning and development process

is critical in supporting adaptation. This

is considered the most vital stage of

the Adaptation Policy Framework (APF)

process developed by the UNDP to guide

the process of adaptation policy-making,

with the overall aim of supporting wellbeing

in the face of climate change.26 (Refer to

text box two.)

Successful adaptation to climate change

will depend on greater coordination

between institutions at all levels, including

civil society.27 Organisations working

in South Africa to help vulnerable

communities adapt to climate change

have a particular role to play in sharing

information, lessons learned, and

adaptation strategies.

The Adaptation Policy Framework (APF) Source: Kelkar (2005); UNDP (2004).

The APF was developed with the key aim of integrating adaptation into key policy and planning processes, and is structured around four major principles:

1. Adaptation to short-term climate variability and extreme events is included as a basis for reducing vulnerability to longer-term climate change.

2. Adaptation policy and measures are assessed in a developmental context.

3. Adaptation occurs at different levels in society, including the local level.

4. Both the strategy and the process by which adaptation is implemented are equally important.

Placing a strong emphasis on the broad engagement of stakeholders, the APF is comprised of the following five components:

1. Scoping and designing an adaptation project involves ensuring that a project is well integrated into the national policy-planning and development process. This is the most vital stage of the APF process. The purpose is to put in place an effective project plan so that adaptation strategies, policies and measures can be implemented.

2. Assessing current vulnerability involves responding to questions such as: Where does a society stand today with respect to vulnerability to climate risks? What factors determine a society’s current vulnerability? How successful are the efforts to adapt to current climate risks?

3. Assessing future climate risks focuses on the development of scenarios of future climate, vulnerability, and socio-economic scenarios.

4. Formulating an adaptation strategy in response to current vulnerability and future climate risks involves the identification and selection of a set of adaptation policy options and measures, and the formulation of these options into a cohesive, integrated strategy.

5. Continuing the adaptation process involves implementing, monitoring, evaluating, improving, and sustaining the initiatives launched by the adaptation project.

21 Adger (2003).

22 Misselhorn (2006).

23 Meinzen-Dick & Di Gregorio (2004).

24 Misselhorn (in prep.)

25 Maluccio et al (1999).

26 UNDP (2004). 27 Naess et al (2005).

18 19

Disaster risk reduction

An increase in disasters and hazards

is predicted with climate change.

Hazards can be broadly grouped into

natural hazards, technological hazards

(for example infrastructural failures),

and complex emergencies (for example

drought coupled with HIV and AIDS and

socio-economic stresses). Extensive

experience shows that the negative impacts

of these disasters are far greater among

communities that are already poor and

vulnerable. The main adaptation measure

employed in planning for such hazards is

risk assessment and risk reduction.28

Human health

An increase in the incidence of malaria

in communities would place an increased

burden on social and human capacity

beyond that already being experienced

due to HIV and AIDS. It would also place

a greater burden on already stretched

health services. However, experts in

South Africa believe that unless there is

a general breakdown in health systems it

is unlikely that climate change will result in

an increase in malaria in Umkhanyakude.29

Nevertheless, organisations working to

enhance adaptation to climate-related

risks need to support the close monitoring

of malaria incidence as well as

control measures.30

RECoMMENDATIoNS

Organisations working to the programs

and policies across sectors and scales

related to climate change adaptation

need to:

1. investigate creating a forum to share

lessons on adaptation in South Africa;

2. identify ways to link community needs,

lessons learned and knowledge gathered

to decision makers at provincial and

national levels; and

3. support close control, management

and treatment of malaria:

•Thisisparticularlyimportantasmalaria

in South Africa is marginal, which

means that the population is mostly not

immune and therefore susceptible to

complications and death.

•Theuseofinsecticide-treatednets/bed

nets have been found to be effective

and should be encouraged.

•Continuedsurveillanceisneeded

to monitor malaria, which includes

the sharing of information between

researchers, control/healthcare staff

and policy makers.

Above: Alpheus Malatji working in his small garden to ensure he has sufficient, nutritious food. Photo: Gcina Ndwalane/OxfamAUS.

Right: Ingwavuma Orphan Care – rainfall has become more erratic over the last few decades, occurring less frequently and for shorter periods, which puts further stress on rain-fed agriculture. Photo: Matthew Willman/OxfamAUS.

28 O’Brien et al (2006).

29 GIS Coordinator and Principle Investigator, National Malaria Research Programme, South African Medical Research Council.

30 Craig et al (2000).

18 19

Disaster risk reduction

An increase in disasters and hazards

is predicted with climate change.

Hazards can be broadly grouped into

natural hazards, technological hazards

(for example infrastructural failures),

and complex emergencies (for example

drought coupled with HIV and AIDS and

socio-economic stresses). Extensive

experience shows that the negative impacts

of these disasters are far greater among

communities that are already poor and

vulnerable. The main adaptation measure

employed in planning for such hazards is

risk assessment and risk reduction.28

Human health

An increase in the incidence of malaria

in communities would place an increased

burden on social and human capacity

beyond that already being experienced

due to HIV and AIDS. It would also place

a greater burden on already stretched

health services. However, experts in

South Africa believe that unless there is

a general breakdown in health systems it

is unlikely that climate change will result in

an increase in malaria in Umkhanyakude.29

Nevertheless, organisations working to

enhance adaptation to climate-related

risks need to support the close monitoring

of malaria incidence as well as

control measures.30

RECoMMENDATIoNS

Organisations working to the programs

and policies across sectors and scales

related to climate change adaptation

need to:

1. investigate creating a forum to share

lessons on adaptation in South Africa;

2. identify ways to link community needs,

lessons learned and knowledge gathered

to decision makers at provincial and

national levels; and

3. support close control, management

and treatment of malaria:

•Thisisparticularlyimportantasmalaria

in South Africa is marginal, which

means that the population is mostly not

immune and therefore susceptible to

complications and death.

•Theuseofinsecticide-treatednets/bed

nets have been found to be effective

and should be encouraged.

•Continuedsurveillanceisneeded

to monitor malaria, which includes

the sharing of information between

researchers, control/healthcare staff

and policy makers.

Above: Alpheus Malatji working in his small garden to ensure he has sufficient, nutritious food. Photo: Gcina Ndwalane/OxfamAUS.

Right: Ingwavuma Orphan Care – rainfall has become more erratic over the last few decades, occurring less frequently and for shorter periods, which puts further stress on rain-fed agriculture. Photo: Matthew Willman/OxfamAUS.

28 O’Brien et al (2006).

29 GIS Coordinator and Principle Investigator, National Malaria Research Programme, South African Medical Research Council.

30 Craig et al (2000).

20 2120

6. Considerations

6. Summary of considerations

for supporting climate change

adaptation in Umkhanyakude

The above discussions have highlighted

some of the issues relating to future

adaptation to climate change in

Umkhanyakude.

Table four provides a summary of key

adaptation and program support strategies

that have been employed across the region.

21

Themes Strategy

Understanding

local needs

and resource

constraints to

build capacity

and access to

information and

services

Working to understand household and community dynamics by:

•determininguserneedstosupportbetteraccesstoinformationandservices;

•identifyingcommunityperceptionsandknowledgeofclimatechangeissuestodevelop“homegrown”adaptationoptions;

•identifyingopportunitieswithinthecommunity,workingwithexistingstrengthsandenergies;38

•supportingand/orlobbyingforimprovementstoinfrastructureandservices,suchasimprovedroadaccess,healthcare;

•researchingand/orsupportingthechannelsformicro-creditandnon-exploitativemoneylending.39

Strengthening

community

social capital

resources and

institutions

Supporting, strengthening and engaging with institutions, social networks and other forms of social capital

This might include:

•promotingimprovedaccesstoinformationthroughengagingwithfarmerextensionservicesandunderstandingextension

limitations and constraints;

•supportingcollectiveaction(whereappropriate)suchascropcooperativesandcommunityhorticultureprojects.

Engaging with

planning and

implementation

processes

across sectors

and scales

Developing and promoting participatory, evidence-based lessons for planning and policy processes

•hereisenormousdiversityinclimaterisk,livelihoodstrategiesandadaptationoptionsbetweencommunities,andevenbetween

households. Understanding local dynamics is indispensable to effectively supporting adaptation.

•Theperceptionofagriculturalriskplaysanimportantroleinactions,emphasisingtheimportanceofreciprocallearningandinformation

sharing between farmers and other institutions.40

•OngoingworkwithcommunitiesacrossUmkhanyakude,aswellaswithorganisationsworkingincommunities,willhelptoyieldan

understanding of household or community livelihood strategies. It will also be necessary to understand how institutions within communities

connect with external institutions (such as government extension, ward councillors).

Paying heed to integrated catchment management, and integration of climate change knowledge into water planning at all scales,

including better partnerships between the climate science and development planning actors, government, non-government organisations,

and civil society. Adaptation strategies need to:41

•increasewatersupply,through,forexample,modifiedcatchmentvegetation(suchasremovingalienvegetation),constructionofreservoirs

and dams, reduction of evaporation, development of groundwater resources and the use of inter-basin transfers;

•reducewaterdemand/demandsidemanagement,egrecyclewater;and

•bettermanagesupplyanddemandthrough,forexample,usingcropsubstitution,conjunctiveuseofgroundandsurfacewater,and

application of climate forecasts in the agricultural sector.

Supporting and/or lobbying for including climate change planning in integrated conservation strategies across South Africa

to preserve biodiversity and conservation areas.42 This will have numerous impacts on adaptation capacities and livelihoods through direct

and indirect mechanisms — for example employment in the conservation and tourism sectors. The preservation of biodiversity has been

noted as one of the most important strategies in adapting to climate change.43

Supporting healthcare, health systems, and information systems to control, manage and monitor increased health risks,

particularly malaria. For malaria control, the use of insecticide-treated nets/bed nets should be encouraged.

Themes Strategy

Agricultural

risk reduction

and better

natural resource

management

Development of agricultural risk reduction and/or opportunity exploitation strategies:

•short-maturingvarietiesofmaizeandothercrops;

•shadowcrops—broadleavesoffershadetounderstorycrops—aswellasinclusionoftreesorcanopywherepossible;

•soilenrichmentsuchasgreenmanuring;

•mulching;

•staggeringcropplantingdates;

•changesincropspacing;

•useofindigenouscropvarieties;

•controlandremovalofalienorinvasivevegetation;

•technicalresearchhasshownhowcrop–livestockintegration,on-farmtreeplantingandaquaculturecanaddvaluetorain-fedfarming

systems.31

Promotion of improved rainfall analysis and seasonal weather forecasts (including drought forecasting and early warning).

This is particularly important given current limits on forecast availability and slowness in delivery of information to resource-constrained

farmers in South Africa, including Umkhanyakude.

Research and the development of locally-adapted technologies, including:

•rainwaterharvestingsystems—researchintheThukelaBasin,KwaZulu-Natal,indicatestheseholdmuchpromiseinreducingrun-off

and increasing agricultural potential; 32

•dambuilding;

•waterconservationpracticessuchasmulching;

•additionofdrip-irrigation;33

•aquaculturewhichhasbeenusedamongfarmerswithriveraccessinMaanganiinLimpopo.34

Seeking out and researching the potential of technologies not yet documented in South Africa, for example:

•small-scalehydroelectricproductioninSriLankawhichoffersasynergybetweenmitigationandadaptation;35

•rehabilitatingfreshwaterwellsandsurveyingforalternativefreshwatersourcesincoastalcommunitiesaffected by sea level rises in Tanzania.36

Supporting the management decisions of small-scale, asset-poor farmers by researching local livelihood strategies through

participatory means.37

Building

resilience

through (where

appropriate)

livelihood

diversification

and flexibility

Supporting increased diversity and flexibility in livelihood strategies, including non-farm income generation activities

(where appropriate) within and beyond the natural resource sector. This means the inclusion of a variety of activities in their livelihood

portfolios, as well as possible crop diversification. This might, for example, ensure that they have resources to draw on when shocks

affect one part of their livelihood portfolio. Frequently, diversification involves migration of one or more family members which may

mean remittance income on the one hand, but bring increased family risks on the other.31 Mortimore & Manvell (2006).

32 Kongo & Jewitt (2006).

33 Matondo et al (2005).

34 Vincent (2007).

35 Blanco (2006).

36 IISD (2007).

37 Mortimore & Manvell (2006).

38 Misselhorn (2006).

39 Mortimore & Manvell (2006).

40 Grothmann & Patt (2005); Reid & Vogel (2006); Koch et al (2007).

41 Mukheibir & Sparks (2003).

42 (Hannah et al, 2002; Fairbanks & Benn, 2000; Cowling et al, 2002).

43 Schulze (2003).

Table four: Summary of adaptation support strategies evident in the literature that

are relevant to resource-constrained communities in Umkhanyakude

Table four cont

20 2120

6. Considerations

6. Summary of considerations

for supporting climate change

adaptation in Umkhanyakude

The above discussions have highlighted

some of the issues relating to future

adaptation to climate change in

Umkhanyakude.

Table four provides a summary of key

adaptation and program support strategies

that have been employed across the region.

21

Themes Strategy

Understanding

local needs

and resource

constraints to

build capacity

and access to

information and

services

Working to understand household and community dynamics by:

•determininguserneedstosupportbetteraccesstoinformationandservices;

•identifyingcommunityperceptionsandknowledgeofclimatechangeissuestodevelop“homegrown”adaptationoptions;

•identifyingopportunitieswithinthecommunity,workingwithexistingstrengthsandenergies;38

•supportingand/orlobbyingforimprovementstoinfrastructureandservices,suchasimprovedroadaccess,healthcare;

•researchingand/orsupportingthechannelsformicro-creditandnon-exploitativemoneylending.39

Strengthening

community

social capital

resources and

institutions

Supporting, strengthening and engaging with institutions, social networks and other forms of social capital

This might include:

•promotingimprovedaccesstoinformationthroughengagingwithfarmerextensionservicesandunderstandingextension

limitations and constraints;

•supportingcollectiveaction(whereappropriate)suchascropcooperativesandcommunityhorticultureprojects.

Engaging with

planning and

implementation

processes

across sectors

and scales

Developing and promoting participatory, evidence-based lessons for planning and policy processes

•hereisenormousdiversityinclimaterisk,livelihoodstrategiesandadaptationoptionsbetweencommunities,andevenbetween

households. Understanding local dynamics is indispensable to effectively supporting adaptation.

•Theperceptionofagriculturalriskplaysanimportantroleinactions,emphasisingtheimportanceofreciprocallearningandinformation

sharing between farmers and other institutions.40

•OngoingworkwithcommunitiesacrossUmkhanyakude,aswellaswithorganisationsworkingincommunities,willhelptoyieldan

understanding of household or community livelihood strategies. It will also be necessary to understand how institutions within communities

connect with external institutions (such as government extension, ward councillors).

Paying heed to integrated catchment management, and integration of climate change knowledge into water planning at all scales,

including better partnerships between the climate science and development planning actors, government, non-government organisations,

and civil society. Adaptation strategies need to:41

•increasewatersupply,through,forexample,modifiedcatchmentvegetation(suchasremovingalienvegetation),constructionofreservoirs

and dams, reduction of evaporation, development of groundwater resources and the use of inter-basin transfers;

•reducewaterdemand/demandsidemanagement,egrecyclewater;and

•bettermanagesupplyanddemandthrough,forexample,usingcropsubstitution,conjunctiveuseofgroundandsurfacewater,and

application of climate forecasts in the agricultural sector.

Supporting and/or lobbying for including climate change planning in integrated conservation strategies across South Africa

to preserve biodiversity and conservation areas.42 This will have numerous impacts on adaptation capacities and livelihoods through direct

and indirect mechanisms — for example employment in the conservation and tourism sectors. The preservation of biodiversity has been

noted as one of the most important strategies in adapting to climate change.43

Supporting healthcare, health systems, and information systems to control, manage and monitor increased health risks,

particularly malaria. For malaria control, the use of insecticide-treated nets/bed nets should be encouraged.

Themes Strategy

Agricultural

risk reduction

and better

natural resource

management

Development of agricultural risk reduction and/or opportunity exploitation strategies:

•short-maturingvarietiesofmaizeandothercrops;

•shadowcrops—broadleavesoffershadetounderstorycrops—aswellasinclusionoftreesorcanopywherepossible;

•soilenrichmentsuchasgreenmanuring;

•mulching;

•staggeringcropplantingdates;

•changesincropspacing;

•useofindigenouscropvarieties;

•controlandremovalofalienorinvasivevegetation;

•technicalresearchhasshownhowcrop–livestockintegration,on-farmtreeplantingandaquaculturecanaddvaluetorain-fedfarming

systems.31

Promotion of improved rainfall analysis and seasonal weather forecasts (including drought forecasting and early warning).

This is particularly important given current limits on forecast availability and slowness in delivery of information to resource-constrained

farmers in South Africa, including Umkhanyakude.

Research and the development of locally-adapted technologies, including:

•rainwaterharvestingsystems—researchintheThukelaBasin,KwaZulu-Natal,indicatestheseholdmuchpromiseinreducingrun-off

and increasing agricultural potential; 32

•dambuilding;

•waterconservationpracticessuchasmulching;

•additionofdrip-irrigation;33

•aquaculturewhichhasbeenusedamongfarmerswithriveraccessinMaanganiinLimpopo.34

Seeking out and researching the potential of technologies not yet documented in South Africa, for example:

•small-scalehydroelectricproductioninSriLankawhichoffersasynergybetweenmitigationandadaptation;35

•rehabilitatingfreshwaterwellsandsurveyingforalternativefreshwatersourcesincoastalcommunitiesaffected by sea level rises in Tanzania.36

Supporting the management decisions of small-scale, asset-poor farmers by researching local livelihood strategies through

participatory means.37

Building

resilience

through (where

appropriate)

livelihood

diversification

and flexibility

Supporting increased diversity and flexibility in livelihood strategies, including non-farm income generation activities

(where appropriate) within and beyond the natural resource sector. This means the inclusion of a variety of activities in their livelihood

portfolios, as well as possible crop diversification. This might, for example, ensure that they have resources to draw on when shocks

affect one part of their livelihood portfolio. Frequently, diversification involves migration of one or more family members which may

mean remittance income on the one hand, but bring increased family risks on the other.31 Mortimore & Manvell (2006).

32 Kongo & Jewitt (2006).

33 Matondo et al (2005).

34 Vincent (2007).

35 Blanco (2006).

36 IISD (2007).

37 Mortimore & Manvell (2006).

38 Misselhorn (2006).

39 Mortimore & Manvell (2006).

40 Grothmann & Patt (2005); Reid & Vogel (2006); Koch et al (2007).

41 Mukheibir & Sparks (2003).

42 (Hannah et al, 2002; Fairbanks & Benn, 2000; Cowling et al, 2002).

43 Schulze (2003).

Table four: Summary of adaptation support strategies evident in the literature that

are relevant to resource-constrained communities in Umkhanyakude

Table four cont

22 2322

7. Conclusion

7. Conclusion

Supporting adaptation in Umkhanyakude

is not a simple “one size fits all” process.

Supporting adaptation is about continuing

to address the multiple development

shortfalls of the district that prevent people

from being able to adapt, and make them

more vulnerable, to climate change. This

is fundamentally what building adaptive

capacity is about.

Successful adaptation is not easy to identify

or assess, particularly given that measures

that appear effective in the short term might

carry long-term negative consequences

that are not immediately evident.44

Adaptation responses need to be flexible

enough to cope with uncertainty, and with

meeting different needs that might rapidly

change with time.

This report has presented a range of

adaptation and program support strategies

that have been used by communities in

KwaZulu-Natal and elsewhere in South

Africa and Africa. An approach is required

that understands some of the options and

likely challenges from broader experience,

but that is grounded in local knowledge and

participatory work. A critical component is

to facilitate community access to relevant

and timely information and services that

will increase people’s knowledge and

choices, and convey lessons learned

in Umkhanyakude for better policy

development and institutional support.

23

44 Adger et al (2005).

Right: Ensuring that there is a sustainable avenue for food production and access to food for the community can help to combat some vulnerabilities to climate change that are experienced in the region.Photo: Matthew Willman/OxfamAUS.

22 2322

7. Conclusion

7. Conclusion

Supporting adaptation in Umkhanyakude

is not a simple “one size fits all” process.

Supporting adaptation is about continuing

to address the multiple development

shortfalls of the district that prevent people

from being able to adapt, and make them

more vulnerable, to climate change. This

is fundamentally what building adaptive

capacity is about.

Successful adaptation is not easy to identify

or assess, particularly given that measures

that appear effective in the short term might

carry long-term negative consequences

that are not immediately evident.44

Adaptation responses need to be flexible

enough to cope with uncertainty, and with

meeting different needs that might rapidly

change with time.

This report has presented a range of

adaptation and program support strategies

that have been used by communities in

KwaZulu-Natal and elsewhere in South

Africa and Africa. An approach is required

that understands some of the options and

likely challenges from broader experience,

but that is grounded in local knowledge and

participatory work. A critical component is

to facilitate community access to relevant

and timely information and services that

will increase people’s knowledge and

choices, and convey lessons learned

in Umkhanyakude for better policy

development and institutional support.

23

44 Adger et al (2005).

Right: Ensuring that there is a sustainable avenue for food production and access to food for the community can help to combat some vulnerabilities to climate change that are experienced in the region.Photo: Matthew Willman/OxfamAUS.

24 2524

8. Glossary

Hannah, L., Midgley, G. F. & Millar, D. (2002) Climate change-integrated conservation strategies. Global Ecology & Biogeography, 11, 485.

IISD (2007) Early Lessons from Implementation of Climate Change Adaptation Projects in South-Eastern Africa. Regional Workshop in Maputo, Mozambique, April 24 and 25, 2007, International Institute for Sustainable Development.

Jarvis, A., Fisher, M., P., J., Cook, S. & Guarino, L. (2006) Agriculture, Risk and Climate Change. http://www.cgiar.org/pdf/2006_Jarvis%20and%20others-Ag_Risk_ClimateChange_2006_FINAL.pdf, Consultative Group in International Agricultural Research.

Kelkar, U. (2005) The palimpsest of adaptation research: an overview of concepts and frameworks. Discussion paper under the World Bank project Addressing vulnerability to climate variability and change through assessment of adaptation issues and options, on the occasion of the 11th Conference of Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, 28 November – 9 December 2005, Montreal, Canada. Centre for Global Environment Research, T E R I.

Kongo, V. M. & Jewitt, G. P. W. (2006) Preliminary investigation of catchment hydrology in response to agricultural water use innovations: A case study of the Potshini catchment, South Africa. Physics & Chemistry of the Earth – Parts A/B/C, 31,976–987.

Maluccio, J., Haddad, L. & May, J. (1999) Social Capital and Income Generation in South Africa, 1993-1997. International Food Policy Research Institute FCND Discussion Paper, 48.

25

9. References

8. Glossary of terms

Adaptation: Adaptation to climate change

describes the adjustment people make

to the things they do, the way they do

them, or to the organisational or physical

elements of their environment in response

to, or in anticipation of, a changing climate.

Adaptation is generally understood to

describe the strategies that are sustainable

in the long term.

Biodiversity: Describes the “natural

variety” of an environment, including the

habitat variety, the number of species,

the interactions between species, and the

genetic variation among individuals within

a species.

Climate change: In the context of this

report, this refers to changes in variability

and/or changes in the average state of

climatic conditions over time, caused by

human activities.

Climate change mitigation: Refers to

attempts to reduce and control greenhouse

gas emissions so that the impacts of human

activities on climate are reduced.

Climate variability: In the context of this

report, this refers to “natural” changes in

climate conditions over time, as opposed to

those that are caused by human activities.

This variability may occur from year to year

or in cycles over decades.

Coping strategies: A distinction is often

made between coping and adaptation

strategies. Coping strategies are

considered to be involuntary or forced

response to a shock, and may also

frequently involve a livelihood cost. For

example, the sale of assets is a commonly

used coping strategy in times of severe

stress. But in Africa such strategies have

been found to be slowly undermining the

asset bases of vulnerable households and

thus to be further compromising people’s

long-term resilience and food security.

Food security: The physical or economic

access of all people at all times to

sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet

their dietary needs and food preferences

for an active and healthy life.

Human capital: The capability of individuals

residing in their knowledge, health and skills.

Hydrological cycle: The continuous

movement, as well as conservation, of

water throughout the earth’s system,

including rainfall, run-off, condensation,

evaporation from water surfaces, plant

transpiration, and infiltration into the soil.

Institutions: Organisations founded

formally or informally for a particular body

of work, as well as social rules, customs,

precedents or constant practices that

characterise society.

Livelihood diversification: This refers

to the process of people increasing their

variety of livelihood activities. For example

rural households may, in addition to

farming, make handcrafts to sell for income.

Livelihood strategies: The way people use

the resources available to them in pursuit

of livelihood goals. These may include

agricultural intensification or diversification,

livelihood diversification, or migration.

Malnutrition: Defined as deficiencies

and imbalances in either the macro- or

micro- nutrient dietary content, which may

lead to abnormalities and disease.

Natural capital: All goods and services

offered by the natural environment.

Physical capital: Human-made material

resources.

Social capital: Features of social

organisation such as networks, norms and

trust; the sum of resources, actual and

virtual, that accrue to an individual or a group

by virtue of possessing a durable network;

and/or less institutionalised relationships of

mutual acquaintance and recognition.

Vulnerability: Reflects the extent to which

a system (or community) reacts adversely

to a crisis or hazardous event. Vulnerability

denotes the likelihood of exposure and

sensitivity to livelihood shocks, thus

having an external component (the shocks

or stresses to which a household or

community are subjected), and an internal

component (the negative response of a

system or inadequate capacity to cope).

9. References

Adger, N. (2003) Social Capital, Collective Action, and Adaptation to Climate Change. Economic Geography,79,387–404.

Archer, E. R. M. (2003) Identifying Underserved End-User Groups in the Provision of Climate Information. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society,84,1525–1532.

Blanco, A. V. R. (2006) Local initiatives and adaptation to climate change. Disasters,30,140–147.

Boko, M., Niang, I., Nyong, A., Vogel, C., Githeko, A., Medany, M., Osman-Elasha, B., Tabo, R. & Yanda, P. (2007) Africa. In Parry, M. L., Canziani, O. F., Palutikof, J. P., van der Linden, P. J. & Hanson, C. E. (Eds.) Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability to Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.

Cowling, R. M., Pressey, R. L., Rouget, M. & A.T., L. (2002) A conservation plan for a global biodiversity hotspot — the Cape Floristic Region, South Africa. Biological Conservation,112,191–216.

Craig, M. H. & Sharp, B. L. (2000) Vulnerability and Adaptation Assessment. Health Section. Part One: Malaria. The South African Country Studies Report. National Malaria Research Programme, Medical Research Council.

Fairbanks, D. H. K. & Benn, G. A. (2000) Identifying regional landscapes for conservation planning: a case study from KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Landscape and Urban Planning50,237–257.

Grothmann, T. & Patt, A. (2005) Adaptive capacity and human cognition: The process of individual adaptation to climate change. Global Environmental Change Part A, 15, 199–213.

Matondo, J. I., Peter, G. & Msibi, K. M. (2005) Managing water under climate change for peace and prosperity in Swaziland. Physics & Chemistry of the Earth – Parts A/B/C,30,943–949.

Meinzen-Dick, R. & Di Gregorio, M. (2004) Collective Action and Property Rights for Sustainable Development. 2020 Focus 11. International Food Policy Research Institute.

Misselhorn, A. A. (2006) Food Insecurity in Southern Africa: Causes and emerging response options from evidence at regional, provincial and local scales: Unpublished Doctoral Thesis. University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg.

Misselhorn, A. A. (in prep.) Is a Focus on Social Capital Useful in Considering Food Security Interventions? Insights from KwaZulu-Natal. In preparation for resubmission to Development Southern Africa.

Mortimore, M. & Manvell, A. (2006) Climate change: enhancing adaptive capacity. NRSP Brief. Based on NRSP Project R8496 Synthesis of RNRRS knowledge on adaptive capacity to climate change. Natural Resources Systems Programme, Department for International Development.

Mukheibir, P. & Sparks, D. (2003) Water resource management and climate change in South Africa: Visions, driving factors and sustainable development indicators: Report for Phase I of the Sustainable Development and Climate Change project. Energy and Development Research Centre, University of Cape Town.

Naess, L. O., Bang, G., Eriksen, S. & Vevatne, J. (2005) Institutional adaptation to climate change: Flood responses at the municipal level in Norway. Global Environmental Change Part A, 15, 125–138.

O’Brien, G., O’Keefe, P., Rose, J. & Wisner, B. (2006) Climate change and disaster management. Disasters, 30, 64 80.

24 2524

8. Glossary

Hannah, L., Midgley, G. F. & Millar, D. (2002) Climate change-integrated conservation strategies. Global Ecology & Biogeography, 11, 485.

IISD (2007) Early Lessons from Implementation of Climate Change Adaptation Projects in South-Eastern Africa. Regional Workshop in Maputo, Mozambique, April 24 and 25, 2007, International Institute for Sustainable Development.

Jarvis, A., Fisher, M., P., J., Cook, S. & Guarino, L. (2006) Agriculture, Risk and Climate Change. http://www.cgiar.org/pdf/2006_Jarvis%20and%20others-Ag_Risk_ClimateChange_2006_FINAL.pdf, Consultative Group in International Agricultural Research.

Kelkar, U. (2005) The palimpsest of adaptation research: an overview of concepts and frameworks. Discussion paper under the World Bank project Addressing vulnerability to climate variability and change through assessment of adaptation issues and options, on the occasion of the 11th Conference of Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, 28 November – 9 December 2005, Montreal, Canada. Centre for Global Environment Research, T E R I.

Kongo, V. M. & Jewitt, G. P. W. (2006) Preliminary investigation of catchment hydrology in response to agricultural water use innovations: A case study of the Potshini catchment, South Africa. Physics & Chemistry of the Earth – Parts A/B/C, 31,976–987.

Maluccio, J., Haddad, L. & May, J. (1999) Social Capital and Income Generation in South Africa, 1993-1997. International Food Policy Research Institute FCND Discussion Paper, 48.

25

9. References

8. Glossary of terms

Adaptation: Adaptation to climate change

describes the adjustment people make

to the things they do, the way they do

them, or to the organisational or physical

elements of their environment in response

to, or in anticipation of, a changing climate.

Adaptation is generally understood to

describe the strategies that are sustainable

in the long term.

Biodiversity: Describes the “natural

variety” of an environment, including the

habitat variety, the number of species,

the interactions between species, and the

genetic variation among individuals within

a species.

Climate change: In the context of this

report, this refers to changes in variability

and/or changes in the average state of

climatic conditions over time, caused by

human activities.

Climate change mitigation: Refers to

attempts to reduce and control greenhouse

gas emissions so that the impacts of human

activities on climate are reduced.

Climate variability: In the context of this

report, this refers to “natural” changes in

climate conditions over time, as opposed to

those that are caused by human activities.

This variability may occur from year to year

or in cycles over decades.

Coping strategies: A distinction is often

made between coping and adaptation

strategies. Coping strategies are

considered to be involuntary or forced

response to a shock, and may also

frequently involve a livelihood cost. For

example, the sale of assets is a commonly

used coping strategy in times of severe

stress. But in Africa such strategies have

been found to be slowly undermining the

asset bases of vulnerable households and

thus to be further compromising people’s

long-term resilience and food security.

Food security: The physical or economic

access of all people at all times to

sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet

their dietary needs and food preferences

for an active and healthy life.

Human capital: The capability of individuals

residing in their knowledge, health and skills.

Hydrological cycle: The continuous

movement, as well as conservation, of

water throughout the earth’s system,

including rainfall, run-off, condensation,

evaporation from water surfaces, plant

transpiration, and infiltration into the soil.

Institutions: Organisations founded

formally or informally for a particular body

of work, as well as social rules, customs,

precedents or constant practices that

characterise society.

Livelihood diversification: This refers

to the process of people increasing their

variety of livelihood activities. For example

rural households may, in addition to

farming, make handcrafts to sell for income.

Livelihood strategies: The way people use

the resources available to them in pursuit

of livelihood goals. These may include

agricultural intensification or diversification,

livelihood diversification, or migration.

Malnutrition: Defined as deficiencies

and imbalances in either the macro- or

micro- nutrient dietary content, which may

lead to abnormalities and disease.

Natural capital: All goods and services

offered by the natural environment.

Physical capital: Human-made material

resources.

Social capital: Features of social

organisation such as networks, norms and

trust; the sum of resources, actual and

virtual, that accrue to an individual or a group

by virtue of possessing a durable network;

and/or less institutionalised relationships of

mutual acquaintance and recognition.

Vulnerability: Reflects the extent to which

a system (or community) reacts adversely

to a crisis or hazardous event. Vulnerability

denotes the likelihood of exposure and

sensitivity to livelihood shocks, thus

having an external component (the shocks

or stresses to which a household or

community are subjected), and an internal

component (the negative response of a

system or inadequate capacity to cope).

9. References

Adger, N. (2003) Social Capital, Collective Action, and Adaptation to Climate Change. Economic Geography,79,387–404.

Archer, E. R. M. (2003) Identifying Underserved End-User Groups in the Provision of Climate Information. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society,84,1525–1532.

Blanco, A. V. R. (2006) Local initiatives and adaptation to climate change. Disasters,30,140–147.

Boko, M., Niang, I., Nyong, A., Vogel, C., Githeko, A., Medany, M., Osman-Elasha, B., Tabo, R. & Yanda, P. (2007) Africa. In Parry, M. L., Canziani, O. F., Palutikof, J. P., van der Linden, P. J. & Hanson, C. E. (Eds.) Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability to Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.

Cowling, R. M., Pressey, R. L., Rouget, M. & A.T., L. (2002) A conservation plan for a global biodiversity hotspot — the Cape Floristic Region, South Africa. Biological Conservation,112,191–216.

Craig, M. H. & Sharp, B. L. (2000) Vulnerability and Adaptation Assessment. Health Section. Part One: Malaria. The South African Country Studies Report. National Malaria Research Programme, Medical Research Council.

Fairbanks, D. H. K. & Benn, G. A. (2000) Identifying regional landscapes for conservation planning: a case study from KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Landscape and Urban Planning50,237–257.

Grothmann, T. & Patt, A. (2005) Adaptive capacity and human cognition: The process of individual adaptation to climate change. Global Environmental Change Part A, 15, 199–213.

Matondo, J. I., Peter, G. & Msibi, K. M. (2005) Managing water under climate change for peace and prosperity in Swaziland. Physics & Chemistry of the Earth – Parts A/B/C,30,943–949.

Meinzen-Dick, R. & Di Gregorio, M. (2004) Collective Action and Property Rights for Sustainable Development. 2020 Focus 11. International Food Policy Research Institute.

Misselhorn, A. A. (2006) Food Insecurity in Southern Africa: Causes and emerging response options from evidence at regional, provincial and local scales: Unpublished Doctoral Thesis. University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg.

Misselhorn, A. A. (in prep.) Is a Focus on Social Capital Useful in Considering Food Security Interventions? Insights from KwaZulu-Natal. In preparation for resubmission to Development Southern Africa.

Mortimore, M. & Manvell, A. (2006) Climate change: enhancing adaptive capacity. NRSP Brief. Based on NRSP Project R8496 Synthesis of RNRRS knowledge on adaptive capacity to climate change. Natural Resources Systems Programme, Department for International Development.

Mukheibir, P. & Sparks, D. (2003) Water resource management and climate change in South Africa: Visions, driving factors and sustainable development indicators: Report for Phase I of the Sustainable Development and Climate Change project. Energy and Development Research Centre, University of Cape Town.

Naess, L. O., Bang, G., Eriksen, S. & Vevatne, J. (2005) Institutional adaptation to climate change: Flood responses at the municipal level in Norway. Global Environmental Change Part A, 15, 125–138.

O’Brien, G., O’Keefe, P., Rose, J. & Wisner, B. (2006) Climate change and disaster management. Disasters, 30, 64 80.

2626

9. References

26

Oxfam Australia

132 Leicester Street,

Carlton, Victoria, Australia 3053

Telephone +61 3 9289 9444

www.oxfam.org.au

ABN 18 055 208 636

For more information on Oxfam Australia’s

work in South Africa visit Oxfam KIC at

http://hivaids.oxfamkic.org and click

on the “Communities: Oxfam in

South Africa” link.

2726

Right: Gugu Khumalo holds some of the fruits of her labour. Women want to learn how to adapt to the changes in climate in the longer term. Now they are simply trying to deal with the prolonged drought as best they can, doing what they have always done but on a reduced scale. They make their gardens smaller, grow different types of crops and walk further to collect water — short-term coping mechanisms, not long-term solutions.Photo: Matthew Willman/OxfamAUS.

Back cover: Sibambisene – working on food security for the local community.Photo: Matthew Willman/Oxfam.

Reid, P. & Vogel, C. (2006) Living and responding to multiple stressors in South Africa––GlimpsesfromKwaZulu-Natal.Global Environmental Change, 16, 195–206.

Schipper, E. L. F. (2007) Climate Change Adaptation and Development: Exploring the Linkages. Tyndall Centre Working Paper No.107. Norwich, Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research.

Schulze, R. E. (2005) Chapter Twenty-Seven: Adapting to Climate Change in the Water Resources Sector in South Africa. In Schulze, R. E. (Ed.) Climate Change and Water Resources in Southern Africa: Studies on Scenarios, Impacts, Vulnerabilities and Adaptation. Pretoria, Water Research Commission.

Soini, E. (2005) Land use change patterns and livelihood dynamics on the slopes of Mt. Kilimanjaro, Tanzania. Agricultural Systems,85,306–323.

Sterrett, C. (2007) Where has all the water gone? Understanding climate change from a community perspective Northern KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Oxfam Australia.

UNDP (2004) Adaptation Policy Frameworks for Climate Change: Developing Strategies, Policies and Measures, Cambridge University Press.

Vincent, K. (2007) Gendered vulnerability to climate change in Limpopo Province, South Africa. Unpublished Doctoral Thesis. Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research School of Environmental Sciences. University of East Anglia.

Ziervogel, G., Taylor, A., Thomalla, F., Takama, T. & Quinn, C. (2006) Adapting to climate, water and health stresses: insights from Sekhukhune, South Africa. For the Poverty and Vulnerability Programme, Stockholm Environment Institute.

Contact details

NAMIBIA

UpingtonKimberley

Mafikeng

Klerksdorp

Polokwane

Pretoria

Johannesburg

Nelspruit

Hoedspruit

Bloemfontein

Umtata

Cape TownMossel Bay

Port Elizabeth

East London

Durban

Pietermaritzburg

Hluhluwe

BOTSWANA

LESOTHO

SWAZILAND

ZIMBABWE

NORTHERN CAPE

WESTERN CAPE

EASTERN CAPE

FREE STATE

NORTH WEST GAUTENG

MPUMALANGA

KWAZULUNATAL

INDIANOCEAN

ATLANTICOCEAN

LIMPOPO

2626

9. References

26

Oxfam Australia

132 Leicester Street,

Carlton, Victoria, Australia 3053

Telephone +61 3 9289 9444

www.oxfam.org.au

ABN 18 055 208 636

For more information on Oxfam Australia’s

work in South Africa visit Oxfam KIC at

http://hivaids.oxfamkic.org and click

on the “Communities: Oxfam in

South Africa” link.

2726

Right: Gugu Khumalo holds some of the fruits of her labour. Women want to learn how to adapt to the changes in climate in the longer term. Now they are simply trying to deal with the prolonged drought as best they can, doing what they have always done but on a reduced scale. They make their gardens smaller, grow different types of crops and walk further to collect water — short-term coping mechanisms, not long-term solutions.Photo: Matthew Willman/OxfamAUS.

Back cover: Sibambisene – working on food security for the local community.Photo: Matthew Willman/Oxfam.

Reid, P. & Vogel, C. (2006) Living and responding to multiple stressors in South Africa––GlimpsesfromKwaZulu-Natal.Global Environmental Change, 16, 195–206.

Schipper, E. L. F. (2007) Climate Change Adaptation and Development: Exploring the Linkages. Tyndall Centre Working Paper No.107. Norwich, Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research.

Schulze, R. E. (2005) Chapter Twenty-Seven: Adapting to Climate Change in the Water Resources Sector in South Africa. In Schulze, R. E. (Ed.) Climate Change and Water Resources in Southern Africa: Studies on Scenarios, Impacts, Vulnerabilities and Adaptation. Pretoria, Water Research Commission.

Soini, E. (2005) Land use change patterns and livelihood dynamics on the slopes of Mt. Kilimanjaro, Tanzania. Agricultural Systems,85,306–323.

Sterrett, C. (2007) Where has all the water gone? Understanding climate change from a community perspective Northern KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Oxfam Australia.

UNDP (2004) Adaptation Policy Frameworks for Climate Change: Developing Strategies, Policies and Measures, Cambridge University Press.

Vincent, K. (2007) Gendered vulnerability to climate change in Limpopo Province, South Africa. Unpublished Doctoral Thesis. Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research School of Environmental Sciences. University of East Anglia.

Ziervogel, G., Taylor, A., Thomalla, F., Takama, T. & Quinn, C. (2006) Adapting to climate, water and health stresses: insights from Sekhukhune, South Africa. For the Poverty and Vulnerability Programme, Stockholm Environment Institute.

Contact details

NAMIBIA

UpingtonKimberley

Mafikeng

Klerksdorp

Polokwane

Pretoria

Johannesburg

Nelspruit

Hoedspruit

Bloemfontein

Umtata

Cape TownMossel Bay

Port Elizabeth

East London

Durban

Pietermaritzburg

Hluhluwe

BOTSWANA

LESOTHO

SWAZILAND

ZIMBABWE

NORTHERN CAPE

WESTERN CAPE

EASTERN CAPE

FREE STATE

NORTH WEST GAUTENG

MPUMALANGA

KWAZULUNATAL

INDIANOCEAN

ATLANTICOCEAN

LIMPOPO

Oxfam Australia is part of a global movement of dedicated

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