Research Centre into Language Education and Acquisition in Multilingual Societies (RCLEAMS) 1 English as a Lingua Franca in Asia. Which Model of English

Research Centre into Language Education and Acquisitionin Multilingual Societies 多元社會語文教育研究中心 (RCLEAMS)

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English as a Lingua Franca in Asia. English as a Lingua Franca in Asia. Which Model of English Should We Which Model of English Should We

Teach and When Should We Teach it?Teach and When Should We Teach it?

Andy KirkpatrickAndy Kirkpatrick [email protected]

Challenges of the Millennium: Language ChangesChallenges of the Millennium: Language Changes

UP Diliman September 2010UP Diliman September 2010


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A definitionA definition‘‘A contact language between persons who share A contact language between persons who share neither a common native tongue, nor a common neither a common native tongue, nor a common (national) culture, and for whom English is the (national) culture, and for whom English is the chosen foreign language’ (Firth 1996:240) chosen foreign language’ (Firth 1996:240) [no necessary linguistic advantages to any [no necessary linguistic advantages to any speaker]speaker]

But English also functions as a lingua franca But English also functions as a lingua franca when English is used as the common language when English is used as the common language between L1 speakers of English and others between L1 speakers of English and others [linguistic advantage to LI speakers] – [linguistic advantage to LI speakers] – (Phillipson’s ‘lingua frankensteinia’)(Phillipson’s ‘lingua frankensteinia’)


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Many languages have been lingua francasMany languages have been lingua francas

For example, in Asia:For example, in Asia:

an old form of Malay ‘Kw’enlun’ served as a an old form of Malay ‘Kw’enlun’ served as a lingua franca for SE Asia several hundred years lingua franca for SE Asia several hundred years ago (ago (Alisjahbana 1976).Alisjahbana 1976).

The dream / objective of some Malay scholars The dream / objective of some Malay scholars today (Rashid 2006)today (Rashid 2006)


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Two major regional lingua francas are Two major regional lingua francas are Bahasa Bahasa IndonesiaIndonesia (BI) and (BI) and Putonghua (Putonghua (PthPth) ) [And note [And note presence of a ‘common national culture’]presence of a ‘common national culture’]

They became lingua francas in quite different They became lingua francas in quite different waysways

BI is, in fact, derived from Malay. Malay was BI is, in fact, derived from Malay. Malay was spoken by less than 2% of the population in spoken by less than 2% of the population in multicultural and multi-ethnic Indonesia.multicultural and multi-ethnic Indonesia.


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Indonesia has a population of more than Indonesia has a population of more than 200 million with more than 200 ethnic 200 million with more than 200 ethnic groups and 400+ languages.groups and 400+ languages.

Javanese is the ‘largest’ language with 75 Javanese is the ‘largest’ language with 75 million L1 speakers; but was not million L1 speakers; but was not considered as a possible lingua franca considered as a possible lingua franca because:because:


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(i)(i) It would privilege an already powerful group;It would privilege an already powerful group;

(ii)(ii) It is a language / culture in which hierarchies It is a language / culture in which hierarchies are expressed in linguistically complex ways.are expressed in linguistically complex ways.

Malay was chosen because: Malay was chosen because:

(i)(i) its speakers were not considered a threat;its speakers were not considered a threat;

(ii)(ii) it had a history of being a lingua franca;it had a history of being a lingua franca;

(iii)(iii) It was considered relatively easy.It was considered relatively easy.


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The adoption of BI as Indonesia’s lingua The adoption of BI as Indonesia’s lingua franca has proved very successful.franca has proved very successful.

But, are other Indonesian languages and But, are other Indonesian languages and cultures under threat as a result?cultures under threat as a result?

‘‘anda’ in BI and hierarchy and language in anda’ in BI and hierarchy and language in Javanese (Siegel 1986)Javanese (Siegel 1986)


Is BI a relief or concern for Javanese speakers?

Should the pragmatic norms and cultural values of local languages be dropped from BI?

Is there a Javanese BI?

Is Javanese under threat?

Should ELF follow Anglo norms? (cf. Koreans)


The reasons for the adoption of Putonghua The reasons for the adoption of Putonghua could hardly be more different.could hardly be more different.

China is also multi-ethnic and multilingual.China is also multi-ethnic and multilingual.54 official national minority groups (speaking 54 official national minority groups (speaking many more than 54 languages)many more than 54 languages)

7 major Chinese languages (with many sub-7 major Chinese languages (with many sub-dialects etc.) (Ramsey 1987)dialects etc.) (Ramsey 1987)

The language of the powerful has been adopted The language of the powerful has been adopted as the lingua francaas the lingua franca


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How secure are the other Chinese How secure are the other Chinese languages?languages?

Cantonese in Hong Kong – but what about Cantonese in Hong Kong – but what about on the Mainland? Shanghai-nese?on the Mainland? Shanghai-nese?

In Singapore, ‘thou shalt not speak’.In Singapore, ‘thou shalt not speak’.

Hong Kong doctors and Cantonese Hong Kong doctors and Cantonese patientspatients


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Putonghua has been highly successful in Putonghua has been highly successful in that the great majority of Chinese are now that the great majority of Chinese are now able to understand it.able to understand it.

So, in Indonesia a language spoken by a So, in Indonesia a language spoken by a powerless minority becomes the lingua powerless minority becomes the lingua franca. In China, the language spoken by franca. In China, the language spoken by the powerful becomes the lingua franca.the powerful becomes the lingua franca.

What about Tagalog/Filipino in the What about Tagalog/Filipino in the Philippines?Philippines?


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ELF in ASEANELF in ASEAN

ASEAN represents political, cultural, and ASEAN represents political, cultural, and historical diversityhistorical diversity

Linguistic diversity: 1000+ languagesLinguistic diversity: 1000+ languages

Bangkok Declaration of 1967 makes no Bangkok Declaration of 1967 makes no mention of languages or of a working mention of languages or of a working language.language.


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ASEAN Charter (ratified Feb 2009)ASEAN Charter (ratified Feb 2009)

‘‘to promote an ASEAN identity through the to promote an ASEAN identity through the fostering of greater awareness of the diverse fostering of greater awareness of the diverse culture and heritage of the region’culture and heritage of the region’

‘‘in the spirit of unity in diversity’, BUTin the spirit of unity in diversity’, BUT

‘‘the working language of ASEAN shall be the working language of ASEAN shall be English’ (Article 34) (cf. EU)English’ (Article 34) (cf. EU)


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English in the ASEAN schools’ English in the ASEAN schools’ curriculacurricula

All countries have English as integral part All countries have English as integral part of the primary curriculum, some from P1 of the primary curriculum, some from P1 (Indonesia is the sole exception)(Indonesia is the sole exception)

Brunei, Malaysia, Philippines use English Brunei, Malaysia, Philippines use English as a medium of instruction for some as a medium of instruction for some subjects in primary schoolssubjects in primary schools

It is It is thethe MoI in Singapore’s schools MoI in Singapore’s schools


Recent Changes

Malaysia (cf. Brunei)

The Philippines

Singapore

Hong Kong and China


In any event, English is used by more than 800 million multilinguals in Asia alone (Bolton 2008); and we need to know something about how these people use English in lingua franca communication (cf. also the BRIC group)If we want to understand the use of English in today’s world, ‘ELF must be one of the central concerns in this line of research’ (Mauranen 2006:147).


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The Asian Corpus of English (ACE) Corpus The Asian Corpus of English (ACE) Corpus

articles / numberarticles / number

‘‘I know when we touch _ money issue it I know when we touch _ money issue it can be very controversial…’ (Indonesian)can be very controversial…’ (Indonesian)

‘ ‘some strength and some weaknesses’ some strength and some weaknesses’ (Vietnamese)(Vietnamese)

‘ ‘one three time or four time a years’ one three time or four time a years’ (Filipino) (Filipino)


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Ind: I waited] for the official who Ind: I waited] for the official who pickpick me up ok er me up ok er and then I and then I triedtried to look for the official but to look for the official but because er er the plane you know because er er the plane you know landedlanded so so early so (ehm uh oh) the official early so (ehm uh oh) the official hadn’t comehadn’t come yet yet (C: ehm) yeah (C: ehm) yeah

Myan: what a pity (laugh)Myan: what a pity (laugh)

Ind: er er I I I Ind: er er I I I hadhad to stay in the airport and then to stay in the airport and then diddid nothing (C: ehm) just nothing (C: ehm) just sitsit and I and I checkcheck the the placard of (ehm) RELC (M: ehm) ok and er and I placard of (ehm) RELC (M: ehm) ok and er and I couldn’tcouldn’t see that’s why I just see that’s why I just sitsit and and taketake a rest… a rest…what about you what timewhat about you what time


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‘‘Some of the information will need to be Some of the information will need to be update’ (Thai)update’ (Thai)

‘‘Once this blueprint adopted’ (Indonesian)Once this blueprint adopted’ (Indonesian)

‘‘We didn’t know what is it for?’ Malay)We didn’t know what is it for?’ Malay)‘‘Now the third strategies is how we can ..? Now the third strategies is how we can ..? (Thai)(Thai)


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PrepositionsPrepositions

‘‘and the second purpose is to seek and the second purpose is to seek for for a a discussion’ (Thai)discussion’ (Thai)

‘‘we tell we tell aboutabout opportunities for each opportunities for each SEAMEO centres’ (Thai)SEAMEO centres’ (Thai)

‘‘thanks thanks forfor the World Bank who supports the World Bank who supports this programme’ (Indonesian)this programme’ (Indonesian)


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What’s Going On?What’s Going On?

(i)(i) Too many shared but distinctive features Too many shared but distinctive features to be able to argue for substrate to be able to argue for substrate language influence: especially as there language influence: especially as there are so many shared features between are so many shared features between British and other vernaculars;British and other vernaculars;

(ii)(ii) Claiming a universal feature is Claiming a universal feature is dangerous – the tyranny of the counter dangerous – the tyranny of the counter example!example!


A dichotomy between Vernacular A dichotomy between Vernacular Universals and contact-induced change Universals and contact-induced change should not be drawn because ‘many should not be drawn because ‘many linguistic changes involve both kinds of linguistic changes involve both kinds of process – that is, various processes of process – that is, various processes of contact-induced change and also universal contact-induced change and also universal tendencies of various kinds’ (Thomason tendencies of various kinds’ (Thomason 2009:349).2009:349).


Britain’s universals for British vernaculars.

‘Standard English is a minority dialect in England’ (2010:37)

‘Every corner of the country demonstrates a wide range of grammatically non-standard forms, reminding us that such forms are the rule rather than the exception in spoken English English’ (2010:53).


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Where’st thou bin?Where’st thou bin?

Cooks peels the potatoes and then they Cooks peels the potatoes and then they wash and boils themwash and boils them

He make them and farmers make themHe make them and farmers make them

Folks sings Folks sings

RU34T?RU34T?


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There is a great deal of similarity in the There is a great deal of similarity in the grammatical features of vernaculars, WEs, grammatical features of vernaculars, WEs, AEs and ELFsAEs and ELFs

The differences between AEs and ASEAN The differences between AEs and ASEAN ELF occur:ELF occur:

(i) phonologically – although there are also (i) phonologically – although there are also a surprising number of shared features (cf. a surprising number of shared features (cf. Deterding and Kirkpatrick 2006)Deterding and Kirkpatrick 2006)


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(ii) Lexically – WEs and AEs are (ii) Lexically – WEs and AEs are characterisedcharacterised by their use of culturally by their use of culturally specific lexical itemsspecific lexical items

from from ang moang mo to to bush tuckerbush tucker‘‘a flowered pillowcase’, ‘breathing through a flowered pillowcase’, ‘breathing through the same nostril’, ‘chewing on your the same nostril’, ‘chewing on your parents’ shins’.parents’ shins’.

and, of course, and, of course, code-mixingcode-mixing at various at various levelslevels


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(iii) Pragmatic and cultural norms. WEs and (iii) Pragmatic and cultural norms. WEs and AEs are characterised by their use of AEs are characterised by their use of these:these:

From requesting to complimenting; From requesting to complimenting;

Turn-taking in seminars (Rusdi 1999)Turn-taking in seminars (Rusdi 1999)


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The The lexical itemslexical items and and code mixingcode mixing are are unlikely to be used in ELF communication. unlikely to be used in ELF communication. Multilinguals are sophisticated and aware Multilinguals are sophisticated and aware enough not to use these culturally and enough not to use these culturally and linguistically specific terms and strategies linguistically specific terms and strategies when involved in ELF communication. when involved in ELF communication. They are conscious of their use of these They are conscious of their use of these items and strategies. items and strategies.

Is the above assertion true?Is the above assertion true?


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People tend not to be so conscious, People tend not to be so conscious, however, of pragmatic and cultural norms.however, of pragmatic and cultural norms.

So the transfer of pragmatic and cultural So the transfer of pragmatic and cultural norms from WE and AE communication norms from WE and AE communication (where identity is stressed) to ELF (where identity is stressed) to ELF communication (where communication is communication (where communication is stressed) may cause problems in cross-stressed) may cause problems in cross-cultural understanding.cultural understanding.


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So, the study of cultural and pragmatic So, the study of cultural and pragmatic norms of WEs and AEs is of great norms of WEs and AEs is of great importance. importance.

Should, for example, we accept, deflect or Should, for example, we accept, deflect or reject compliments in Asian ELF reject compliments in Asian ELF communication?communication?

Should, for example, we automatically Should, for example, we automatically give respect to elders in Asian ELF give respect to elders in Asian ELF communication?communication?


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We have moved beyond the postcolonial We have moved beyond the postcolonial period and are now in the ‘post-period and are now in the ‘post-anglophone’.anglophone’.

It is the age of the multilingual.It is the age of the multilingual.

International intelligibility replaces native-International intelligibility replaces native-like proficiency as the major goal. like proficiency as the major goal.


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Goal of English language learning Goal of English language learning becomes the ability to use English becomes the ability to use English successfully;successfully;

Goal is not to develop native speaker Goal is not to develop native speaker proficiency or native speaker ‘norms’;proficiency or native speaker ‘norms’;

METs replace NETs;METs replace NETs;


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Linguistic benchmarks should be set by Linguistic benchmarks should be set by successful multilinguals, successful multilinguals, notnot by by monolinguals (Garcia 2009)monolinguals (Garcia 2009)

Regional / world cultures replace / Regional / world cultures replace / supplement (complement) ‘Anglo’ cultures supplement (complement) ‘Anglo’ cultures in the curriculum.in the curriculum.

The ‘Asian’-culture course for IndonesiaThe ‘Asian’-culture course for Indonesia


3 Principles

1. English is now an Asian language; it is commonly used as a lingua franca throughout Asia by so-called non-native speakers in order to communicate with other non-native speakers.

2. When these speakers use English, they need to be able to talk about each other’s cultures in English.


3. If the English taught is to be used primarily as a lingua franca, based on a local model and if the materials are to be based on local and regional cultures, does that not imply that local and regional English teachers who speak the model to be taught and have knowledge of the cultures to be taught are the most appropriate teachers?


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But what about the other languages in the But what about the other languages in the Asian school curriculum?Asian school curriculum?

(i)(i) In general the primary school should In general the primary school should focus on local languages; children need focus on local languages; children need linguistic confidence and a sense of linguistic confidence and a sense of identity; (cf. Hong Kong vs. Singapore identity; (cf. Hong Kong vs. Singapore [and the Battle of the Songs]);[and the Battle of the Songs]);

(ii)(ii) There is plenty of time to learn ‘the There is plenty of time to learn ‘the multilingual model’ of English if you start multilingual model’ of English if you start in secondary school;in secondary school;

(iii)(iii) No room for English as an MoI in primary No room for English as an MoI in primary schools [literacy in Chinese].schools [literacy in Chinese].


We need an ELF curriculum for ASEAN/Asia

(i) that includes Asian cultures and literatures in English;

(ii) that validates local varieties of English, ELF and the multilingual

(iii) that validates local trained and linguistically proficient multilingual teachers.

(iv) that sees local languages as important


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ReferencesReferencesAlisjahbana, Takdir S. (1976) Alisjahbana, Takdir S. (1976) Language Planning and Modernisation. The Case of Indonesian and Malaysian.Language Planning and Modernisation. The Case of Indonesian and Malaysian. The Hague: Mouton.The Hague: Mouton.Azirah Hashim (2009) Not plain sailing: Malaysia’s language choice in policy and education. Azirah Hashim (2009) Not plain sailing: Malaysia’s language choice in policy and education. AILA ReviewAILA Review 22:35- 22:35-5151Aziz, Aminudin, Sudana, Dadang & Noorman. 2003. Culture-Based English for College Students. Jakarta: Grasindo.Bolton, Kingsley (2008) English in Asia, Asian Englishes and the issue of proficiency. Bolton, Kingsley (2008) English in Asia, Asian Englishes and the issue of proficiency. English TodayEnglish Today 94 (24)(2): 3- 94 (24)(2): 3-13.13.Britain, David (2010) Grammatical variation in the contemporary spoken English of English. In Andy Kirkpatrick Britain, David (2010) Grammatical variation in the contemporary spoken English of English. In Andy Kirkpatrick (ed.) (ed.) The Handbook of World EnglishesThe Handbook of World Englishes. London: Routledge.. London: Routledge.Deterding, David and Kirkpatrick, Andy(2006). Intelligibility and an emerging ASEAN English lingua franca. Deterding, David and Kirkpatrick, Andy(2006). Intelligibility and an emerging ASEAN English lingua franca. World World EnglishesEnglishes 25 (3): 391-409. 25 (3): 391-409.Firth, Alan (1996). The discursive accomplishment of normality. On ‘lingua franca’ English and conversation Firth, Alan (1996). The discursive accomplishment of normality. On ‘lingua franca’ English and conversation analysis. analysis. Journal of PragmaticsJournal of Pragmatics 26(2): 237-259. 26(2): 237-259.Garcia, Ofelia (2009). Garcia, Ofelia (2009). Bilingual Education in the 21Bilingual Education in the 21stst Century Century. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.Hans Rausing Endangered Languages Project Annual ReportHans Rausing Endangered Languages Project Annual Report (2008) (2008) http://www.hrelp.org/publications/reports/HRELP_annual_report_2008.pdf accessed August 10 2009. accessed August 10 2009. House, J. (ed.) (2009). The pragmatics of English as a lingua franca. Intercultural Pragmatics (Special Edition) 6.2.Jenkins, Jennifer (2007). English as a Lingua Franca: Attitudes and Identity. Oxford: Oxford University PressJenkins, Jennifer (2007). English as a Lingua Franca: Attitudes and Identity. Oxford: Oxford University PressKirkpatrick, Andy (2008). Learning English and other languages in multilingual settings. Kirkpatrick, Andy (2008). Learning English and other languages in multilingual settings. Australian Review of Australian Review of Applied LinguisticsApplied Linguistics 31(3):1-11. 31(3):1-11.Kirkpatrick, Andy (2010). Kirkpatrick, Andy (2010). English as a Lingua Franca in ASEAN: The Multilingual ModelEnglish as a Lingua Franca in ASEAN: The Multilingual Model . Hong Kong: Hong Kong . Hong Kong: Hong Kong University PressUniversity PressKirkpatrick, Andy (2010) Researching English as a lingua franca in Asia: the Asian Corpus of English (ACE) Kirkpatrick, Andy (2010) Researching English as a lingua franca in Asia: the Asian Corpus of English (ACE) project. project. Asian EnglishesAsian Englishes, 13(1)., 13(1).Mauranen, Anna (2006) Mauranen, Anna (2006) A rich domain of ELF: the ELFA corpus of academic discourse. A rich domain of ELF: the ELFA corpus of academic discourse. Nordic Journal of English Nordic Journal of English Studies, Studies, 5 (2), 145-159.5 (2), 145-159. Mauranen, A. & E. Ranta (eds.) Mauranen, A. & E. Ranta (eds.) (2009). (2009). English as a lingua franca: Studies and findingsEnglish as a lingua franca: Studies and findings . Newcastle Upon Tyne: . Newcastle Upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing.Cambridge Scholars Publishing.Ostler, Nicholas. (2005) Ostler, Nicholas. (2005) Empires of the Word: a language history of the world.Empires of the Word: a language history of the world. London: Harper Collins. London: Harper Collins.


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Documents

Research Centre into Language Education and Acquisition in Multilingual Societies (RCLEAMS) 1 English as a Lingua Franca in Asia. Which Model of English