Mobility and Transport

Research Theme

Analysis Report

Cleaner Transport

www.transport-research.info

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This report was prepared by:Gareth Horton, Marius Biedka (Ricardo Energy & Environment);

Claus Doll, Marcel Soulier (Fraunhofer ISI);Athena Roumboutsos, Amalia Polydoropoulou (University of Aegean)

Coordinated and guided by:Dimitrios Vartis

DG MOVE – Unit B3 (Innovation & Research)

Design and layout by:Ricardo Energy & Environment

More information on the European Union is available on the Internet (http://europa.eu)

Cover photographs: © ShutterstockInternal photographs: © Shutterstock

© European Union, 2017 Reproduction is authorised provided the source is acknowledged.

R e s e a r c h T h e m e A n a l y s i s R e p o r t C l e a n e r T r a n s p o r t

Research Theme Analysis Report

Cleaner Transport

R e s e a r c h T h e m e A n a l y s i s R e p o r t C l e a n e r T r a n s p o r t

Executive summary 6

1. Introduction 10

2 Policy context 112.1 Cleaner transport in European transport policy 112.2 Cleaner transport in European research programmes 12

3 Scope of the Cleaner Transport theme 14

4 Sub-theme assessments 154.1 Alternative fuels 15

4.1.1 Introduction to the sub-theme 154.1.1.1 Overall direction of European-funded research 154.1.1.2 Overall direction of nationally funded projects 16

4.1.2 Research activities 164.1.2.1 Hydrogen 164.1.2.2 Biofuels 174.1.2.3 CNG, LPG and LNG 174.1.2.4 Synthetic fuels 18

4.1.3 Research outcomes 184.1.3.1 Achievements of the research under this sub-theme 18

4.1.3.2 Transferability from research to practical use 18 4.1.3.3 Indications for future research 18 4.1.3.4 Implications for future policy development 194.1.4 List of projects 20

4.2 Modal shift 224.2.1 Introduction to the sub-theme 22

4.2.1.1 Overall direction of European-funded research 224.2.1.2 Overall direction of nationally funded projects 23

4.2.2 Research activities 234.2.2.1 Urban transport 23

4.2.3 Research outcomes 264.2.3.1 Achievements of the research under this sub-theme 264.2.3.2 Transferability from research to practical use 274.2.3.3 Indications for future research 274.2.3.4 Implications for future policy development 27

4.2.4 List of projects 274.3 Electromobility 29

4.3.1 Introduction to the sub-theme 294.3.1.1 Overall direction of European-funded research 294.3.1.2 Overall direction of nationally funded projects 29

4.3.2 Research activities 294.3.2.1 Battery research 294.3.2.2 Developing vehicle components 304.3.2.3 Demonstration of vehicle technologies 314.3.2.4 Charging infrastructure for electromobility 314.3.2.5 Policy measures and business cases 31

4.3.3 Research outcomes 324.3.3.1 Achievements of the research under this sub-theme 324.3.3.2 Transferability from research to practical use 324.3.3.3 Indications for future research 324.3.3.4 Implications for future policy development 32

4.3.4 List of projects 33

Contents

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4.4 Low-emissions logistics 364.4.1 Introduction to the sub-theme 36

4.4.1.1 Overall direction of European-funded research 36

4.4.1.2 Overall direction of nationally funded projects 374.4.2 Research activities 37

4.4.2.1 Sustainable urban mobility and logistics plans 37

4.4.2.2 Supply chain management 37

4.4.2.3 Propulsion concepts and driver assistance 384.4.3 Research outcomes 39

4.4.3.1 Achievements of the research under this sub-theme 39

4.4.3.2 Transferability from research to practical use 39

4.4.3.3 Indications for future research 39

4.4.3.4 Implications for future policy development 394.4.4 List of projects 40

4.5 Vehicle design and manufacture – aviation and maritime 414.5.1 Introduction to the sub-theme 41

4.5.1.1 Overall direction of European-funded research 42

4.5.1.2 Overall direction of nationally funded projects 424.5.2 Research activities 42

4.5.2.1 Aircraft 43

4.5.2.2 Aircraft engines 45

4.5.2.3 Aircraft APUs 47

4.5.2.4 Ships 494.5.3 Research outcomes 50

4.5.3.1 Achievements of the research under this sub-theme 514.5.3.2 Transferability from research into practical use 514.5.3.3 Indications for future research 514.5.3.4 Implications for future policy development 51

4.5.4 List of projects 524.6 Vehicle design and manufacture – road and rail 55

4.6.1 Introduction to the sub-theme 554.6.1.1 Overall direction of European-funded research 564.6.1.2 Overall direction of nationally funded projects 56

4.6.2 Research activities 564.6.2.1 Road passenger vehicles 564.6.2.2 Road freight vehicles 574.6.2.3 Rail rolling stock 59

4.6.3 Research outcomes 594.6.3.1 Achievements of the research under this sub-theme 594.6.3.2 Transferability from research to practical use 594.6.3.3 Indications for future research 59

4.6.4 List of projects 604.7 Automation 62

4.7.1 Introduction to the sub-theme 624.7.1.1 Overall direction of European-funded research 62

4.7.1.2 Overall direction of nationally funded projects 624.7.2 Research activities 63

4.7.2.1 Challenge 1: The transition between human and automated driving 63

4.7.2.2 Challenge 2: Field testing 63

4.7.2.3 Challenge 3: Building public confidence 63

4.7.2.4 Challenge 4: Automated goods transport solutions 63

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4.7.3 Research outcomes 634.7.3.1 Achievements of the research under this sub-theme 63

4.7.3.2 Transferability from research to practical use 63

4.7.3.3 Indications for future research 64

4.7.3.4 Implications for future policy development 644.7.4 List of projects 64

4.8 Modern infrastructure 654.8.1 Introduction to the sub-theme 65

4.8.1.1 Overall direction of European-funded research 65

4.8.1.2 Overall direction of nationally funded projects 654.8.2 Research activities 66

4.8.2.1 Coordination of energy supply 66

4.8.2.2 Infrastructure – vehicle as a system 67

4.8.2.3 Sustainable Urban Mobility Plans 684.8.3 Research outcomes 69

4.8.3.1 Achievements of the research under this sub-theme 69

4.8.3.2 Transferability from research to practical use 69

4.8.3.3 Indications for future research 69

4.8.3.4 Implications for future policy development 704.8.4 List of projects 70

5 Conclusions and recommendations 745.1 Research environment and development 745.2 Research activities and outcomes 745.3 Indications for future research 775.4 Implications for future policy development 79

6 References/bibliography 80

7 Glossary 81

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This is the fifth Research Theme Analysis Report produced under the Transport Research & Innovation Portal (TRIP) continuation project for the European Commission’s Directorate-General for Mobility and Transport (DG-MOVE). It covers the Cleaner Transport research theme.

The purpose of TRIP is to collect, structure, analyse and disseminate the results of European Union (EU) supported transport research, research financed nationally in the European Research Area (ERA) and selected global research programmes. The TRIP web portal can be found at www.transport-research.info.

The purpose of this Research Theme Analysis Report is to provide an overview of research performed (mostly) in the EU collated by TRIP, providing a view across many projects that fall under the theme title. It provides a robust and thorough assessment of the reported results from the projects and offers perspectives from scientific and policy points of view.

For the purpose of this review, the theme of Cleaner Transport has been divided into eight sub-themes and the assessments have been performed within each sub-theme and across the complete theme. The sub-themes considered are:

• alternative fuels;

• modal shift;

• electromobility;

• low-emissions logistics;

• vehicle design and manufacture – aviation and maritime;

• vehicle design and manufacture – road and rail;

• automation;

• modern infrastructure.

The key findings from a scientific perspective are:

• The significant rise in demand for transport, and the increased impacts on the environment, have been recognised in the European research programmes. The analysis of projects in this study concentrated on larger (in terms of budget and resources) projects – the total budget of the projects reviewed is over EUR 2.8 billion.

• Significant progress has been made in the development and adoption of biofuels for road transport, particularly compressed natural gas (CNG) and liquefied natural gas (LNG). Progress has also been made in developing hydrogen-fuelled vehicles. Alternative fuels have also been investigated for aviation, but further large-scale field tests are required before the potential impacts can be fully quantified.

• Research on modal shift has primarily focused on urban mobility. Most projects investigated ‘soft’ measures to encourage passengers to select low-emissions options (such as public transport) and to encourage freight operators to use clean, energy-efficient vehicles. Several projects achieved tangible results in reducing carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from traffic. Importantly, developments continued after the end of the project in a number of cases, leading to further emissions reductions. A key achievement of several projects was that the research activities were not restricted to individual locations, but were integrated into the cities’ urban transport policies and plans.

• Research has identified that battery management systems are essential to enable a wider deployment of electromobility. These systems provide improved battery availability, safety and lifetime. Progress has been made on developing improved materials for batteries, including anodes, cathodes and electrolytes, which contribute to a better recyclability, longer lifetime and improved performance.

Executive summary

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Projects have also identified the need for improvements to the electric power grid to manage the charging of electric vehicles (EVs), improving the balancing of demand on the network and reducing costs to the user.

• An increasing number of cities are establishing some form of sustainability plan, either in the form of full-scale Sustainable Urban Mobility Plans (SUMPs) and Sustainable Urban Logistics Plans (SULPs) or in more sectoral Delivery and Servicing Plans (DSPs). The concepts and policy strategies proposed by earlier research activities are being exploited through these developments and the latest research projects.

• Cooperative capacity and freight platforms are now operational, aided by new mobile communication technologies, which may significantly improve freight transport efficiency.

• Clean vehicle technologies may be able to be implemented quicker in freight transport than in passenger transport due to the shorter life cycles of vehicles and more regular drive cycles.

• A very large body of research has been performed on reducing the environmental impacts of aircraft through improved design and manufacture. This has mainly concentrated on reducing the fuel consumption of the aircraft by reducing drag (using advanced technologies such as flow control and hybrid laminar flow), and reducing emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx), particulate matter (PM) and other pollutants from the engines. The latter research has investigated reductions in emissions through advances in combustor design, particularly using ‘lean-burn’ technology. Several of the technologies identified and developed through the research projects have been implemented in aircraft types that have entered service in the recent past.

• A major part of European research on ship technology for reduced emissions has taken place under the HERCULES project and its follow-on projects. These projects have developed and tested diesel engine designs with significantly reduced NOx and PM emissions through a range of technologies. Other projects have addressed emissions from ships by developing engines with dual-fuel (diesel and natural gas) capability or through electric propulsion systems.

• Technical developments in the field of road passenger vehicles have concentrated on the improvement of engines and powertrains. This includes conventional vehicles and alternative concepts such as hybrid, electric or fuel cell drives. For road freight vehicles, research has focused on conventional powertrains with an emphasis on reducing fuel consumption and CO

2 emissions. In addition to low fuel consumption during driving, energy efficient auxiliary power units (APUs) are of great importance in the parking mode. For this purpose, innovative fuel cell approaches for power generation have been examined.

• Developments for rail vehicles have concentrated on the improvement of diesel engines and aftertreatment systems to reduce CO2 and NOx emissions.

• The development of an innovative infrastructure that supports electromobility operations and the introduction or upgrade of advanced infrastructure-to-vehicle (I2V) communication systems will increase vehicle autonomy and the optimisation of the charging or refuelling process. As a result, the ‘range anxiety’ of drivers may be reduced.

• Field tests and demonstration activities of novel technologies for urban public transport systems (e.g. electric buses (e-buses) and electric bikes (e-bikes)) have shown the potential environmental and economic benefits for modern cities and the high readiness level for a wider adoption of cleaner vehicles in everyday operations.

The key findings from a policy perspective are:

• Existing European policy provides a platform for bringing alternative fuels to market, while research programmes are supporting the development of innovative new technologies. In the future, a greater policy focus may be needed on supporting the infrastructure requirements of alternative fuels and ensuring that Member States develop clear strategies to adopt alternatively fuelled vehicles. In particular, regular assessments should be carried out to ensure that progress is being made throughout the EU, and to justify further policies and research funding in the area of alternative transport fuels. Analysis of, and collaboration with, non-EU countries could also be carried out to ensure that the EU remains competitive globally.

• Modernising transport and reaping the environmental, economic and social benefits of a modal shift to low-carbon/zero-emissions mobility is one of the pillars of the EU’s future policy development for achieving reductions of CO2 and other harmful emissions. Nevertheless, the growing global competitiveness and emerging business models in an increasingly digitalised economy, together with continuous technological advancements, call for a more integrated approach that creates synergies between transport and other sectors.

• Current research in the field of policy design, regulations and incentives related to electromobility is targeted at different parts of the transport market. Research results indicate that campaigns and opportunities for testing EVs, including addressing local conditions, are needed to create acceptance and that viable business models for EVs and the relevant infrastructure are still problematic. Here, innovative solutions (e.g. combining different sectors) are needed.

• EU and national bodies should continue to encourage all types of cities to establish SUMPs, including special consideration of low-emissions logistics aspects.

• The cooperation of companies and institutions for more efficient freight delivery requires more than providing good platforms and encouragement. The establishment of urban goods consolidation centres needs investment, prioritisation in local land-use planning, improved access regulations, financial incentives for cooperation and other tools.

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• All available means of enforcement and incentive should be used to transform clean modes of freight transport (particularly railways) into important market players. This also implies a strategic assignment of investment and maintenance funds for transport infrastructure. Agreements on European and national strategies would assist this.

• Aviation and maritime vehicles (i.e. aircraft and ships) are used predominately on international operations and their regulations, particularly regarding emissions, are set by international bodies. EU regulations recognise this and EU bodies are involved in the development of new regulations through the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) and International Maritime Organization (IMO). These efforts should continue and future policy development (e.g. in relation to a future tightening of the Committee on Aviation Environmental Protection (CAEP) NOx standard for aircraft engines should take account of the reductions in emissions being achieved by the different technologies arising from the research projects.

• The coordinated and rapid deployment of cooperative, connected and automated vehicles in road transport urgently requires EU action. While the technology continues to advance, society needs to focus more on the challenges and impacts on the transport sector that will occur as a result of the introduction of automated vehicles.

• Future policy should further support and stimulate the optimisation, convergence and standardisation of infrastructure-based technologies, the full digitisation and high sophistication of vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V), vehicle-to-infrastructure (V2I) and infrastructure-to-vehicle (I2V) communication channels to deliver ambitious targets for reductions in greenhouse gases (GHGs). A high-level coordination of infrastructure investors and operators will be required to support this.

The key findings for the direction of future research are:

• Much of the research carried out to date on alternative fuels has focused on road transport, with a small number of projects relevant to aviation. Further research should be performed into the potential of alternative fuels suitable for shipping such as LNG, methanol and hydrogen. These fuels are attractive as part of a long-term strategy as, in the future, each could be replaced by a renewable alternative.

• Further research is required on the quantification of the costs and benefits of switching to alternative fuels. The publication of detailed results concerning the emissions benefits from European-funded pilot projects would support such efforts by encouraging other regions to test alternative fuels. In addition, life-cycle assessments should be performed for a variety of alternative fuels, with application to different transport modes and in different European countries.

• The links between the production of transport fuels and other industrial sectors should continue to be explored. This should include links between hydrogen generation, energy systems and integrated biorefineries, in which biofuel, bio-based chemicals and power can all be produced.

• To support the long-term need to transfer from low-emissions to zero-emissions mobility, research efforts on modal shift should be increasingly directed towards supporting this transition through the development of related knowledge, technology and skills.

• As the total demand for freight transport in Europe has increased significantly in recent years, additional sectors should also be addressed, such as the modal shift from road freight transport to rail, and short-sea and inland waterways shipping.

• Software development is a key issue for EVs. As battery development is largely confined to Asia, vehicle software can be a competitive advantage for European industry. This includes battery management systems and embedded systems in other vehicle components. Future research should focus on the monitoring and coordinating of the on-board systems and their communication with related road or energy infrastructure.

• Future research into low-emissions logistics should:

- address the promotion and use of DSPs to reduce fuel used in freight delivery and servicing activities, with the specific goal of reducing GHG emissions and primary energy consumption;

- investigate the wider savings that can be achieved through the use of goods consolidation centres;

- include an in-depth study of the Swedish municipality consolidation experience to understand the wider effects of the increasing take-up of the concept and its transferability across the EU.

• Given the large contribution to GHG and air pollutant emissions made by long distance road transport, future research should return to inter-urban logistics. Research on institutional aspects for more efficient and cooperative solutions, and for increasing innovation in the sector is of greatest importance for curbing the environmental impacts of freight transport.

• A clear trend through much of the research on aircraft and aircraft engine technology is the development of design tools to enable the incorporation of advanced concepts in future products, together with the development of small components. The full development of major aircraft or engine components for demonstrating new technologies is usually performed by the manufacturers under their own funding (and hence is not reported). However, there are benefits from large-scale technology demonstration projects with results being available to several manufacturers.

• Research has been performed into reducing emissions of NOx from aircraft engines (particularly using lean-burn technology) and soot (or non-volatile particulate matter (nvPM)) emissions. It is important that future research on reduced emissions from engines addresses all pollutants (or, at least, NOx and soot together) so that any interdependencies can be considered.

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• The potential for fuel cell APUs to provide significant reductions in the overall fuel consumption of large goods vehicles should be explored.

• Moving research efforts from single vehicle components towards a holistic view of the transport system may provide significant benefits. This includes the behaviour of drivers, and their interaction with the vehicle via the human-machine interface and with the infrastructure. A crucial factor needed for this is the provision and exchange of data on all levels. With adjusted driving strategies and improved route choices, further fuel savings may be achievable.

• The rapidly growing sector of autonomous driving (‘driverless vehicles’) should also be taken into account in future research on novel infrastructure and V2I/I2V communication technologies.

• Increasing the level of automation in the transport system brings about additional challenges, such as the optimal way of engaging the driver, ensuring the safe termination of the automation and the smooth transfer of the system back to the driver. In addition, the effect of major or minor accidents with automated transport systems must be explored. Within the cleaner transport context, further research is required to determine the contribution to low-emissions mobility of automation as an alternative to the use of private vehicles and the conditions under which automated driving will contribute to cleaner transportation.

• Future research efforts on automated vehicles should focus on recommended strategies for overcoming obstacles that could disrupt or delay the operation of automated vehicles, social issues (such as liability) and other regulatory issues.

• The integrated development and coordination of secure electromobility ecosystems is vital to the acceleration and extension of EVs and fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs). The combined development of the necessary infrastructure with that for hydrogen-based vehicles and other clean vehicle technologies may provide for faster and more widespread ecological and economic benefits in the future.

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This is the fifth Research Theme Analysis Report produced under the Transport Research & Innovation Portal (TRIP) continuation project for the European Commission’s Directorate-General for Mobility and Transport (DG-MOVE), which began in November 2014. It covers the Cleaner Transport research theme.

The purpose of TRIP is to collect, structure, analyse and disseminate the results of European Union (EU) supported transport research, research financed nationally in the European Research Area (ERA) and selected global research programmes. The TRIP web portal can be found at www.transport-research.info.

This Research Theme Analysis Report gives an overview of research performed (mostly) in the EU collated by TRIP, providing a view across many projects that fall under the theme title. It provides a robust and thorough assessment of the reported results from these projects and offers perspectives from scientific and policy points of view.

This assessment aims to consider:

• overall trends in cleaner transport, including key results;

• overall trends in the funding for cleaner transport research;

• the alignment of the research with current policy;

• policy implications of the results from the research;

• any gaps within the research theme.

The theme for this analysis was decided in consultation with DG-MOVE.

The assessments for this analysis have been performed on eight sub-themes within the theme of Cleaner Transport. The set of sub-themes, selected following initial assessments of the projects and in consultation with DG-MOVE, consists of:

• alternative fuels;

• modal shift;

• electromobility;

• vehicle design and manufacture – aviation and maritime;

• vehicle design and manufacture – road and rail;

• low-emissions logistics;

• modern infrastructure;

• automation.

The topic of vehicle design and manufacture is very wide and covers a large range of possible technologies. For this review, the topic has been divided to consider land-based surface transport separately from the other modes (aviation and maritime).

The projects identified have been clustered under these sub-themes. The analyses of the trends and gaps have been

performed across the projects in these sub-themes and across the full Cleaner Transport theme. The assessments of trends and gaps are mainly based on selected projects within the TRIP database.

EU-funded projects align with EU policy through the funding and selection process. As such, the trends identified from these projects may not necessarily be representative of those from further afield.

The aim of achieving reduced emissions during the transport of people and goods has existed for many years. For emissions related to climate change (principally carbon dioxide (CO2)), this has often been driven by a desire to reduce the cost of fuel (CO2 emissions usually have a direct relationship with fuel consumption), while for emissions related to local air quality (LAQ), the drivers have been mainly legislation and targets. Over time, a considerable amount of research has been conducted to investigate technologies and applications for reduced emissions. The initial sift of projects in the TRIP database for review in this study identified that over 25 % of all the projects had relevance to the theme of cleaner transport. Therefore, the study has placed an emphasis on those projects that have resulted in actual reductions in emissions from transport or which have investigated the impacts of advanced technologies on transport.

Section 2 of this report presents the policy context of cleaner transport and Section 3 describes the scope of this theme analysis. The subsequent sections then present reviews of the individual sub-themes (as specified above), the research environment and development, and the research activities and outcomes. Conclusions and recommendations are then presented at the end of the report.

The preparation of this report has involved the analysis of a large number of projects related to the Cleaner Transport theme. To enhance readability, the text of this report refers to projects by their standard acronyms (where an appropriate one exists). More details about the projects, including the full titles, are given in the tables at the end of each sub-theme section.

1 Introduction

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2.1 Cleaner transport in European transport policy

Transport in all its forms has opened up the world so enabling people and goods to move (or be moved) for business or pleasure. Travelling to different locations is now part of everyday life. However, as distances travelled have increased, and the speed at which people and goods expect to travel has risen, nearly all travel now uses modes of transport that consume energy and, in so doing, create emissions. In many cases, these emissions (such as carbon dioxide (CO2) and other greenhouse gases (GHG)) contribute to climate change or are harmful air pollutants (such as nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulphur oxides (SOx) and particulate matter (PM)) and cause local air quality (LAQ) issues. In other cases, such as cars and trains powered by electricity, emissions may occur remotely through power stations.

These negative impacts of transport on the environment have long been recognised and efforts made to reduce them. The European Commission’s 2011 Transport White Paper (European Commission, 2011) noted that the European Union (EU) had called for a drastic reduction in global GHG emissions, with the aim of limiting global warming to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels. To assist in achieving this, the EU needs to reduce emissions by 2050 by between 80 % and 95 % compared with 1990 levels. Based on analyses of the emissions reduction potential of different sectors, the European Commission identified that a reduction of at least 60 % was needed from the transport sector.

However, it was recognised by the Commission that the transport sector directly employed about 10 million people in the EU and accounted for about 5 % of gross domestic product (GDP). It concluded that curbing mobility was not an option. Therefore, substantial improvements in technology would be needed to meet the emissions reduction targets.

The White Paper also recognised that changes in travel patterns, including those of freight, would be required to deliver the improved efficiency using a combination of modes.

In the urban environment, journeys tend to be shorter and so the switch to cleaner transport modes may be easier. The gradual phase-out of conventionally fuelled vehicles from city streets will be a major contributor to reductions in GHG emissions and improvements in LAQ.

The policy goals for achieving the required reductions in transport emissions include:

• halve the use of conventionally fuelled vehicles in urban transport and phase them out in cities by 2050;

• low-carbon fuels to meet 40 % of the demand from aviation and reduce CO2 emissions from maritime bunker fuels by 40 % by 2050;

• 30 % of road freight journeys over 300 km to switch to other modes by 2030 and over 50 % by 2050;

• a European high-speed rail network to be complete by 2050;

• a fully functional and EU-wide multimodal Trans-European Transport Network (TEN-T) to be complete by 2030;

• connect all core network airports to the rail system by 2050 and connect all core seaports to the rail freight and, where possible, the inland waterway system by the same date;

• deploy the modernised air traffic management (ATM) infrastructure by 2020, based on the technologies developed by the Single European Sky ATM Research (SESAR) project.

In aviation, the technologies being developed under the SESAR project are aimed at delivering the full benefits of the Single European Sky (SES) initiative. In addition to improvements in safety, increases in capacity and reductions in cost, this is aimed at reducing the environmental impact of flights by 10 %1. The primary contribution to the reduction in emissions is from increasing efficiency by reducing suboptimal routing of flights.

2 Policy context

1 http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_MEMO-13-525_en.htm/

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Another key policy aimed at reducing the emissions from aviation was implemented in 2012 when aviation was included in the EU Emissions Trading System (EU ETS). This created the first major market-based measure for aviation in the world. Although the scope of the EU ETS for aviation was subsequently reduced to flights within the European Economic Area (EEA), the capping of emissions from the sector at the average of 2005 to 2007 levels (allowances for emissions above this level must be acquired from other sectors) provides a strong contribution to emissions reductions. From 2021, the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) will introduce its own market-based measure in the form of the Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation (CORSIA) and the EU has committed to joining the scheme from the start.

In the aviation area, the long-term strategy is guided by the Advisory Council for Aviation and Innovation Research in Europe (ACARE). ACARE has published its Flightpath 2050 (ACARE, n.d.), a vision of the development of aviation towards 2050. Included in the goals of Flightpath 2050 are:

1. European research and innovation strategies are jointly defined by all stakeholders, public and private, and implemented in a coordinated way with individual responsibility.

2. Creation of a network of multidisciplinary technology clusters based on collaboration between industry, universities and research institutes.

3. Identification, maintenance and ongoing development of strategic European aerospace test, simulation and development facilities. The ground and airborne validation and certification processes are integrated where appropriate.

4. Students are attracted to careers in aviation. Courses offered by European universities closely match the needs of the aviation industry, its research establishments and administrations, and evolve continuously as those needs develop.

In addition to the completion of the SES, the European Commission also aims to create a single European railway area to improve the performance of the railway system. As well as the direct reduction in emissions from the sector through increased efficiency, the reduction in costs should also encourage more passengers and freight to shift from road to rail, further cutting overall emissions.

The 2011 Transport White Paper includes targets for reducing and eliminating conventionally fuelled vehicles from urban areas by 2050. Following this lead, several European cities have announced plans to remove the more polluting vehicles. For example, London has announced the ‘ultra low emission zone’ (ULEZ) to start in 2019, while Paris, Athens and Madrid plan to ban diesel cars and vans by 20252.

2.2 Cleaner transport in European research programmes

Past and ongoing EU research projects have been scrutinised when preparing this Research Theme Analysis Report on cleaner transport. Because of the close relationship between emissions from transport and fuel consumption, much of the research performed into increasing efficiency (for economic benefits) also contributes to reducing emissions. Therefore, a very large number of projects included in the TRIP database are of potential relevance to this theme.

To provide a focus for this review, it was decided to concentrate on projects that may have had, or have the potential to have, a direct impact on emissions (GHG and LAQ-related) from transport. Transport systems are extremely complex so reductions in emissions are most likely to arise from combinations of a number of developments in different technologies. It was determined that larger projects, with significant budgets and/or a number of industrial partners, are most likely to include developments and demonstrations of combinations of technologies that can be applied to actual transport systems, so leading to real improvements in transport emissions. For the purposes of this review, it was decided to focus on EU-funded projects with total budgets of at least EUR 5 million and national projects with relevant industrial partners.

The screening of projects in TRIP using these criteria identified 255 projects (229 EU-funded and 26 nationally funded projects) with a total budget of over EUR 2.8 billion.

Under the EU’s 5th Framework Programme for Research and Technological Development (FP5), which ran from 1998 to 2002, the primary focus relevant to cleaner transport was on sustainable mobility in urban areas. There was also a growing element of technology development for aviation, particularly for unconventional or very large aircraft.

The analysis of projects in TRIP shows a considerable increase in the number of relevant projects under the subsequent FP6 programme (2002-2006). This shows that there was a growing prioritisation of the cleaner transport topic and an increase in funding for major research and demonstration projects. The projects funded under FP6 indicate a significant emphasis on the development of advanced technologies to reduce fuel consumption and emissions from road transport. There was also a growing number of projects investigating alternative fuels, such as hydrogen.

In the aviation area, there was a strong emphasis on developing technologies for reduced emissions from engines, particularly emissions of NOx and PM. In comparison, there was relatively little research performed into reducing emissions from maritime transport.

2 https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2016/dec/02/four-of-worlds-biggest-cities-to-ban-diesel-cars-from-their-centres

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Under the FP7 programme (2007-2013), there was a very large increase in funding for research on cleaner transport. The focus in road transport was on increasing the efficiency of conventionally fuelled vehicles. There was also an emphasis on the development of technology for electric vehicles (EVs), including the necessary infrastructure for their widespread use. In aviation, there was a continued emphasis on technologies to reduce NOx and PM emissions from aircraft engines. There was also significant research on the development of advanced technologies to improve the fuel efficiency of aircraft, including technologies such as hybrid laminar flow for drag reduction.

The FP7 programme was superseded in 2014 by the Horizon 2020 programme, which will run to 2020. Under Horizon 2020, many of the key elements of cleaner transport remain priorities, with a particular emphasis on improvements in fuel efficiency and reductions in emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2). For road vehicles, there is a continued emphasis on the development of electric vehicle technologies, while the emphasis for aviation remains to advance technologies to reduce CO2 emissions.

In addition to the research performed under the EU’s FPs, significant technology development has been achieved under other major EU programmes, particularly in the aviation field. The SESAR project, led by EUROCONTROL, has been developing the technology required to implement the SES initiative.

This ambitious initiative aims to improve the safety and efficiency of the European ATM system, while enabling increased capacity to allow for future growth in demand, through cooperation and interconnectivity between the different national ATM systems employed.

The Clean Sky Joint Technology Initiative (JTI) is developing and demonstrating technologies for reducing noise and emissions of CO2 and other pollutants from future aircraft. The follow-on Clean Sky 2 programme has a budget of EUR 4 billion for technology development under a number of themes, including novel aircraft configurations, advances in wing design and aerodynamics, and breakthroughs in propulsion technologies.

The Clean Sky (including Clean Sky 2) JTI is developing technologies that can be applied to a range of aircraft types, including large passenger aircraft, ‘green regional aircraft’ and advanced fast rotorcraft.

Major programmes such as SESAR and Clean Sky perform their own research, development and technological demonstration activities. However, they also draw heavily on the results from the research performed under the FPs, so providing a route for the exploitation of those results. This report is focused on the research performed under the EU FPs and national programmes that provides the technologies that are exploited through these major programmes and other development activities.

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As noted in Section 2, there is an identified need to reduce emissions from transport to meet European Union (EU) and global targets for limiting climate change and improving local air quality (LAQ).

A range of options exists to reduce emissions from transport, including the use of alternative fuels (either to reduce life-cycle emissions by using renewable sources or by using fossil-based fuels with different chemistry that produce less carbon dioxide (CO2) per unit of energy), advanced vehicle technologies or changes in the use of vehicles (including modal shift).

The approach to this Cleaner Transport thematic review was to cluster research projects under a number of limited, but relevant, sub-themes to focus on emerging issues (e.g. alternative fuels) and more traditional topics such as developing new technologies to reduce fuel consumption and emissions from vehicles.

The selected sub-themes are:

• alternative fuels – the use of non-fossil fuels to power vehicles in all modes;

• modal shift – the reduction in emissions through the transfer of passenger and freight movements to more energy-efficient and less polluting modes;

• electromobility – the transition of road transport from fossil fuels to electric power;

• low-emissions logistics – the transition of freight transport to reduce emissions;

• vehicle design and manufacture – aviation and maritime – the development of technologies to increase the efficiency of, and reduce the emissions from, aircraft and ships;

• vehicle design and manufacture – road and rail – the development of technologies to increase the efficiency of, and reduce the emissions from, road vehicles (cars, vans, lorries, etc.) and trains;

• automation – the introduction of automated transport capabilities to increase efficiency and reduce emissions;

• modern infrastructure – the infrastructure required to support the transition to alternative fuels and to support reductions in emissions from vehicles.

The research performed under these sub-themes is described in detail in section 4.

3 Scope of the Cleaner Transport theme

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This section describes the assessments of each of the sub-themes in turn. For brevity, when discussing individual projects, the descriptions refer to those projects by their acronym (particularly for projects funded by the European Union (EU), which commonly have an acronym as well as a full project title). Further information on the projects that are relevant to the sub-theme, including the full project title, is given in the tables at the end of each sub-theme section.

4.1 Alternative fuels4.1.1 Introduction to the sub-theme

European transport is heavily dependent on petroleum-based fuels such as petrol and diesel, with 94 % of transport fuel derived from oil3. The production and use of these fuels generates large quantities of carbon dioxide (CO2), which is contributing towards climate change. In addition, harmful air pollutant emissions such as nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulphur oxides (SOx) and particulate matter (PM) are produced, which can cause local air quality (LAQ) issues.

Therefore, many alternatives to petrol and diesel are being developed to help reduce the environmental impacts of transport fuels and the dependence on oil. Alternative fuels have the potential to contribute to cleaner transport systems by reducing emissions of life-cycle CO2 and air pollutants. They are being developed for a wide range of transport modes and are applicable to passenger and freight transport.

Examples of alternative fuels include advanced biofuels, electricity, hydrogen and synthetic fuels. In addition, fuels based on natural gas (such as compressed natural gas (CNG), liquefied natural gas (LNG)) and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) are identified as alternative fuels by the Alternative Fuels Infrastructure Directive (AFID) and have the potential for long-term oil substitution. Speeding up the deployment of low-emissions alternative energy for transport is a main element of the European Strategy for Low-Emission Mobility (European Commission, 2016a). Apart from electricity (which is analysed in the electromobility sub-theme), research into all the other alternative fuels mentioned above is described in this sub-theme analysis.

The aim of this analysis is to provide an insight into the projects that have delivered real results in terms of emissions reductions or have resulted in technology commercialisation. Therefore, the screening process focused on large-scale EU projects that received funding of around EUR 5 million or more and projects that involved a large number of partner organisations across Europe or had important collaborations with industry. In addition, a number of significant national-level projects were also included. Table 4-2 lists the projects that were reviewed during the assessment of this sub-theme analysis, their duration and source of funding.

4.1.1.1 Overall direction of European-funded research

The projects reviewed in this sub-theme assessment include research carried out from 2001 onwards and, in total, cover over EUR 700 million worth of funding. The majority of these projects have received funding under one of the EU’s Framework Programmes for Research and Technological Development such as FP5, FP6, FP7 or Horizon 2020. Other European research and development (R&D) programmes (e.g. Intelligent Energy Europe (IEE)) have been another source of research funding. Over the period of time covered by this sub-theme assessment, significant progress has been made to kick-start the deployment of alternative fuels in Europe. In a number of cases, alternatively fuelled vehicles are now an option to be considered in vehicle purchase decisions.

The screening process for this review identified a significant number of large-scale demonstration projects that have been important for enabling the progress in alternative fuels to date. Although pilot projects are costly, they are a key step in the commercialisation of new technologies and enable practical experience to be gained that would be difficult to achieve in a purely research environment. Pilot projects have enabled the feasibility of alternative fuels to be evaluated in greater detail and for potential business cases to be developed, while the transfer of learning to other regions has also been important. These factors can all help to accelerate the deployment of alternative fuels in Europe.

In particular, hydrogen projects have received significant funding. In part, this has been facilitated by the Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Undertaking (FCH JU), a public-private partnership established in 2008 with the aim of accelerating the deployment of hydrogen and fuel cell technologies. Under FP7, the FCH JU provided a financial contribution of EUR 168 million to the transport and refuelling infrastructure research area. This level of support is set to continue and in the funding period 2014-2020 the FCH JU has an estimated budget of EUR 1.4 billion across all research areas.

Similarly, in the biofuels research area, a number of initiatives are in place to support the development and integration of sustainable biofuels in Europe. For example, the European Biofuels Technology Platform (EBTP) was established in 2006 to contribute towards the development of cost-competitive, world-class biofuels. The EBTP is an industry-led stakeholder forum that is intended to drive innovation, promote knowledge transfer and improve European competitiveness. The Bio-Based Industries Joint Undertaking (BBI JU) was also established in June 2014 as one of the pillars of Europe’s Bioeconomy Strategy and is expected to further the development of advanced biofuels.

4 Sub-theme assessments

3 https://ec.europa.eu/transport/themes/urban/cpt_en

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In addition to funding programmes, public-private partnerships and technology platforms, European research activities in the alternative fuels sub-theme is being encouraged by other activities initiated by the European Commission. For example, one element of the recently published Strategy for Low-Emission Mobility is speeding up the deployment of low-emissions alternative energy for transport4. European legislation has also guided the mandate of research programmes. Legislation relevant to the alternative fuels sub-theme includes the Fuel Quality Directive, the Alternative Fuels Infrastructure Directive and the Renewable Energy Directive.

4.1.1.2 Overall direction of nationally funded projects

Only one purely nationally funded project was identified during the screening process for this sub-theme assessment. This is likely to be because the screening process focused on larger scale projects, either in terms of value or the number of partner organisations participating in the research. In general, national-level projects are smaller scale, less well publicised or focus on research at an early stage rather than being large-scale, proof-of-concept projects.

As demonstrated by the diversity of partners involved in European-funded research projects, there is significant collaboration across Europe on the topic of alternative fuels. Analysis of European-funded projects indicates that most European countries are participating in alternative fuels projects, while European networks are helping with knowledge sharing. A number of countries have also established funding schemes to support the development of alternative fuels and deployment of alternatively fuelled vehicles.

4.1.2 Research activities

The projects included in this sub-theme assessment have conducted research into a diverse range of fuel types and their suitability for all major transport modes. In terms of fuel type, hydrogen projects have received the most funding (more than the other fuel types combined – shown in Table 4-1) and there are significantly more high-value projects exploring the feasibility of this fuel. CNG, LPG, LNG and biofuels have also attracted significant research attention. Along with hydrogen projects, CNG, LPG and LNG projects tend to be larger and attract a higher average level of funding per project. This is mainly a reflection of the number of large-scale trials, pilot projects and infrastructure deployment

projects taking place across Europe for these fuels. In comparison, synthetic fuels have received lower levels of investment and are more at the research stage.

This analysis aims to provide a summary of the projects that have delivered improvements in environmental performance or that are demonstrating excellent emissions reduction potential for the future. As such, a summary of noteworthy projects for each fuel type is provided below. Further information on the research activities that have been/are being carried out can be found in the full list of projects that were reviewed (Table 4-2) or by searching the Transport Research & Innovation Portal (TRIP) database.

4.1.2.1 Hydrogen

Hydrogen can be used to help decarbonise transport, especially if the hydrogen is generated using renewable energy. In addition, hydrogen-fuelled vehicles produce no harmful tailpipe emissions (the only emissions are water). Therefore, they offer significant potential to improve LAQ. A large number of hydrogen demonstration projects have been carried out across Europe and there are ambitious plans (led by the FCH 2 JU, the follow-on CH JU, under Horizon 2020) for further activities in this area in the coming years. Significant projects are:

• CHIC (2010-2016) was a flagship zero-emissions bus project, which aimed to demonstrate the technology readiness for fuel cell electric buses in European cities. During the project, 23 partners from 8 countries collaborated to enable the operation of 56 fuel cell electric buses and the deployment of 9 hydrogen refuelling stations. Over 8 million kilometres were travelled, with savings of over 4 million litres of diesel and an estimated 6 000 t of CO2.

• H2ME (2015-2020) and H2ME 2 (2016-2022) aim to develop a European network of hydrogen refuelling stations and significantly expand the fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV) fleet. In H2ME, activities are focused in Germany, Scandinavia, France and the UK. The learning from this will be used to help other countries develop their own hydrogen mobility strategies. H2ME 2 aims to treble the existing fuel cell fleet in Europe by deploying 1 230 new hydrogen-fuelled vehicles. Hydrogen refuelling stations with on-site hydrogen generation via electrolysis will also be rigorously tested.

Note: Several projects covered many fuel types; the funding for these projects has been double-counted in this table, rather than attributing a percentage of the total funding to specific fuel types.

Table 4-1 Total number and funding of research projects in the alternative fuels sub-theme (by fuel type)

Fuel type Number of projects Estimated total funding Average project value

Hydrogen 22 EUR 449 687 915 EUR 20 440 359

Biofuels 11 EUR 116 119 002 EUR 10 556 272

CNG, LPG and LNG 9 EUR 221 468 947 EUR 24 607 660

Synthetic 4 EUR 4 305 610 EUR 10 764 652

4 http://ec.europa.eu/transport/themes/strategies/news/2016-07-20-decarbonisation_en

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• CUTE (2001-2006) demonstrated the potential of a European transport system based on fuel cell and hydrogen technology. During the project, 27 hydrogen buses were put into service and, in 2 years of operation, travelled a total distance of over 850,000 km across 9 cities and transported over 4 million passengers.

• HyFLEET:CUTE (2006-2009) followed on from three earlier projects (including CUTE) to further test fuel cell buses and install the necessary infrastructure. The project involved the operation of 33 hydrogen fuel cell buses across 9 cities (7 in Europe, Beijing and Perth) and 14 hydrogen-fuelled internal combustion engine buses in Berlin. Over 2 million kilometres were travelled over the course of the project, which was considered to be an outstanding success.

• HySYS (2005-2009) was a more research focused project that contributed to the development of several low-cost components for fuel cell and electric drive systems. The project had close links to industry partners and a number of scientific papers were published as a result of the work carried out.

4.1.2.2 Biofuels

Efforts to research, develop and deploy sustainable biomass-derived fuels such as bioethanol, biodiesel and biogas are underway in Europe. Biofuels are a renewable alternative (and can be used in a similar way) to oil-derived fuels, offer carbon savings and, in some cases, may reduce certain air pollutant emissions. To date, much of the research has centred on road fuels. However, biofuels for aviation are also being produced in small quantities. The usability of biofuels for aviation (when produced to the required specification) has already been demonstrated. Therefore, research efforts usually focus on the technology for production and the scaling up of production to commercial levels. In road transport, biofuels can be blended in relatively small quantities with conventional fuels and used in normal vehicles or in higher concentrations in dedicated flexible fuel vehicles that have specially designed engines. Some key projects for a range of biofuels are listed below.

• BEST (2006-2009) demonstrated the potential to substitute conventionally fuelled vehicles with bioethanol-fuelled ones. During the project, over 77 000 flex-fuel cars (which have engines designed to run on more than one fuel, such as bioethanol and petrol) and 310 E85 pumps (E85 is an ethanol-petrol blend containing up to 85 % ethanol) were tested across 9 sites. In addition, over 190 bioethanol buses and 12 ED95 pumps (ED95 is an ethanol-based fuel for adapted diesel engines) were tested over 5 sites. A variety of other vehicles running on different bioethanol/petrol blends were demonstrated and an assessment for sustainably scaling up bioethanol production was carried out.

• BIOSIRE (2008-2011) aimed to transform the environmental credentials of transport in tourist areas. The results showed a measurable shift towards biodiesel and EVs in the participating regions. The knowledge gained from this could be transferred to other regions.

• BIOMOTION (2007-2010) aimed to help increase the use of biofuels by improving awareness of them. The project established an expert cluster, 7 regional biofuel information centres and promoted the use of sustainable biofuels through the ‘BioMotion-Tour’, which ran through 7 European countries and 35 cities.

• ENCLOSE (2012-2015) aimed to improve the energy efficiency of city logistics and investigated the use of a number of alternative fuels, including biogas. The strategy has been incorporated into the Sustainable Urban Logistic Plans (SULPs) of 9 cities across Europe. It is estimated that by 2020, annual savings of over 55 000 tonnes of CO

2 equivalent (tCO2e) will be achieved.

• BIOGASMAX (2006-2009) created a network of biogas demonstration projects in 5 countries across Europe. Based on the work carried out, the project developed a proposal for a common European standard for biomethane fuel quality.

4.1.2.3 CNG, LPG and LNG

CNG, LPG (propane or butane) and LNG have lower carbon emissions compared with those for petrol and diesel. This is because of the lower carbon content in the fuel, which results in lower carbon emissions per kilometre travelled. The air pollutant emissions from these fuels are considered to be similar to those for petrol. The research projects in this area are generally high value and focus on issues such as the development of engine technology and infrastructure. A selection of key projects is summarised below.

• GasOn (2015-2018) and INGAS (2008-2012) have similar aims – to exploit the main benefits of gas-powered engines by developing dedicated, CNG-only engines. INGAS developed technology to allow for a 65 % biomethane gas blend to be used, with the potential for achieving close to zero well-to-wheel emissions. Meanwhile, GasOn is actively researching methods to achieve future CO2 emissions targets and reduce air pollutant emissions from vehicles.

• HDGAS (2015-2018) and LNG Blue Corridors (2013-2017) focus on the use of LNG as an alternative fuel. HDGAS aims to provide a breakthrough by integrating gas engines into heavy-duty vehicles. The technology is expected to deliver CO2 emissions that are 10 % lower than the current state of the art. LNG Blue Corridors is building 14 LNG refuelling stations across Europe and is embarking on a demonstration project involving 100 LNG heavy-duty vehicles. Liquefied biomethane will also be tested to investigate the potential of higher CO2 savings.

• HERCULES-2 (2015-2018) is part of a long-term R&D programme that targets the development of a fuel-flexible large marine engine. The dual-fuel combustion engine uses alternative fuels (such as LPG and LNG) in a lean premixed combustion process with a pilot diesel flame for ignition. In particular, this has been shown to limit NOx and soot emissions.

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4.1.2.4 Synthetic fuels

Chemical conversion processes can be used to produce synthetic hydrocarbon fuels with similar properties to those for conventional fuels. Synthetic fuels can use the existing infrastructure for fuels, are compatible with existing engines and can be used in blends or as a substitute for diesel or jet fuel (EBTP, 2011). A wide variety of feedstocks can be used to produce synthetic fuels, including biomass and natural gas. This can contribute to energy security. In addition, synthetic fuels are virtually sulphur-free and result in lower NOx and PM emissions when used. A selection of research projects in this area are shown below.

• FIRST (2010-2014) conducted fuel injector research for aircraft engines. During the project, alternative fuel blends (such as Fischer-Tropsch fuels) were explored with the aim of reducing soot emissions.

• Bio-SNG (2006-2009) demonstrated the feasibility of biomass-derived synthetic fuels. The pathway used in this project is based on the gasification of wood chips to produce a synthetic natural gas (Bio-SNG). A small scale industrial plant has been set up based on the technology.

• ITAKA (2012-2015) investigated the potential for the large-scale production of sustainable synthetic paraffinic kerosene (SPK) for jet fuels. The fuel was based on biomass.

4.1.3 Research outcomes

4.1.3.1 Achievements of the research under this sub-theme

The research projects in this sub-theme aim to develop cleaner transport systems through the use of alternative fuels that result in the emission of lower quantities of CO2 and/or air pollutants. It is generally considered that a mix of alternative fuels will be required to create a low-carbon transport system in the future, with different fuels showing potential for certain applications. For example, biofuels and synthetic fuels are often seen as renewable, direct replacements for oil-derived fuels. This is because they can be used in existing vehicles (if blended with conventional fuels), are suitable for a variety of transport modes and can use the existing infrastructure used by conventional fuels. On the other hand, hydrogen powered vehicles offer the potential for significant improvements in LAQ (as no harmful air pollutants are released when the fuel is used), but require specialised vehicles and infrastructure.

In terms of research progress, a variety of alternatively fuelled vehicles are already being tested for buses in public transport systems across Europe. For example, projects that were part of the City VITAlity and Sustainability (CIVITAS) initiative, such as MOBILIS (2005-2009) and TELLUS (2002-2006), have tested CNG and biofuels for buses, while a number of cities have trialled hydrogen fuel cell electric buses during projects such as CHIC and HYCHAIN MINI-TRANS (2006-2011). Many of the vehicles tested during these projects continue to run on the streets under real market operation conditions after the projects have finished, so delivering continued emissions benefits. Other projects have also tested the use of alternative fuels during routine use in cars.

Research is also underway to test the use of alternative fuels in heavy-duty vehicles used for freight transport. Projects such as ENCLOSE and BEAUTY (2009-2011) have demonstrated the potential for biofuels to help achieve future emissions limits. These projects have also helped to overcome technical challenges such as fuel conversion efficiency and cold startability. Another project, FELICITAS (2005-2008), investigated fuel cell powertrains and the performance of hydrogen powered vehicles, while HDGAS investigated the applicability of LNG.

Biofuels and synthetic fuels have been investigated for use in aircraft. The research projects identified in this assessment were generally smaller scale and at an earlier stage of development (than for the use of alternative fuels in road transport). They developed innovative fuels and considered the scaling up of production capability (e.g. ITAKA). As the technologies are not yet optimised, quantitative information on the potential environmental impacts is not available. However, the next stage will be to conduct larger scale trials. Another project, ECATS (2005-2010), developed a network to further develop and share scientific expertise in aviation, atmospheric science and industry.

In the shipping sector, a number of research projects are being conducted to develop ships that use alternative fuels. Most notably, HERCULES-2 is developing fuel-flexible engines that will enable high performance and low-emission transport, while MC-WAP (2005-2010) developed fuel cell systems suitable for large ships.

4.1.3.2 Transferability from research to practical use

Many of the projects reviewed in this sub-theme have already shown excellent transferability. This has especially been the case for hydrogen fuel cell bus demonstration projects, where subsequent projects have expanded on the work started in earlier projects. This approach is helping to deliver long-lasting benefits (such as energy savings and reductions in emissions) in the pilot cities. One example of this is the HyFLEET:CUTE project, which followed on from three earlier projects. To support transferability, it is often beneficial for projects to produce a summary of the key learning outcomes. This can help follower towns and cities to set up pilot projects more easily and can enable a faster transition to alternatively fuelled transport.

4.1.3.3 Indications for future research

Much of the research carried out has concentrated on the development of alternative fuels for road transport. A few aviation projects were identified by the project screening, but the shipping sector has received relatively little research attention. Therefore, further research should be conducted to assess the potential of alternative fuels suitable for shipping such as LNG, methanol and hydrogen. These fuels are attractive as part of a long-term strategy as, in the future, each could be replaced by a renewable alternative (biomethane could replace LNG, biomethanol could replace methanol and hydrogen could be produced from renewable resources).

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Further research on the quantification of the costs and benefits of switching to alternative fuels is another relevant area of work. To support activities in this area, detailed results concerning the emissions benefits from European-funded pilot projects could be published. This could help to convince other regions to also test alternative fuels. In addition, life-cycle assessments for a variety of alternative fuels, transport modes and European countries could be performed.

The links between transport fuels and other sectors should continue to be explored. For example, promising areas of research include the links between hydrogen and energy systems, in addition to the potential for integrated biorefineries in which biofuel, bio-based chemicals and power could all be produced.

4.1.3.4 Implications for future policy development

Existing European policy provides a platform for bringing alternative fuels to the market, while research funding programmes are supporting the development of innovative new technologies. In the future, a greater focus may need to be

given to support the infrastructure requirements of alternative fuels and ensure that Member States develop clear strategies to adopt alternatively fuelled vehicles. In particular, regular assessments should be carried out to ensure that progress is being made throughout the EU, and to justify further policies and research funding in the area of alternative transport fuels. To avoid fragmenting the market, it is important that the benefits of the cross-border collaborations on research projects are exploited when developing regulations regarding the deployment of alternative fuels in different Member States. Analysis of, and collaboration with, non-EU countries could also be carried out to ensure that the EU remains to be competitive globally.

Significant resources have been invested in projects developing and demonstrating the use of hydrogen-fuelled vehicles, particularly buses, including the refuelling infrastructure. The lessons of these projects should be collated and, if it is shown that the technology has been successful in reducing emissions reliably and sustainably, policy should be developed to promote similar applications on a wider basis.

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Table 4-2 Projects reviewed in the alternative fuels sub-theme

Project acronym Project name Project duration Source of funding

ALFA-BIRD Alternative Fuels and Biofuels for Aircraft Development

https://goo.gl/n4uN4y

2008-2012 EU (FP7-TPT)

ALTER-MOTIVE Deriving effective least-cost policy strategies for ALTERnative autoMOTIVE concepts and alternative fuels

https://goo.gl/lLvNb8

2008-2011 EU (IEE)

BEAUTY Bio-ethanol Engine for Advanced Urban Transport by Light Commercial Vehicle & Heavy Duty (BEAUTY)

https://goo.gl/phG4hh

2009-2011 EU (FP7-TPT)

BEST Bioethanol for Sustainable Transport

https://goo.gl/dor1bM

2006-2009 EU (FP6-SUSTDEV-1)

BIOGASMAX Biogas Market Expansion to 2020

https://goo.gl/Tvg4ky

2006-2009 EU (FP6-SUSTDEV-1)

BIOMOTION Biofuels in Motion Information, Motivation and Conversion Strategies for Biofuels with Consideration of the Special Regional Structures

https://goo.gl/7qLleR

2007-2010 EU (IEE)

BIOSIRE Biofuels and Electric Propulsion Creating Sustainable Transport in Tourism Resorts

https://goo.gl/URglil

2008-2011 EU (IEE)

Bio-SNG Demonstration of the Production and Utilisation of Synthetic Natural Gas (SNG) from Solid Biofuels

https://goo.gl/O0y6xl

2006-2009 EU (FP6-SUSTDEV-1)

CELINA Fuel Cell Application in a New Configured Aircraft

https://goo.gl/K0QlzS

2005-2008 EU (FP6-AEROSPACE)

CHIC Clean Hydrogen in European Cities

https://goo.gl/8jp4Lr

2010-2016 EU (FP7-JTI)

CUTE Clean Urban Transport for Europe

https://goo.gl/3L4LzF

2001-2006 EU (FP5-EESD)

DREAMCAR Direct Methanol Fuel Cell System for Car Applications

https://goo.gl/0fkR9C

2001-2005 EU (FP5-EESD)

DuraPEM Active and stable platinum-transition metal catalysts for oxygen reduction at high-temperature polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs)

https://goo.gl/hFvwez

2010-2014 National (Austria)

ECATS Environmentally Compatible Air Transport System

https://goo.gl/lEsv6y

2005-2010 EU (FP6-AERO)

ECTOS Ecological City Transport System

https://goo.gl/SYuluv

2001-2005 EU (FP5 EESD)

ENCLOSE ENergy efficiency in City LOgistics Services for small and mid-sized European Historic Towns

https://goo.gl/Nt02me

2012-2015 EU (IEE)

FELICITAS Fuel-cell Powertrains and Clustering in Heavy-duty Transports

https://goo.gl/qINR5b

2005-2008 EU (FP6-SUSTDEV-2)

FIRST Fuel Injector Research for Sustainable Transport

https://goo.gl/J14xaU

2010-2014 EU (FP7-TPT)

4.1.4 List of projects

Table 4-2 Projects that were reviewed during the assessment of this sub-theme.

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Table 4-2 (continued) Projects reviewed in the alternative fuels sub-theme

Project acronym Project name Project duration Source of funding

GasOn Gas-Only internal combustion engines

https://goo.gl/1IDJqq

2015-2018 EU (Horizon 2020)

GREENAIR Generation of Hydrogen by Kerosene Reforming via Efficient and Low Emission new Alternative, Innovative, Refined Technologies for Aircraft Application

https://goo.gl/cCRPyZ

2009-2012 EU (FP7-TPT)

H2ME Hydrogen Mobility Europe

https://goo.gl/9M9OeD

2015-2020 EU (Horizon 2020)

H2ME 2 Hydrogen Mobility Europe 2

https://goo.gl/Deqs3b

2016-2022 EU (Horizon 2020)

H2OCEAN Development of a wind-wave power open-sea platform equipped for hydrogen generation with support for multiple users of energy

https://goo.gl/9cAObY

2012-2014 EU (FP7-TPT)

H2REF Development of a Cost Effective and Reliable Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicle Refuelling System

https://goo.gl/L3pprU

2015-2018 EU (Horizon 2020)

HDGAS Heavy Duty Gas Engines integrated into Vehicles

https://goo.gl/NtCoQ4

2015-2018 EU (Horizon 2020)

HERCULES-2 Fuel Flexible, Near-Zero Emissions, Adaptive Performance Marine Engine

https://goo.gl/VvvBDs

2015-2018 EU (Horizon 2020)

HYCHAIN MINI-TRANS Deployment of Innovative Low Power Fuel Cell Vehicle Fleets To Initiate an Early Market for Hydrogen as an Alternative Fuel in Europe

https://goo.gl/KQNhWP

2006-2011 EU (FP6-SUSTDEV-1)

HyFLEET:CUTE Hydrogen for Clean Urban Transport in Europe

https://goo.gl/zL1A6P

2006-2009 EU (FP6-SUSTDEV-1)

HYICE Optimisation of a Hydrogen Powered Internal Combustion Engine

https://goo.gl/Fdw8rI

2004-2007 EU (FP6-SUSTDEV-3)

HySYS Fuel-Cell Hybrid Vehicle System Component Development

https://goo.gl/DfRCoi

2005-2009 EU (FP6-SUSTDEV-3)

HyTRAN Hydrogen and fuel-Cell Technologies for Road Transport

https://goo.gl/t9ftDs

2004-2008 EU (FP6-SUSTDEV-3)

HyWays Development of a harmonised “European Hydrogen Energy Roadmap” by a balanced group of partners from industry, European regions and technical and socio-economic scenario and modelling experts

https://goo.gl/bh1mwM

2004-2007 EU (FP6-SUSTDEV)

INGAS Integrated Gas Powertrain - Low Emission, CO2 Optimised and Efficient CNG Engines for Passenger Cars (PC) and light duty vehicles (LDV)

https://goo.gl/hoaeQV

2008-2012 EU (FP7-TPT)

INSPIRE Integration of Novel Stack Components for Performance, Improved Durability and Lower Cost

https://goo.gl/TkNQ97

2016-2019 EU (Horizon 2020)

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Table 4-2 (continued) Projects reviewed in the alternative fuels sub-theme

Project acronym Project name Project duration Source of funding

ITAKA Initiative Towards sustAinable Kerosene for Aviation

https://goo.gl/iYqkEo

2012-2015 EU (FP7-ENERGY)

LNG Blue Corridors LNG Blue Corridors

https://goo.gl/DCfdef

2013-2017 EU (FP7-SST)

MC-WAP Molten-carbonate fuel Cells for Waterborne Application

https://goo.gl/2eFQ9U

2005-2010 EU (FP6-SUSTDEV-3)

MOBILIS Mobility Initiatives for Local Integration and Sustainability

https://goo.gl/X7Glxc

2005-2009 EU (FP6-SUSTDEV-2)

SWARM Demonstration of Small 4-Wheel fuel cell passenger vehicle Applications in Regional and Municipal transport

https://goo.gl/9w0AVy

2012-2016 EU (FP7-JTI)

TELLUS Transport & Environment Alliance for Urban Sustainability

https://goo.gl/Uny5gO

2002-2006 EU (FP5-GROWTH)

TIMECOP-AE Toward Innovative Methods for Combustion Prediction in Aero-Engines

https://goo.gl/hmlYKk

2006-2010 EU (FP6-AEROSPACE)

VOLUMETRIQ Volume Manufacturing of PEM FC Stacks for Transportation and In-line Quality Assurance

https://goo.gl/qlQFSC

2015-2018 EU (Horizon 2020)

ZERO REGIO Lombardia & Rhein-Main towards Zero Emission: Development and Demonstration of Infrastructure Systems for Hydrogen as an Alternative Motor Fuel

https://goo.gl/1NT5r7

2004-2010 EU (FP6-SUSTDEV-1)

4.2 Modal shift4.2.1 Introduction to the sub-theme

Modal shift has been a longstanding goal that can make a significant contribution to the decarbonisation of the transport sector, one of the EU’s key environmental policy objectives. The European Commission has set specific modal shift targets to achieve a more sustainable, safe and efficient integrated transport system. Related strategies and initiatives focus on shifting freight from road to less polluting modes, such as railway, maritime/short-sea shipping and inland waterway transport. The objective for passenger transport is to reduce the attractiveness of the private car as a transport alternative in favour of more sustainable means, particularly in congested urban areas. Building on those policies, the Commission recently published its ‘European Strategy for low-emission mobility’. The main elements include the shift to lower-emissions transport modes and zero-emissions vehicles. The role of cities is explicitly stipulated in the strategy in terms of promoting sustainable urban mobility; the majority of the research projects reviewed in this sub-theme are focused on urban mobility. Modal shift actions often include the concept of intermodality. Projects addressing such topics are also included in this analysis.

A total of 28 research projects were identified under this sub-theme. Of these, 25 were funded by EU research programmes

and 3 were funded by national programmes. Table 4-3 lists the projects that were reviewed during this sub-theme analysis, their duration and source of funding.

4.2.1.1 Overall direction of European-funded research

The EU-funded research on modal shift is largely focused on urban transport. Combined with environmental impact and climate change policies, this research aims to create a culture for clean urban mobility via the development and implementation of incentives and measures for a modal shift to active travel (cycling and walking), public transport and shared mobility schemes.

Research on modal shift during the decade up to 2010 was largely associated with the CIVITAS initiative. This included the implementation of a wide range of integrated, innovative and sustainable urban transport strategies and measures for passengers and freight across several European cities. Many of these made real differences to citizens’ mobility and quality of life. Urban transport is also dominant in recent research that includes projects addressing, in principle, the same themes. However, these now concentrate on specific actions with increased sophistication (e.g. introducing innovative technologies, intelligent transport systems (ITS), and an increased use of clean and energy efficient vehicles).

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Moreover, a common activity across several urban transport projects is the promotion/dissemination and training actions for increasing the awareness of sustainable modes and for influencing people’s travel behaviour towards adopting a less energy consuming mobility pattern.

In addition to urban transport, projects in this sub-theme address modal shift in passenger tourism transport. Long-distance freight transport is addressed in only two projects.

4.2.1.2 Overall direction of nationally funded projects

Only three projects were identified under this sub-theme, all funded by Germany. Research undertaken in two recently completed national projects follows recent EU directions towards zero-emissions vehicles for a cleaner urban transport system and comprised the introduction of e-bikes for urban commuters to train stations and heavy electric trucks (e-trucks) for urban freight logistics. The ongoing project addresses the topic of emissions reduction through modal shift. It adopts a wider, theoretical approach aimed at the development of all-encompassing future mobility system scenarios that would eventually be employed to evaluate new technologies and the impact they have on air pollution and the emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs).

4.2.2 Research activities4.2.2.1 Urban transport

This sub-theme includes five completed CIVITAS projects (MOBILIS (2005-2009), TELLUS (2002-2006), MIRACLES (2002-2006) TRENDSETTER (2000-2005) and RENAISSANCE (2008-2012)) and the ongoing PORTIS (2016-2020) project. The overarching objective of all these multi-initiative projects is to promote cleaner and better transport in cities. Related activities of each project are discussed in accordance with each theme in the following sections.

4.2.2.1.1 Cleaner fleets and zero-emissions vehicles

The introduction of cleaner fleets and zero-emissions vehicles is vital for the reduction of emissions in urban conglomerates. In this field, CIVITAS projects have implemented a variety of measures including:

• MOBILIS – deploying cleaner-fuelled buses and boats, introducing passenger-friendly waterbuses, and introducing biogas and particulate filters for buses;

• TELLUS – introducing clean public and private transport fleets (such as trucks powered by CNG, energy-efficient trams and trolleybuses, clean waste collection vehicles) and equipping the public transport fleet with exhaust filters and selective catalytic reducers;

• MIRACLES – developing and introducing clean public e-buses and trolley buses;

• TRENDSETTER – creating municipal fleets with electric and CNG vehicles; developing a biodiesel bus and taxi fleet, and introducing them into the public transport fleet; and using biogas vehicles for waste collection;

• RENAISSANCE – implementing a clean mini-bus fleet, converting public transport diesel buses to CNG and retrofitting service car fleets;

• Related measures of PORTIS include charging e-buses with alternative energy and introducing a hybrid and innovative public transport system.

4.2.2.1.2 Enhancing active mobility – walking and cycling

Most cities aspire to encourage walking and cycling by establishing new spaces for pedestrians and designing suitable infrastructure to ensure safety and comfort for ‘active mobility’. The CIVITAS initiative alone realised 27 innovative measures for better walking and cycling facilities in 20 different cities from 2002 to 2012. Related projects examined implemented the following measures:

• MOBILIS – developing a pedestrian zone and accessibility scheme, developing an integrated and extended cycling network, promoting safe and increased bicycle use and its integration with public transport services, and redesigning public spaces;

• TELLUS – creating dedicated bicycle lanes;

• TRENDSETTER – creating bike-and-ride parking and other facilities, introducing car-free zones and extending the bicycle road network;

• RENAISSANCE – closing missing links in bicycle path network; and introducing a wayfinding and information system that includes a new range of pedestrian signage, and street furniture, pedestrian orientation points, bus shelters, benches and cycle racks;

• PORTIS – foreseeing the reallocation of road space for walking and cycling.

In addition to the CIVITAS projects, the MIDAS (2006-2008) project designed and implemented a range of measures to encourage the use of walking and cycling. The ASTUTE (2006-2009) project identified 10 barriers to walking and cycling, and developed a best practice toolkit to overcome these – which, in turn, was used to implement related actions in municipalities. The MOBILE2020 (2011-2014) project created a user-friendly toolkit (carbon calculator) to visualise and estimate the CO

2 reduction potential by increasing bicycle use in small and medium-sized towns – 11 of which began construction of new cycling infrastructure during the project’s duration. Also within the urban fabric, the BITIBI (2014-2015) project set up pilots of a bike-train-bike (BiTiBi) service as a seamless, door-to-door transport service combining bicycle and train.

Two projects adopted personalised information and communication technology approaches for modal shift. The PTP-Cycle (2013-2016) project delivered a pan-EU coordinated personalised travel plan programme across five European cities with encouraging results on public acceptance and use. The SWITCH (2014-2016) project applied information and communications technology (ICT) solutions, such as smartphone applications and Intelligent Health’s ‘Beat the Street’ system, delivered through campaigns that were tailored to the local requirements of individual cities.

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4.2.2.1.3 Car-independent travel

Although not essentially a modal shift measure, car pooling and car sharing are aimed at a more sustainable use of the private car. Accordingly, the CIVITAS projects MIRACLES, MOBILIS, TRENDSETTER and RENAISSANCE set up and implemented various car-pooling schemes. Some were also integrated with public transport services to encourage higher vehicle occupancy. In addition, the SocialCar (2015-2018) project is developing an innovative communication network for intelligent mobility that includes the sharing of information on carpooling integrated with existing transport and mobility systems for urban and peri-urban areas.

Another popular measure in this category is providing bike-sharing systems that have proved to be able to cultivate a cycling culture in various urban environments.

The CIVITAS projects implemented the following related measures:

• MIRACLES – implementing the ‘Bikeabout’ scheme, which offered the free loan of bicycles to the public;

• TRENDSETTER – introducing a test fleet of e-bikes and cargo bikes;

• RENAISSANCE – introducing a bicycle rental system and rickshaw services;

• PORTIS – developing a bike-sharing system and a plan for reducing car dependency for port workers.

The German project Netz-E-2-R (2012-2014) set up innovative e-bike parks. These offer rental pedelecs and parking spaces for private pedelecs at railway stations in the Stuttgart region, and use an innovative tariff system and cross-links between stations.

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4.2.2.1.4 Passenger transport services

Public transport has witnessed a decrease in the number of passengers during the last few years due to the increased level of car ownership. Therefore, several measures are targeted at the modernisation of the public transport system and the introduction of integrated ticketing. CIVITAS projects implemented, among others, the following actions:

• MIRACLES – introduced park-and-ride facilities, improved local bus services and developed tramways as part of an integrated public transport system;

• MOBILIS – introduced e-ticketing and other improvements of quality and structure of public transport services, access and parking management, integration of a demand-responsive public transportation service and developed proximity services at major passenger transport hubs;

• TELLUS – introduced environmentally optimised river shuttle, integrated cycling and public transport; implemented large-scale expansion of park-and-ride facilities, introduced public transport over water, automated people movers and integrated pricing strategies;

• TRENDSETTER – introduced a smart card system and integrated ticketing, and created park-and-ride facilities;

• RENAISSANCE – developed a waterborne public transport system, a personal rapid transit system and intermodal interchanges for public transport;

• PORTIS – developing integrated designs for traffic information signs, including those for pedestrians, cyclists and vehicle drivers; concepts for the prioritisation of public transport traffic, a modernisation of the traffic management system and the integration of new tram network.

The ENERQI (2010-2013) project developed a quality monitoring system for public transport. The system was used to monitor changes in perceived quality following the implementation of a set of public transport improvement actions in eight European cities. The EcoMobility SHIFT (2010-2013) project developed a methodology for cities to measure their existing performance and make informed decisions based on the areas that require improvement. The quality management system that was developed supports cities in creating and strengthening their Sustainable Urban Mobility Plans (SUMPs), and developing action plans to implement integrated urban mobility.

4.2.2.1.5 Urban freight logistics

Goods delivery is one of the main sources of harmful emissions in cities. Therefore, several solutions are being examined to coordinate and consolidate urban freight logistics by setting up urban consolidation centres (among others) and promoting the use of cleaner vehicles. Related measures implemented in cities from CIVITAS include:

• MIRACLES – setting up Collectpoint to encourage fleet efficiency and home delivery;

• MOBILIS – developing web tool to manage loading bays;

• TELLUS – introducing consumer-driven goods management from a mobility centre base;

• TRENDSETTER – establishing an urban logistics centre;

• RENAISSANCE – implementing urban freight consolidation;

• PORTIS – implementing measures related to mapping freight traffic flows and designing a distribution plan, and improving coordination of freight movement via active traffic-data exchange and traffic control.

4.2.2.1.6 Marketing and awareness raising

A key goal of modal shift is to change attitudes and travel behaviour and, eventually, to create a new mobility culture – low-emissions mobility in this case. To this end, publicity campaigns, dissemination and training activities, educational programmes, marketing and stakeholder/public consultations are essential means for raising awareness and sharing best practices. The majority of the CIVITAS projects included such activities (the TRENDSETTER, MOBILIS, RENAISSANCE and PORTIS projects). In addition, the following projects included similar activities:

• MIDAS – organised training workshops to transfer knowledge and experience, with particular reference to new Member States;

• TRENDY TRAVEL (2007-2010) – successfully disseminated the concept of sustainable and environmentally friendly transport modes to the broader public through the use of emotional promotion tools;

• PROMOTION (2007-2010) – focused on changing perceptions and increase the awareness of sustainable modes through training 755 people in sessions held in 10 countries;

• Go Pedelec! (2009-2012) – raised awareness about pedelecs among citizens and municipal decision makers;

• ACTIVE ACCESS (2009-2012) – endorsed 58 customised local campaigns and initiatives, and established 6 lobbies to promote walking and cycling;

• MOBILE2020 (2011-2014) – introduced the new direction for planning processes in small and medium-sized towns by formulating national working groups of cycling professionals and transferred good experiences through workshops and seminars;

• STARS (2013-2016) – focused on campaigns to get more children to cycle to school and setting up an accreditation system;

• SmartMove (2014-2016) – promoted the use of public transport through active mobility consultancy (AMC) campaigns.

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4.2.2.1.7 Intermodality

Measures that promote the integration of more than one mode can contribute significantly to reducing emissions through a modal shift to less polluting modes.

Multimodal long-distance transport was addressed by the PLATINA (2008-2012) project, which supported the European Commission and Member States in the implementation of the navigation and inland waterway action and development in Europe (NAIADES) action programme. The approach included identifying barriers and developing a European database of good practice for improving inland waterway transport as a low-emissions mode. For freight transport, the GIFTS (2002-2005) project designed and developed a fully integrated operational platform for the use of systems that manage door-to-door freight transport intermodally and unimodally.

The German KV-E-CHAIN (2013-2016) project investigated the development of a fully electric, long-haul delivery transportation chain through the integration of e-trucks into existing fleets and an urban logistics hub. This was intended to foster the development and implementation of combined electric-powered transportation (long-distance rail transport), electric-powered freight transport (by street) and retail transport.

The German VEU (2014-2017) project adopts a comprehensive approach, aiming to analyse the complete contextual chain from mobility behaviour and transport formation through to the environmental and social effects of traffic and mobility. Scenario analysis will be used to depict future mobility concepts, while assessment results will support decision makers in designing and evaluating measures for, among others, a lower-emission mobility.

4.2.2.1.8 Sustainable tourism

Tourism is an activity that can have a considerable impact on sustainable development. Therefore, the sustainability of European tourism calls for proactive cooperation among tourism and mobility sectors. The STARTER (2012-2015) project engaged stakeholders in the development of local travel plan networks (LTPNs) that would include sustainable solutions to meet seasonal tourism demand in five different European tourist destinations.

The SEEMORE (2012-2015) project introduced and evaluated energy efficient transport actions for visitors in eight coastal touristic regions. In addition, one of the measures implemented by PORTIS is related to promoting sustainable mobility solutions to cruising tourists.

4.2.3 Research outcomes

4.2.3.1 Achievements of the research under this sub-theme

The focus on urban transport in this domain remains unchanged through the years, with the majority of project outcomes comprising soft measures aimed at fostering a process of transition to less energy intense transport modes and reducing demand for private vehicles. These include a range of measures to encourage the use of walking; cycling and public transport; mobility sharing schemes; cleaner, energy-efficient vehicles; and measures to reduce emissions from urban freight logistics operations. Inevitably, technological advancements have fed into recent research, so the introduction of modern technology and innovation is noticeable in the measures that have been developed. In addition, recent research has been directed towards encouraging modal shift in the tourism sector and developing intermodal systems. There is a continuous flow of marketing and information campaigns to trigger behavioural change, the key driver to mobility choices.

It should be noted that several projects in this sub-theme achieved tangible results in terms of reducing traffic-related CO2 emissions and private car trips made, and high response rates in dissemination and training actions. Most importantly, in several cases, further development continued after the end of a project, which results in increased impact. Another key achievement regarding CIVITAS projects was that demonstration measures did not constitute isolated attempts, but were, in most cases, integrated into the cities’ urban transport policies and plans.

The coverage of modal shift in other sectors and, more specifically, long-distance freight transport is minimal in this particular selection of projects. However, it includes one of the most prominent projects to date regarding the increase of the inland water transport modal share (PLATINA).

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4.2.3.2 Transferability from research to practical use

The transferability from research to practical use has already been achieved in several projects related to urban transport under this sub-theme and the majority of pilot actions are highly transferable to other environments. In addition, the continuous coverage of similar measures builds on initial research and increases the maturity of the outputs.

A common output from several projects was a best practice inventory, with a focus on success factors and lessons learnt. The latter also largely contributes to the transferability of research to practical use.

4.2.3.3 Indications for future research

Given the long-term need to transfer from low-emissions to zero-emissions mobility, research efforts should be increasingly directed towards supporting this transition through the development of related knowledge, technology and skills. Innovation should remain a key driver in this domain, as should the efforts to standardise the measurement of the positive impact of modal shift towards ‘cleaner’ transport systems.

For passenger transport, research should also consider a shift to car and bike sharing, and other multimodal functions (e.g. public transport and cycling). It should also focus on the synergies between different modes from a customer perspective. There is a need for more mobile phone applications

to assist passengers when selecting transport options and to promote interoperability in public transport systems. The goal is to provide seamless trip options and attract users away from using private cars.

In addition, given that total demand for freight transport in Europe has increased significantly in recent years, sectors that have attracted less research should be addressed, such as the modal shift from road freight transport to rail, and short-sea and inland waterways shipping.

4.2.3.4 Implications for future policy development

Modernising transport and reaping the environmental, economic and social benefits of a modal shift to low-carbon/zero-emissions mobility is considered one of the pillars of the Commission’s future policy development for achieving a solid reduction in CO2 and other harmful emissions. Nevertheless, growing global competitiveness, emerging business models in an increasingly digitalised economy and continuous technological advancements call for a more integrated approach that creates synergies between the transport sector with those related to energy, technology and automation.

4.2.4 List of projects

Table 4-3 lists the projects that were reviewed during the assessment of this sub-theme.

Table 4-3 Projects reviewed in the modal shift sub-theme

Project acronym Project name Project duration Source of funding

ACTIVE ACCESS Encouraging active travel for short trips to improve health and the local economy

https://goo.gl/vUYBsf

2009-2012 EU (IEE)

ASTUTE Advancing Sustainable Transport in Urban Areas To Promote Energy Efficiency

https://goo.gl/ITdBGl

2006-2009 EU (IEE)

BITIBI Easy and energy efficient from door to door Bike+Train+Bike

https://goo.gl/uxNM8Z

2014-2015 EU (IEE)

EcoMobility SHIFT EcoMobility Scheme for Energy-Efficient Transport

https://goo.gl/9j1arG

2010-2013 EU (IEE)

ENERQI Energy efficiency by using daily customers Quality observations to Improve public transport

https://goo.gl/SCv5P2

2010-2013 EU (IEE)

GIFTS Global Intermodal Freight Transport System

https://goo.gl/Jf9VwR

2002-2005 EU (FP5-IST)

GO PEDELEC! Go Pedelec!

https://goo.gl/TU7kRh

2009-2012 EU (IEE)

KV-E-CHAIN Comprehensive electric transportation chain for combined transit

https://goo.gl/ZEeJsp

2013-2016 Germany

MIDAS Measures to Influence transport Demand to Achieve Sustainability

https://goo.gl/8ddjec

2006-2008 EU (IEE)

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Table 4-3 (continued) Projects reviewed in the modal shift sub-theme

Project acronym Project name Project duration Source of funding

MIRACLES Multi Initiatives for Rationalised Accessibility and Clean, Liveable Environments

https://goo.gl/A7l7m2

2002-2006 EU (FP5-GROWTH)

MOBILE2020 More biking in small and medium sized towns of Central and Eastern Europe by 2020

https://goo.gl/U0dfuS

2011-2014 EU (IEE)

MOBILIS Mobility Initiatives for Local Integration and Sustainability

https://goo.gl/X7Glxc

2005-2009 EU (FP6-SUSTDEV)

Netz-E-2-R Integrated Electric 2-Wheeler Mobility in the Stuttgart Region

https://goo.gl/8NlqTL

2012-2014 Germany

PLATINA Platform for the Implementation of NAIADES

https://goo.gl/FlqHrf

2008-2012 EU (FP7-Transport)

PORTIS PORT-Cities: Integrating Sustainability

https://goo.gl/GbGpQn

2016-2020 EU (Horizon 2020)

PROMOTION Creating Liveable Neighbourhoods while Lowering Transport Energy Consumption

https://goo.gl/ZFwxah

2007-2010 EU (IEE)

PTP-Cycle Personalised Travel Planning for Cycling

https://goo.gl/rCuvmd

2013-2016 EU (IEE)

RENAISSANCE Testing Innovative Clean Urban Transport Strategies for Historic European Cities

https://goo.gl/UjCQP4

2008-2012 EU (FP7-Energy)

SEEMORE Sustainable and Energy Efficient Mobility Options in Tourist Regions in Europe

https://goo.gl/EFs3vJ

2012-2015 EU (IEE)

SmartMove Increasing peoples’ awareness and use of public transport through active mobility consultancy with focus on feeder systems

https://goo.gl/dJuoDa

2014-2016 EU (IEE)

SocialCar Open social transport network for urban approach to carpooling

https://goo.gl/aWF6ZT

2015-2018 EU (Horizon 2020)

STARS Sustainable Travel Recognition and Accreditation for Schools

https://goo.gl/7U1y4L

2013-2016 EU (IEE)

STARTER Sustainable Transport for Areas with Tourism through Energy Reduction

https://goo.gl/lAs5EA

2012-2015 EU (IEE)

SWITCH Encouraging a SWITCH from car-based to active mobility using personalised information and communication technology approaches

https://goo.gl/9bSKPt

2014-2016 EU (IEE)

TELLUS Transport & Environment Alliance for Urban Sustainability

https://goo.gl/Uny5gO

2002-2006 EU (FP5-GROWTH)

TRENDSETTER Setting Trends for a Sustainable Urban Mobility

https://goo.gl/cpO9Pa

2000-2005 EU (FP5-EESD)

TRENDY TRAVEL Emotions for sustainable transport

https://goo.gl/jUAZhC

2007-2010 EU (IEE)

VEU Transport and the Environment

https://goo.gl/6kx5pe

2014-2017 Germany

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4.3 Electromobility4.3.1 Introduction to the sub-theme

After the first attempts to bring battery EVs (BEVs) to consumer markets in the 1990s, the attention on non-fossil-fuel powered cars turned towards several forms of hydrogen powered propulsion systems in the early 2000s. This was because of the persisting range limitations and the high costs of BEVs. While Japanese car manufacturers built on the idea of combining smaller batteries with down-sized combustion engines in hybrid EVs, European car industries continued attempts to reduce emissions and fuel consumption by further improving traditional combustion engines. With ever stronger emission regulations, policy schemes banning exhaust emissions (such as the London Congestion Charge) and the stagnation in the development of hydrogen-based technologies, BEVs re-appeared in the late 2000s. Boosted by economic stimulus programmes targeted at bringing as many BEVs as possible onto the road in many European countries, BEVs have experienced a renaissance that continues today.

China is pushing the market by constantly expanding battery cell production capacity. This, mainly economic, decision may drive down battery costs in the near future to make BEVs competitive with fossil-fuel-based alternatives. European industries may have difficulties in competing on battery cell production, but local industries are still very competitive in other components of EVs, such as combining cells to make highly efficient battery packs and power electronics. Furthermore, hydrogen power, which constitutes a specific way of providing electric power in vehicles, has been researched and tested extensively due to its superiority for trucks, buses, trains and even aircraft.

In this sub-theme, 74 projects have been identified and reviewed. The majority of these projects were funded by European sources with the exception of 14 German and 2 French ones. The national projects were mainly classical test and demonstration activities arising from the economic stimulus programmes after the world economic and financial crises.

4.3.1.1 Overall direction of European-funded research

Research can be divided into a technical and an application-oriented stream. Technical studies are looking at battery cell and system performance, materials and production technologies. Application oriented research considers various aspects of electromobility, including the optimal location of charging stations, the performance of EVs and their integration in mobility systems. It also considers the public acceptance of EVs, including incentive schemes and policy measures to encourage a wider uptake. This is broadly the manner in which the research topics are structured below.

4.3.1.2 Overall direction of nationally funded projects

In addition to the test and demonstration activities referred to above, other nationally funded research has included the integration of electromobility into new and/or environmentally friendly mobility concepts such as company or car-sharing fleets and public transport.

4.3.2 Research activities

4.3.2.1 Battery research

With an increase in electric vehicle numbers, the question of their overall sustainability impact or life-cycle costs and their associated recyclability, especially of batteries, is raised. To address this topic, the SOMABAT (2011-2013) project focused on several aspects. To improve a battery’s recyclability, synthetic materials for anodes, cathodes and solid electrolytes have been developed. To use these materials in a lithium (Li) polymer battery, a newly constructed cell management unit (CMU) and a model of the battery cells’ behaviour is required. A sustainability assessment of the Li polymer battery has been carried out, covering its total life cycle from ‘cradle to grave’. The issue of recyclability has also been addressed by earlier projects (e.g. NECOBAUT (2012-2015)).

For an advanced battery technology to be developed, not only does the cell itself need to be improved, but particular attention also has to be paid to the battery management system (BMS). BMSs are responsible for monitoring and controlling activities, ensuring the safety of the battery, extending its lifetime and keeping it in the desired operating state. The aim of the SMART-LIC (2011-2014) project was to integrate a BMS into a single battery cell and develop an accurate state-of-health (SoH) indicator based on an integrated electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). Moreover, a significant decrease in the total costs of ownership was expected.

The two different cell types inside a battery, high-power (HP) and high-energy (HE) cells, are managed with a smart control system. This system contributes to improving the life, reliability and cost/performance ratio of the battery system. In the SUPERLIB (2011-2014) project, a control system was developed for an integrated battery with HP and HE cells. This included the development of temperature sensors, which are necessary for improved thermal management of the battery package. As a result, the range of usable charge states of the battery has been increased from 70 % to 90 % and, due to an improved BMS, the battery life has been extended by 30 %, reducing the total cost of ownership.

An improved Li-ion cell with 200Wh/kg energy density, maximum costs of EUR 150/kWh and enhanced safety is the goal of the EUROLIION (2011-2015) project. These criteria can be achieved by using silicon-based anodes (instead of carbon), iron and/or manganese/nickel-based cathodes, and newly designed cost-efficient electrolyte salts. Moreover, a safety assessment has been carried out and a full demonstration vehicle was developed.

Production costs of batteries and more environmentally friendly fabrication were addressed by the GREENLION (2011-2015) project. Innovative processes were developed using aqueous slurries for electrode manufacturing, thus reducing environmental pollution. New assembly procedures, including using laser cutting, high-temperature pre-treatment and non thermoplastic polymers can improve cost efficiency by 10 %. These measures enable the European industry to compete better with the battery production of Asian countries.

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The research effort on vehicle batteries continues as there are several projects taking place to further improve Li-ion batteries in terms of energy density, lifetime, recyclability and costs. Current approaches point towards an improved construction of battery components, such as in the eCAIMAN (2015-2018) project. Another direction is the development of new materials for anodes, cathodes and electrolytes, (e.g. the SPICY (2015-2018) project). Battery monitoring and its proactive management, as examined in the EVERLASTING (2016-2020) project, are still the focus of battery research.

4.3.2.2 Developing vehicle components

Besides batteries, the drivetrain, consisting of electric motor and transmission, forms a key part of electromobility. A new and compact powertrain design has been developed in the COSIVU (2012-2015) project. With weight reduction and more efficient powertrains, energy savings of 20 % can be realised. Using powertrain integrated sensors, a control and health-monitoring module helps to expand vehicle durability and reduces the cost of ownership for the end-user due to an improved maintenance forecast.

For enhanced efficiency, comfort and safety of EVs, other vehicle components need to be improved. The ID4EV (2010-2012) project focused on the optimisation of brake and chassis systems for the needs of fully EVs (FEV). After defining the needs of FEVs regarding system and safety requirements, an intelligent braking concept was developed. This concept is characterised by vehicle dynamics delivering superior comfort compared with conventional vehicles. Moreover, it coordinates the conventional braking via friction and the braking through electrical recuperation of energy in different situations (e.g. soft stop and emergency braking). As FEVs with in-wheel electric motors have higher unsprung masses, adaptive dampers improve vehicle comfort and behaviour. The intelligent chassis developed in this project was implemented into a demonstrator vehicle fitted with adaptive dampers, sensors and the necessary controllers.

In addition to developments in hardware components, data gathering and processing is also very important for the optimisation of energy use and vehicle safety of FEVs. Therefore, several projects such as EFUTURE (2010-2013), POLLUX (2010-2013) and ICOMPOSE (2013-2016) aimed to develop advanced software architecture tailored for electric mobility. This includes systems to control battery, powertrain, chassis, driver assistance systems and communication technologies.

Significant levels of energy are required to heat and cool vehicles, which is essential for passenger comfort. A 50 % reduction of the energy needed for climate control is targeted by the French ELEC-HP (2011-2014) project, in which an automotive heat pump has been developed. This consists of an energy efficient refrigerant and fully brazed aluminium heat exchangers. In addition, new strategies for defrosting and pre-conditioning the vehicle interior have been developed.

All of the points mentioned above are being developed further in ongoing projects, with an emphasis on energy efficient heating and cooling, and software architecture.

The JOSPEL (2015-2018) and OSEM-EV (2015-2018) projects focus on climate control in vehicles, while the EDAS (2013-2016) project is going to build an energy network within the FEV using innovative software and hardware solutions. Another software project is SAFEADAPT (2013-2016), which was aimed at novel electric/electronic architecture concepts for safety-related vehicle functions.

For the assessment of the sustainability of electric cars against that of conventional cars, the eLCAr (2012-2013) project developed guidelines for the life-cycle assessment of EVs. Inspired by the Joint Research Centre’s Institute for Energy and Transport’s Well-to-Wheel report (European Commission, 2011b) and other studies, the Electromobility Concepts (2010-2012) study for the German Parliament found that the environmental footprint of EVs is high due to raw material extraction and cell production, and that they can only compete with efficient internal combustion-engined cars when operated close to the limits of their driving range.

Through e-bikes and pedelecs, electromobility will motorise formerly non-motorised forms of travel and so provide mobility to all or car-free mobility to various groups. Research on e-bikes and pedelecs concentrates less on technology and more on infrastructure, mobility integration and behavioural change. Examples are the projects GO PEDELEC! (2009-2012) under the CIVITAS programme, PRO-E-BIKE (2013-2016) under IEE and LockAndCharge (2016) under Horizon 2020.

In aviation, the electrification of aircraft propulsion may progress via fuel cell and hybrid technologies. The main objective of the ENFICA-FC (2006-2010) project was to develop and validate the use of a fuel cell-based power system for propulsion of more-electric or all-electric aircraft for noise reduction during take-off and landing. Building on these developments, showcases of fully hybrid electric powertrains in small aircraft are planned in the MAHEPA (2017-2021) project. More radical aircraft designs are also being proposed by the HASTECTS (2017-2021) project.

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4.3.2.3 Demonstration of vehicle technologies

Implementation of newly developed technologies in demonstration vehicles is the first step towards market readiness. These demonstration programmes can provide valuable data for a future introduction into the mass market. Most implementation projects include some form of social acceptance and behavioural studies, providing direction to policy making and technology design. About half of the projects assessed under this topic are national projects funded by German authorities. Thermoplastic solutions for battery racks, instead of the present metal-based technology, and their implementation into two demonstration vehicles has been realised by the OPERA4FEV (2011-2015) project. This includes industrial manufacturing and assembly of the battery racks. A rack prototype has been assessed through crash simulation and vehicle testing.

Testing buses and delivery vehicles with hybrid drives under real-life conditions in different European cities has been done in the HCV (2010-2013) project. With the HyLine-S (2013-2016) and E-BUS Berlin (2013-2016) projects, similar German projects have been carried out using plug-in diesel hybrid buses in the Stuttgart region and fully electric buses in Berlin.

An electric commercial vehicle under field conditions, which means real logistical concepts and within a regional cluster, has been tested in the German NaNu! (2013-2015) study. Besides the effectiveness and practicability of deliveries by electric trucks in multishifts, additional questions to be answered were the economic benefit for fleet operators and energy suppliers, and the acceptance of night-time deliveries with electric trucks.

Two ongoing projects, RESOLVE (2015-2018) and EU-LIVE (2015-2018), are aimed at advanced electric L-category vehicles (ELVs) in urban areas and are going to provide real and virtual full-vehicle demonstrators.

4.3.2.4 Charging infrastructure for electromobility

The charging infrastructure for EVs includes charging stations and the information network for intelligent grids. National funding for a multitude of investment programmes has allowed public charging stations to be rolled out in recent years. As the primary research component of these programmes is often limited to user acceptance, the respective programmes and projects are not listed here. However, there are a number of international research activities on smart grids. A core topic is rapid charging, inductive charging, smart and safe power management, and debit systems. In this respect, the FASTINCHARGE (2012-2015) project has developed a fast inductive charging technology for en-route charging (installed at a crossroad) and for a stationary charging station to increase driving range with no charging time.

Integrating EVs into the grid is the research subject of several projects. The E-DASH (2011-2014) project is an approach to integrate EVs into smart grids in a sustainable way. A key aspect is a real-time data exchange between the vehicle and the power grid through an intelligent charging system. This enables a large number of FEVs to be charged at the same time at high currents with a near real-time balancing of the grid. Furthermore, sophisticated charge controls can prevent battery damage and manage the charging process in the most cost-efficient way for the end user. The German SGI (2013-2015) project pursued a similar aim as it tried to optimise charging operations, grid condition and user needs. Further research on the relationship between EVs and the power grid is being performed by the ELECTRIFIC (2016-2019) project, which is aimed at novel coordination techniques and ICT tools.

The integration of electromobility into current mobility and transportation systems is the topic of the ongoing projects ZeEUS (2013-2017) and FABRIC (2014-2017), whereas a pan-European ICT network for electromobility services is going to be created in the NeMo (2016-2019) project. Alternative ways of connecting cars to charging stations by mobile charging stations were looked at in the project Mobi (2016).

4.3.2.5 Policy measures and business cases

As electric cars still cannot compete with combustion engine vehicles in terms of price, driving range and refuelling time, supporting policy measures are needed to create markets for BEVs. To do so, the European eBRIDGE (2013-2016) project aimed to provide a toolbox for urban planners to support the use of EVs. This included methods for awareness raising among various stakeholders and for knowledge transfer. Target groups were fleet operators, car users, and national and regional authorities. Pilot applications in seven countries or cities showed that providing experience with e-cars substantially lowers concerns against the technology among all stakeholders. Similar goals are pursued by the ongoing I-CVUE (2014-2017) project. This is aimed at boosting the use of EVs by supporting local authorities and operators with region-specific analyses and decision support tools. The EMOBILITY WORKS (2014-2016) project encouraged municipalities to create new partnerships with the private sector, such as energy companies and vehicle manufacturers.

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To make electromobility interoperable, the large, integrated GREEN EMOTION (2011-2015) project under the EU’s Green Vehicle Initiative was aimed at defining Europe-wide standards for smart grid developments, innovative ICT solutions, different types of EVs and urban mobility concepts. To this end, practical research was conducted in different demonstration regions all over Europe with respect to the implementation of these proposed standards. The project connected the diverse national electromobility initiatives into a single European platform with 12 demonstration regions. Of specific concern are the business cases for public charging stations, user acceptance and the use of electric cars in car-sharing and company fleets. More specifically, the ELVIRE (2010-2013) project looked at an effective communication and service platform to reduce range anxiety for drivers who are concerned about running out of battery power.

Urban freight is considered a key market for expanding the use of EVs due to fewer concerns regarding space and weight with the vehicles. The ENCLOSE (2012-2015) project looked at the conditions under which low-emission vehicles (including those using biogas) can be used successfully in an urban logistics context. Besides going deep into the needs and requirements of specific stakeholders, and the potential of urban logistics hubs, the project analysed the operating patterns of electric and other types of low-emission freight vehicles. The results showed that successful policy measures heavily depend on the local context. The komDRIVE (2013-2017) project addresses freight transport by looking at improved ways for energy storage for the sector. Considering all options for electrifying goods transport, the DisLog (2013-2016) project looked at the potential impact on freight efficiency.

Besides getting cars on the roads, research activities also look at the conditions for restoring the know-how for the industrial production of battery cells in Europe. The ELIBAMA (2011-2014) project looked at options to establish production facilities for lithium-ion batteries for automotive applications near large original equipment manufacturer (OEM) locations. Advanced ecodesign methods along the entire value chain of battery production, and recycling and refurbishing processes will improve manufacturing costs, safety and sustainability substantially. Operational profiles, smart grid solutions and ancillary power grid services are among the research subjects of the project. Ongoing research under the ELIPTIC (2015-2018) project is looking at innovative case studies and business models for a future EV infrastructure.

4.3.3 Research outcomes

4.3.3.1 Achievements of the research under this sub-theme

BMSs are essential for the future success of electromobility. An actively managed battery has the advantage of keeping the battery in a beneficial operational status, thereby improving safety and lifetime, which leads to lower costs.

In terms of the battery cell itself, advances have been made in materials for anodes, cathodes and electrolytes. These contribute to better recyclability, longer lifetimes and improved performance.

Battery technology is not the only factor affecting energy efficiency and safety of EVs. A vehicle’s climate control, braking system and, increasingly, the collection and processing of data with suitable software should also be considered.

The implementation of electromobility into the power grid is another major issue. Coordinating charging processes of EVs can lead to improvements in terms of a balanced grid and to cost reduction for the end user.

4.3.3.2 Transferability from research to practical use

All the projects described above were carried out with the clear goal of a practical use in EVs. The project partners involved consist not only of research institutions, but also include industry partners. First approaches in practical use have been carried out as described in section 4.3.2.3. Moreover, in most projects, the benefit for the end user is being addressed as one of the objectives, pointing explicitly towards a mass market introduction of the technologies.

4.3.3.3 Indications for future research

As indicated by ongoing projects, software development is a key issue for EVs. As battery development is primarily taking place in Asia, advanced vehicle software can provide a competitive advantage for European industry. This includes BMSs and the embedded systems in other vehicle components. The monitoring and coordinating of the systems on-board vehicles, and their communication with related road or energy infrastructure can be seen as promising areas for future research due to their potential to save energy, improve safety and reduce costs.

4.3.3.4 Implications for future policy development

Projects looked at in the field of policy design, regulations and incentives are targeted at various parts of the transport market. The projects focused mainly on urban areas. This is where EVs, with their specific driving characteristics and range limitations, operate best and opportunities can be found to create acceptance for electric passenger cars, delivery vehicles and infrastructure. Two core messages that can be identified from the studies are:

• campaigns and opportunities for testing EVs are needed to create acceptance - addressing local conditions seems to be of utmost importance here;

• viable business models for vehicles and, in particular, for infrastructures are still problematic. Here, innovative solutions are needed (e.g. combining different sectors and applications).

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4.3.4 List of projects

Table 4-4 lists the projects that were reviewed during the assessment of this sub-theme.

Table 4-4 Projects reviewed in the electromobility sub-theme

Project acronym Project name Project duration Source of funding

COSIVU Compact, Smart and Reliable Drive Unit for Fully Electric Vehicles

https://goo.gl/id4drC

2012-2015 EU (FP7-ICT)

DisLog Electric vehicles for efficient urban distribution logistics

https://goo.gl/hPjxuq

2013-2016 Germany

eBRIDGE Empowering E-Fleets for Business and Private Purposes in Cities

https://goo.gl/Z4gkzH

2013-2016 EU (IEE)

E-BUS Berlin Fully electric bus operations including recharging infrastructure

https://goo.gl/ZQovvv

2013-2016 Germany

eCAIMAN Electrolyte, Cathode and Anode Improvements for Market-near Next-generation Lithium Ion Batteries

https://goo.gl/mgpq0z

2015-2018 EU (Horizon 2020)

EDAS Holistic Energy Management for third and fourth generation of EVs

https://goo.gl/Zo73xT

2013-2016 EU (FP7-ICT)

E-DASH Electricity Demand and Supply Harmonizing for EVs.

https://goo.gl/C4RBtw

2011-2014 EU (FP7-ICT)

EFUTURE Safe and Efficient Electrical Vehicle

https://goo.gl/skA73y

2010-2013 EU (FP7-ICT)

eLCAr E-Mobility Life Cycle Assessment Recommendations

https://goo.gl/Am7BUj

2012-2013 EU (FP7-ENV)

ELEC-HP High energy efficiency heat pumps for electrified vehicles and trains

https://goo.gl/jNTVbe

2011-2014 France

ELECTRIFIC Enabling seamless electromobility through smart vehicle-grid integration

https://goo.gl/ZHsFtb

2016-2019 EU (Horizon 2020)

Electromobility Concept Study

Electric mobility concepts and their significance for the economy, society and the environment.

https://goo.gl/0FAfdM

2010-2012 Germany

ELIBAMA European Li-Ion Battery Advanced Manufacturing for Electric Vehicles

https://goo.gl/a7ZyBY

2011-2014 EU (FP7-Transport)

ELIPTIC Electrification of Public Transport in Cities

https://goo.gl/TzReoV

2015-2018 EU (Horizon 2020)

ELVIRE ELectric Vehicle communication to Infrastructure, Road services and Electricity supply

https://goo.gl/z0j1bt

2010-2013 EU (FP7-ICT)

E-MOBILITY WORKS Integration of e-mobility in European municipalities and businesses

https://goo.gl/KEjm3H

2014-2016 EU (IEE)

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Table 4-4 (continued) Projects reviewed in the electromobility sub-theme

Project acronym Project name Project duration Source of funding

ENCLOSE ENergy efficiency in City LOgistics Services for small and mid-sized European Historic Towns

https://goo.gl/Nt02me

2012-2015 EU (IEE)

ENFICA-FC Environmentally Friendly, Inter City Aircraft Powered by Fuel Cells

https://goo.gl/LVUyUF

2006-2010 EU (FP6)

EU-LIVE Efficient Urban LIght Vehicles

https://goo.gl/zAON4s

2015-2018 EU (Horizon 2020)

EUROLIION High energy density Li-ion cells for traction

https://goo.gl/Rgm12v

2011-2015 EU (FP7-Transport)

EVERLASTING Electric Vehicle Enhanced Range, Lifetime And Safety Through INGenious battery management

https://goo.gl/XFjbq1

2016-2020 EU (Horizon 2020)

FABRIC FeAsiBility analysis and development of on-Road chargIng solutions for future electric vehiCles

https://goo.gl/gXd1B2

2014-2017 EU (FP7-SST)

FASTINCHARGE innovative FAST INductive CHARGing solution for Electric vehicles

https://goo.gl/lhLNlb

2012-2015 EU (FP7-SST)

GO PEDELEC! Go Pedelec!

https://goo.gl/TU7kRh

2009-2012 EU (FP7-IEE)

GREEN-EMOTION Green eMotion

https://goo.gl/n7uxFU

2011-2015 EU (FP7-Transport)

GREENLION Advanced manufacturing processes for Low Cost Greener Li-Ion batteries

https://goo.gl/QC6Hrv

2011-2015 EU (FP7-NMP)

HASTECS Hybrid Aircraft; academic reSearch on Thermal and Electrical Components and Systems

https://goo.gl/x1ug30

2017-2021 EU (Horizon 2020)

HCV Hybrid Commercial Vehicle

https://goo.gl/Iuogec

2010-2013 EU (FP7-Transport)

HyLine-S Operation of a Hybrid Bus Route in Stuttgart

https://goo.gl/EXtJSK

2013-2015 Germany

ICOMPOSE Integrated Control of Multiple-Motor and Multiple-Storage Fully Electric Vehicles

https://goo.gl/dz2ukG

2013-2016 EU (FP7-ICT)

I-CVUE Incentives for cleaner vehicles in urban Europe

https://goo.gl/tCDAqQ

2014-2017 EU (European Investment Fund)

ID4EV Intelligent Dynamics for fully electric vehicles

https://goo.gl/GWX1wP

2010-2012 EU (FP7-ICT)

JOSPEL Low energy passenger comfort systems based on the joule and peltier effects.

https://goo.gl/xzgDSF

2015-2018 EU (Horizon 2020)

komDRIVE Electric potential of commercial vehicle fleets as decentralised energy source for urban distribution grids

https://goo.gl/0tsei3

2013-2016 Germany

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Table 4-4 (continued) Projects reviewed in the electromobility sub-theme

Project acronym Project name Project duration Source of funding

LIFE97 ENV/E/000247 Development of the production process of five ZEUS electrical vehicles and the testing of their behaviour in their real environment.

https://goo.gl/u7WZVD

1997-1998 EU (LIFE)

LockAndCharge Ground-breaking and convenient electronic bicycle fleet management system available for the mass adoption.

https://goo.gl/2wOIyk

2016 EU (Horizon 2020)

MAHEPA Modular Approach to Hybrid Electric Propulsion Architecture

https://goo.gl/zQJbuA

2017-2021 EU (Horizon 2020)

Mobi The Mobi Charger, a novel mobile Electric Vehicle charging station that requires no installation costs, offers easy scalability and utility bill savings for users.

https://goo.gl/ok03Qz

2016 EU (Horizon 2020)

NaNu! Multiple Shift Operation and Night Delivery with Electric Commercial Vehicles

https://goo.gl/KcAYTF

2013-2015 Germany

NECOBAUT New Concept of Metal-Air Battery for Automotive Application based on Advanced Nanomaterials.

https://goo.gl/N6ecqi

2012-2015 EU (FP7-NMP)

NeMo NeMo : Hyper-Network for electroMobility

https://goo.gl/gzIO9Q

2016-2019 EU (Horizon 2020)

OPERA4FEV OPerating Energy RAck for Full Electric Vehicle

https://goo.gl/dXBTSg

2011-2015 EU (FP7-Transport)

OSEM-EV Optimised and Systematic Energy Management in Electric Vehicles

https://goo.gl/XqcAXP

2015-2018 EU (Horizon 2020)

POLLUX Process Oriented Electrical Control Units for Electrical Vehicles Developed on a Multi-system Real-time Embedded Platform

https://goo.gl/IwcGOP

2010-2013 EU (FP7-JTI)

PRO-E-BIKE Promoting Electric Bike Delivery

https://goo.gl/3fne2o

2013-2016 EU (FP7, IEE)

RESOLVE Range of Electric SOlutions for L-category Vehicles

https://goo.gl/BEhsMC

2015-2018 EU (Horizon 2020)

SAFEADAPT Safe Adaptive Software for Fully Electric Vehicles

https://goo.gl/i8RHNx

2013-2016 EU (FP7-ICT)

SGI Smart Grid Integration

https://goo.gl/naXlFV

2013-2015 Germany

SMART-LIC Smart and Compact Battery Management System Module for Integration into Lithium-Ion Cell for Fully Electric Vehicles

https://goo.gl/Jff1Bv

2011-2014 EU (FP7-ICT)

SOMABAT Development of novel SOlid MAterials for high power Li polymer BATteries (SOMABAT). Recyclability of components.

https://goo.gl/U9cKzq

2011-2013 EU (FP7-NMP)

SPICY Silicon and polyanionic chemistries and architectures of Li-ion cell for high energy battery

https://goo.gl/zIQmH9

2015-2018 EU (Horizon 2020)

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4.4 Low-emissions logistics4.4.1 Introduction to the sub-theme

Based on 2008 estimates and the ongoing recovery of demand for passenger and goods transport since the economic crisis, it is possible to estimate that freight transport and logistics accounted for between 16 % and 18 % of road vehicle kilometres in the EU, Switzerland and Norway in 2014. At the same time, they were responsible for between 26 % and 28 % of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and for 37 % of air pollutants. Across Europe, road transport generated 75 % of tonne-kilometres (excluding pipelines).

Methods of reducing the environmental impact of goods transport include using more fuel-efficient and less polluting vehicles; utilising vehicles more efficiently; shifting demand to cleaner modes; and the overall avoidance or shortening of trips by improved planning of production, supply, warehousing and distribution activities. Therefore, transport activities performed by light and heavy duty vehicles deserve specific attention when considering cleaner transport. Some environmental issues of freight transport and logistics are addressed by European and national legislation, policies and research activities. These include:

• the allowance for a differentiation of charging systems on the Trans-European Transport Networks (TEN-T) based on vehicle emissions, through the EU’s Eurovignette Directive (DIR 2011/76/EC and previous versions), providing the ground for similar national rules;

• the emission-differentiated large goods vehicle toll systems in Germany and Austria following the rules of the Eurovignette-Directive;

• the installation of environmental zones and envisaged complete bans of high emission combustion vehicles in many European cities;

• national logistics master plans and agendas;

• investment programmes for clean and alternative-fuel vehicles.

However, there are a number of issues not yet addressed properly by transport policy. These include effective and user-friendly systems for modal shift and bundling of transport flows, highly efficient and low-emissions urban goods distribution systems, and a mandatory fuel and CO2 emission standard for goods vehicles.

In this sub-theme, 20 projects, mostly European-funded research projects, with the main focus on cleaner logistics were identified. Logistics also often appears as a specific case

in broader studies. Therefore, the true volume of evidence on options, drivers and barriers of cleaner freight transport and logistics is much larger.

4.4.1.1 Overall direction of European-funded research

The research activities identified under this sub-theme have been divided into three main streams: planning, management and vehicles. In general terms, it can be seen that research progressed from more technology-centred optimisation solutions for single vehicles, companies or corridors towards larger contexts. For the three main topic areas within the sub-theme, the key research directions have been:

• SULPs. Up to the mid-2000s projects on clean logistics concentrated on specific branches and market segments. The load and capacity trading platforms developed in these projects are now considered to be an integral part of urban sustainability and mobility planning. By considering logistics as an integral part of urban development, the citizens and final customers are now more the focus of research, rather than the shipping and supply industries.

• Cooperation and supply chain management. In a similar manner to the planning aspects, supply chain management systems based on pure technical trading platforms have evolved into ones based on cooperation platforms and networks. There is an increasing focus on the benefits and risks of data mining and data sharing issues across companies, modes, economic sectors and institutional levels. Safety and business issues have been recognised as being more limiting to overall efficiency gains in goods transport and logistics than the technical issues.

• Electromobility, fuels and powertrains. Attention has turned from biofuels to electric propulsion and various types of hybridisation of commercial vehicles. A better understanding of driving patterns, improved battery capacity and increasing problems with low carbon biofuels have led to a strong growth of field test projects with electric or hybrid vehicles. Latest developments in the field include hybrid overhead-wire trucks, which may significantly reduce the environmental impact of freight transport.

Most of the research projects concentrate on the urban area, where freight causes the most profound impact in terms of air pollution, noise, safety and the availability of space. The attention on intermodal solutions for long-distance goods transport has reduced, but may be re-animated by the EU’s Shift2Rail Joint Undertaking.

Table 4-4 (continued) Projects reviewed in the electromobility sub-theme

Project acronym Project name Project duration Source of funding

SUPERLIB Smart Battery Control System based on a Charge-equalization Circuit for an advanced Dual-Cell Battery for Electric Vehicles

https://goo.gl/9T7Ei4

2011-2014 EU (FP7-ICT)

ZeEUS Zero Emission Urban Bus Systems

https://goo.gl/0bflZI

2013-2017 EU (FP7-Transport)

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4.4.1.2 Overall direction of nationally funded projects

The five national projects on cleaner freight transport identified for this review are all from Germany. The investment and research programme ‘Show Windows Electromobility’5 has brought a number of test and demonstration cases for clean vehicle and delivery concepts to fruition. In that context, the issue of low-noise and low-emissions night-time goods distribution in urban areas seems to be of particular interest. The low number of national projects identified does not allow conclusions to be drawn on the overall direction of national research in Europe.

4.4.2 Research activities

A look across the projects on sustainable logistics contained in the TRIP database suggests three focus areas of research:

• sustainable urban mobility and logistics plans;

• supply chain management;

• alternative propulsion and vehicle concepts.

These broad topic areas contain various types of project with differing goals. In the following, the research highlights identified are presented.

4.4.2.1 Sustainable urban mobility and logistics plans

Inspired by the concept of SUMPs, SULPs aim to establish strategies for communities to make urban freight and delivery services cleaner and smarter without compromising on their efficiency. The ENCLOSE (2012-2015) project considered a broad suite of measures, including urban consolidation centres, optimised urban freight transport and delivery plans, clean vehicles and low-emissions technologies, restrictions and public incentive policies, last mile and value added services, and the integration of city logistics processes within the overall management of urban mobility. Guidelines were drafted for SULPs, specifically for small and medium-sized historic towns in Europe. Demand analysis for the target cities, knowledge distribution, the integration of SULPs into SUMPs, and the assessment of green vehicles and logistics schemes formed the core pillars of the ENCLOSE research. The project found that making comparisons between different towns is difficult due to individual settings and backgrounds. Therefore, strategies need to be individualised case by case.

Having similar objectives to SULPs, the TRAILBLAZER (2010-2013) project promoted the concept of Delivery and Servicing Plans (DSPs) with four pioneer cities in Sweden, Italy and Croatia. The DSPs have a common aim – to increase the efficiency of the urban goods delivery system – but their performance indicators and the actions to be implemented were specific to each municipality. The changes in fuel consumption were evaluated against baseline scenarios and were benchmarked against a 10 % efficiency target. Large fuel savings through goods consolidation centres were contrasted by moderate savings through policy interventions alone.

The focus of the ECOSTARS (2011-2014) project was on the energy efficiency and sustainability of vehicle procurement, fleet management and driving styles in urban road goods transport. The study built on the ‘ECO Stars: Fleet Recognition Scheme’ implemented by several UK cities since 2009 and extended the concept to other European cities. Besides gaining higher media coverage, and a deeper understanding of fuel and CO

2 efficiency, and fleet standards, ECOSTARS participants reported fuel efficiency gains of 1-5 % through driver training, 0.2-10 % from navigation aids, 3.5 % from low-resistance tyres, more than 8 % from on-board telematics advices and additional savings from reducing vehicle speed limits from 85 km/hour to 83 km/hour.

Further activities in the field of clean urban freight transport strategies have long been addressed by European research, for example through the CIVITAS programme (on projects such as TELLUS (2002-2006) and MIRACLES (2002-2006)). Research on integrated urban solutions for freight (and passenger) services has continued under Horizon 2020. The PORTIS (2015-2018) project is looking at solutions particularly for port cities, while 2MOVE2 explores the integration of freight and e-delivery into SUMPs and urban development plans.

4.4.2.2 Supply chain management

The EURIDICE (2008-2011) project was established to create the necessary concepts, technological solutions and business models to establish an information services platform centred on the context of individual cargo items, and their interaction with the surrounding environment and the type of user. The basic idea of the project was to develop the Intelligent Cargo concept in which elements of cargo delivery services are combined according to the actual context. Business processes, public policy aspects, energy efficiency, safety, threat detection and other features of urban logistics systems were addressed simultaneously by the EURIDICE platform. Industrial demonstrators proved the capabilities of the system.

In an international comparison of energy reduction measures, the INTERACTION (2006-2008) project applied a standardised sector-assessment approach to explore options for cost efficiency, and fuel and CO2 reductions in supply chains with a focus on shippers. Actions investigated included reducing delivery frequency, adjusting loading units, adjusting vehicle technology, optimising planning systems and introducing clean vehicles. A CO2 reduction potential of 6-13 % was identified per company. The project anchored the results with industry and implemented them into policy agendas of participating countries.

EU-funded research in integrated freight optimisation platforms can be found from the early 2000s onwards (e.g. the GIFTS (2002-2005) project). Current research within the Horizon 2020 programme translates insights from road-based logistics to other modes such as shipping in the SYNCHRO-NET (2015-2015) project. The step from the more technology-oriented platform concept to collaborative networks of actors along the freight supply chain is being investigated by the NEXTRUST (2015-2018) project.

5 http://www.transport-research.info/programme/show-windows-elektromobility

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4.4.2.3 Propulsion concepts and driver assistance

The most direct way of curbing the environmental burden from freight transport is the technical improvement of vehicles, powertrains, fuels and driving styles – or not to use motorised options at all. The latter idea is taken up by the connected projects CYCLELOGISTICS (2011-2014) and Cyclelogistics Ahead (2014-2015). Starting from the premise that light goods in cities are often transported over very short distances by heavy vehicles, a shift of 25 % of goods movements from road to cycling-related solutions may be feasible. To address this potential shift, several instruments were tested and assessed by the projects including campaigning and promotion to industries and individuals, motivating municipalities to adopt regulations where necessary and testing cargo bike products. The projects also resulted in the foundation of the European CycleLogistics Federation; training workshops; the support of 110 start-up companies and 35 local cooperation initiatives; and the setting up of consolidation centres and low emission zones by municipalities.

With a focus on the operational efficiency of urban logistics, the CITYLOG (2010-2012) project investigated the potential of telematics services, vehicle technologies for load unit handling and innovative load units. The project followed the hypothesis that more efficient and flexible services reduce the number of vehicle kilometres. Test laboratory solutions were discussed with stakeholders in three European cities. Major findings of the project included:

• the policy relevance of allocating road capacity between passenger, freight and non-transport users;

• the superiority of clean and silent vehicles;

• the benefits of information technology (IT) based city logistics solutions for road pricing.

Flexible vehicle concepts without any specific infrastructure requirements are considered key to sustainable and efficient logistics. This topic is addressed by the CITY MOVE (2010-2012) project. Using the latest state-of-the-art technologies, the project aimed at developing a breakthrough in the design of standard vehicle platforms to create a new and flexible concept for urban delivery vehicles. With the participation of leading freight vehicle manufacturers in Europe and other key stakeholders, the project created a vehicle concept with a hybrid powertrain, flexible payload configurations and active collision avoidance systems. In doing so, the project translated concepts (such as multimodality, and park and ride) from passenger to goods transport.

Alternative vehicles with electric and hybrid propulsion for postal services have been tested and assessed in four European countries by the GREEN POST (2007-2010) project. Promotion of best practice, information exchange, economic assessments, management training and public awareness raising through information campaigns formed the core objectives of the study.

Drivers and their driving behaviour was the focus of the ECOMOVE (2010-2013) project. It identified that fuel economy could be improved by 20 % through optimising routes, driver

behaviour and network management. For these tasks, the project developed and evaluated technical solutions and assistance systems. Cooperative information exchange played a major role in this endeavour.

Electromobility and other forms of alternatively fuelled vehicles in urban freight distribution are researched by many national and local programmes around Europe. For Germany, the key projects have been KV-E-Chain (2013-2016) on the use of EVs in combined transport chains, DisLog (2013-2016) on urban distribution, NaNu! (2013-2015) on urban night time delivery and HCV (2010-2013) on equipping buses and trucks with advanced second-generation hybrid powertrains. The specific section on electromobility elsewhere in this report describes further research activities in broader detail.

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4.4.3 Research outcomes

4.4.3.1 Achievements of the research under this sub-theme

An increasing number of cities are establishing some form of sustainability plan, either in the form of full-scale SUMPs and SULPs or in more sectoral DSPs. The concepts and policy strategies proposed by earlier research activities are now being realised through these actions.

It can also be identified that cooperative capacity and freight platforms, thanks to new mobile communication technologies, are operational and may lead to an enormous boost in freight transport efficiency. However, these platforms need to carefully respect the reluctance of shippers and their customers to share sensitive data with their competitors.

Research and demonstration projects indicate that clean vehicle technologies can be implemented quicker in freight transport than in passenger transport due to the shorter life cycles of vehicles and, in many cases, more regular driving cycles. However, economic viability must also be guaranteed.

4.4.3.2 Transferability from research to practical use

Virtually all of the projects that were reviewed involved extensive stakeholder communications. Therefore, the results should be relevant for practical application. However, there is generally limited information on whether good ideas and sustainable solutions are maintained after project funding has terminated. Specific activities to prolong project impacts beyond the funding periods have been reported by the INTERACTION project only.

In particular, in the urban context, projects have stressed the point that each city is unique in its structure, culture, mentality and economic situation. Therefore, solutions cannot be easily transferred and their impact cannot be easily predicted with a simple instrument. So, the design and assessment of actions to promote clean logistics in cities should be tailored for each municipality.

4.4.3.3 Indications for future research

The TRAILBLAZER project lists a number of issues for future research directions in the field of clean freight transport:

• continue to promote the use of DSPs and servicing plans to secure ongoing savings in fuel used in freight, delivery and servicing activities with the specific goal of reducing GHG emissions and primary energy consumption;

• give consideration to future projects that investigate the wider savings that can be achieved through the use of goods consolidation centres (i.e. those made by suppliers);

• give consideration to future projects that investigate the wider savings that can be achieved through the implementation of area-wide DSPs and their transferability across the EU;

• give consideration to in-depth longitudinal studies of the Swedish municipality consolidation experience to understand the wider effects of the increasing take-up of the concept and its transferability across the EU.

Given the large contribution of long-distance road transport to GHG and air pollutant emissions, and against a background of massive financial and acceptability problems of rail freight services, future research should return to inter-urban logistics. Research on institutional aspects for more efficient and cooperative solutions and for increasing innovation in the sector appears to be of greatest importance for curbing environmental and climate loads of freight transport while maintaining its economic competitiveness.

4.4.3.4 Implications for future policy development

From the research priorities formulated above, the following policy recommendations have been derived:

• EU and national bodies should continue to encourage all types of cities to establish SUMPs with special consideration given to logistics aspects. The types of incentive that work best for this purpose and how the (extended) SUMPs may look like will vary from region to region.

• The cooperation of companies and institutions for more efficient freight delivery requires more than just providing good platforms and encouragement. Establishing urban goods consolidation centres needs investment money, respective priorities on local land-use planning, access regulations, financial incentives for cooperation and other tools. To prolong their operation beyond the initial funding horizon requires concepts of the additional value generated for the city. The mix of tools is subject to the local context.

• All available means of enforcement and incentives should be used to transform clean modes of transport, particularly railways, into vital market players. This also implies a strategic assignment of investment and maintenance funds for transport infrastructures. Agreed European and national strategies would help in that respect.

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4.4.4 List of projects

Table 4-5 lists the projects that were reviewed during the assessment of this sub-theme.

Table 4-5 Projects reviewed in the low-emissions logistics sub-theme

Project acronym Project name Project duration Source of funding

2MOVE2 New forms of sustainable urban transport and mobility

https://goo.gl/NvTsCJ

2012-2016 EU (FP7-Transport)

CITY MOVE City multi-Role Optimised Vehicle

https://goo.gl/a7PdSI

2010-2012 EU (FP7-Transport)

CITYLOG Sustainability and Efficiency of City Logistics

https://goo.gl/VqRBdw

2010-2012 EU (FP7-Transport)

CYCLELOGISTICS CYCLELOGISTICS Move goods by cycle

https://goo.gl/5wnFkW

2011-2014 EU (IEE)

Cyclelogistics Ahead Cyclelogistics ahead - A key step towards zero emission logistics in cities

https://goo.gl/6SNEVm

2014-2015 EU (IEE)

DisLog Electric vehicles for efficient urban distribution logistics

https://goo.gl/hPjxuq

2013-2016 Germany

ECOMOVE Cooperative Mobility Systems and Services for Energy Efficiency

https://goo.gl/WhGH69

2010-2013 EU (FP7-ICT)

ECOSTARS ECO Stars Europe

https://goo.gl/fqX2P0

2011-2014 EU (IEE)

ENCLOSE ENergy efficiency in City LOgistics Services for small and mid-sized European Historic Towns

https://goo.gl/Nt02me

2012-2015 EU (IEE)

EURIDICE European Inter-disciplinary Research on Intelligent Cargo for Efficient, Safe and Environment-friendly Logistics

https://goo.gl/ZDRuOn

2008-2011 EU (FP7-ICT)

GIFTS Global Intermodal Freight Transport System

https://goo.gl/Jf9VwR

2002-2005 EU (FP5-IST)

GREEN POST Green alternative postal vehicle project

https://goo.gl/khgW1c

2007-2010 EU (IEE)

HCV Hybrid Commercial Vehicle

https://goo.gl/Iuogec

2010-2013 EU (FP7-Transport)

INTERACTION INternational Transport and Energy Reduction ACTION - Energy efficiency equals cost efficiency: engaging sectoral organisations as champions and messengers to reduce energy use in freight transport

https://goo.gl/FqCZKW

2006-2008 EU (IEE)

KV-E-CHAIN Comprehensive electric transportation chain for combined transit

https://goo.gl/ZEeJsp

2013-2016 Germany

MIRACLES Multi Initiatives for Rationalised Accessibility and Clean, Liveable Environments

https://goo.gl/A7l7m2

2002-2006 EU (FP5-GROWTH)

NaNu! Multiple Shift Operation and Night Delivery with Electric Commercial Vehicles

https://goo.gl/KcAYTF

2013-2015 Germany

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Table 4-5 (continued) Projects reviewed in the low-emissions logistics sub-theme

Project acronym Project name Project duration Source of funding

NEXTRUST Building sustainable logistics through trusted collaborative networks across the entire supply chain

https://goo.gl/ElRZE9

2015-2018 EU (Horizon 2020)

PORTIS PORT-Cities: Integrating Sustainability

https://goo.gl/GbGpQn

2016-2020 EU (Horizon 2020)

SYNCHRO-NET Synchro-modal Supply Chain Eco-Net

https://goo.gl/I1a2dM

2015-2018 EU (Horizon 2020)

TELLUS Transport & Environment Alliance for Urban Sustainability

https://goo.gl/Uny5gO

2002-2006 EU (FP5-GROWTH)

TRAILBLAZER Transport and Innovation Logistics by Local Authorities with a Zest for Efficiency and Realization

https://goo.gl/zT0NwB

2010-2013 EU (IEE)

4.5 Vehicle design and manufacture – aviation and maritime

4.5.1 Introduction to the sub-theme

This sub-theme addresses technology developments for the reduction of harmful emissions from aircraft and ships.

Globally, commercial aviation contributes 2-2.5 % of manmade CO2 emissions. However, demand from air travel is increasing at a high rate and this is expected to lead to more than 100 % growth in demand (as measured by revenue tonne-kilometres (RTK)) by 2050. Air travel also contributes to emissions of NOx, both around airports and through the rest of the flight. The emissions close to airports occur at low altitude and lead to air quality problems in the vicinity, while the emissions during cruise occur at higher altitudes and contribute to climate change. Other emissions produced by aircraft engines include PM, carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrocarbons (HC). The latter two are only produced in very small quantities.

Another key impact of aircraft arises from the noise that they produce, which can have significant health effects on the populations living and working close to airports.

International shipping contributes about 2.7 % of global CO2 emissions, with domestic shipping and fishing a further 0.6 % (International Maritime Organisation, 2007). Forecasts by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) indicate growth in CO2 emissions will be between 2.4 and 3 times that of 2007 by 2050. As for aviation, although present-day emissions are low compared with other sources (particularly power generation), the rapid growth in demand and the limited options for alternative sources of energy (at least in the near term) may lead to them becoming dominant sources of GHGs in the future.

Emissions from aircraft and ships are generally governed by international regulations defined by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) and the International Maritime Organization (IMO), both classified as ‘specialised agencies’ of the United Nations (UN). For aviation, ICAO has defined regulations covering the emissions of CO2 and noise from aircraft and NOx, HC, CO and smoke from aircraft engines.

A new regulation covering emissions of non-volatile particulate matter (nvPM) is being developed by the Committee on Aviation Environmental Protection (CAEP). These regulations are updated every few years. When first implemented, the regulations apply to newly certificated aircraft (or engines). When a regulation is updated, it is common to require newly manufactured aircraft (or engines) to comply with the previous version of the regulation at the same or similar time (for example, the CAEP/8 NOx regulation was introduced for newly certificated engines from the beginning of 2014, while newly manufactured engines were required to comply with the previous, CAEP/6, regulation from the beginning of 2013).

For shipping, IMO has published regulations covering the emissions of NOx, SOx and PM in the marine pollution (MARPOL) regulations (particularly Annex VI). A recent update to MARPOL also includes regulations on the energy efficiency of newly built ships.

The emissions of CO2 from aircraft and ships are highly correlated with the amount of fuel consumed (for example, the consumption of 1 kg of aviation kerosene produces approximately 3.16 kg of CO2). As fuel is a major part of the overall operating costs for aircraft and ship operators, there are strong economic and environmental pressures to reduce fuel consumption. This combination of economic and environmental pressures provides the strongest impetus to the development of new technologies for aircraft and ships. Conversely, NOx is produced in the combustion chambers of engines as the result of the high pressures and temperatures found there. A key technology to reduce fuel consumption is the use of higher pressure ratios for aircraft engines – the equivalent parameter for a maritime diesel engine is referred to as compression ratio. Therefore, the drive to reduce NOx emissions at the same time as CO2 emissions requires a continuing development of combustion chamber and fuel injector technology.

The emissions of SOx from diesel engines are a result of the sulphur content of the fuel. The need to reduce the emissions of this pollutant is leading to requirements to use low-sulphur fuels.

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4.5.1.1 Overall direction of European-funded research

Research into the development of new technology for aircraft and engines has long been a major element of EU research programmes. The requirement for publicly funded research not to subsidise the development of new products leads to the research covering only ‘pre-competitive’ technology development. Nonetheless, a significant number of technologies that have been introduced to reduce fuel consumption and emissions from aircraft may be traced back to public research projects.

During the FP5 programme, the larger research projects (that have been selected for this review to attempt to identify research results with the greatest chance of having contributed to emissions savings in practice) concentrated on advanced aircraft concepts, such as flying wing designs (e.g. the VELA (2002-2005) project) or technologies for tilt-rotor aircraft (e.g. the DART (2002-2006) project).

During the FP6 programme, there was significant emphasis on aircraft engine technology development, which was particularly targeted at reduced emissions. The technologies investigated included advanced combustor designs (for example, the INTELLECT D.M. (2004-2007), TIMECOP-AE (2006-2010) and TLC (2005-2010) projects) and management of airflow within the engine (e.g. the ADVACT (2004-2008) and AIDA (2004-2008) projects).

Under the FP7 programme, there was a continuing emphasis on the development of aircraft engine technologies, particularly for reduced emissions of NOx and PM (for example, the IMPACT-AE (2011-2015) and LEMCOTEC (2011-2015) projects). There were also investigations of ‘step-change’ technologies, such as the use of fuel cells in place of the traditional gas-turbine-based auxiliary power unit (APU) on aircraft (e.g. the GREENAIR (2009-2012) project). Aircraft technologies that were investigated included active flow control (the AFLONEXT (2013-2017) project) and surface coatings (the AEROMUCO (2011-2013) projects). Both of these technologies were investigated as part of a move towards integrating hybrid laminar flow technology (for reduced aerodynamic drag) on aircraft surfaces, which has been introduced on some recent aircraft designs.

The technologies investigated under FP7 continue to attract attention under Horizon 2020, including aircraft laminar flow (WINNER (2016-2019)) and PM emissions (SOPRANO (2016-2020)).

Considering only the larger projects (those most likely to have led to real applications through a large budget or industry-relevant partners), the funding for EU-funded projects6 on aircraft and engine technology development was about EUR 300 million under FP6, EUR 260 million under FP7 and EUR 28 million to date under Horizon 2020. With the expectation that further large projects on aircraft and engine technology development will be funded under Horizon 2020, this shows a consistently high level of funding for aviation technologies over time.

The funding for research on maritime projects has been significantly lower than that for aviation. Under FP6, projects to the value of approximately EUR 60 million were funded on maritime vehicle technologies, which grew to EUR 108 million under FP7. Thus far, projects to the value of EUR 80 million have been funded under Horizon 2020.

In comparison to the number of projects concerning aircraft and aircraft engine technologies, significantly fewer large projects have been identified from TRIP for maritime technologies. The key areas of interest have been more efficient and lower emissions maritime diesel engines (particularly under HERCULES (2004-2007) and follow-on projects) and electric ships (e.g. the POSE2IDON (2009-2012) and E-ferry (2015-2019) projects).

4.5.1.2 Overall direction of nationally funded projects

Only very few nationally funded projects have been identified that are relevant to this sub-theme and are likely to have contributed to real emissions savings. The selection of projects for this review took into account the number and relevance of the project partners. In particular, selecting those projects where one or more partners was a manufacturer of aircraft, engines, ships, etc. The small number of projects identified, in comparison with EU-funded projects, reflects a situation in which individual EU Member States face difficulties in funding large projects that are likely to have direct impacts on emissions from aircraft or ships.

In the aviation field, only Germany appears to have funded significant projects. Those identified were all performed in the 2007-2011 timeframe. Three projects researched technologies and design methods for improving aircraft engine efficiency and reducing emissions.

In the maritime field, only a single project was identified. This project, VORTEX (2003-2005) investigated improvements in propeller design to improve efficiency and reduce noise on boats used on inland waterways.

4.5.2 Research activities

Within the sub-theme of ‘vehicle design and manufacture – aviation and maritime’, research has been found to be divided into a number of different topics, particularly related to the part or technology of the aircraft or ship being investigated to attempt to reduce emissions. These topics include:

• aircraft;

• aircraft engines;

• aircraft APUs;

• ships.

In addition, some projects have been identified covering related topics, such as the assessment of emissions and of related policies.

6 Recognising that the EU funds only part of the total costs of the projects under these research programmes. The figures quoted here are the total project costs.

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4.5.2.1 Aircraft

The improvement of aircraft technology and design is fundamental to reducing emissions. An aircraft with lower aerodynamic drag will need less thrust to maintain flight, which will reduce the fuel consumption and emissions. Similarly, an aircraft with a lower weight (through the use of lightweight materials or construction) will require less lift to fly, giving lower drag and, hence, less thrust needed.

An improvement in the fuel efficiency of an aircraft will lead to a reduction in CO2 emissions. However, the impact on emissions of other pollutants, in particular NOx, may not reduce in line with CO2. Therefore, there has been considerable research into improvements in the design of aircraft engine combustors to also achieve reductions in the emissions of other pollutants.

In addition to evolutionary improvements to aircraft and engines, research has been performed on more revolutionary approaches to meeting the demand for air transport with lower emissions, such as the use of airships for cargo transport (as described below).

4.5.2.1.1 Airframe design and technology

The majority of recent research that is related to airframe design and technologies investigated improvements to particular aspects of the aircraft design rather than the total aircraft design. However, an exception to this was the VELA project that considered the needs for future aircraft designs based on ‘flying-wing’ concepts. In principle, such layouts could offer significant improvements in fuel efficiency. However, considerable technology improvements are required before they could replace the traditional ‘tube and wing’ aircraft layout.

VELA assessed the ability of existing tools to assist the design of flying-wing aircraft by comparing the aerodynamic results with those obtained from wind tunnel tests of two aircraft designs. Following this validation, the tools were applied to the optimisation of further aircraft designs, taking account of constraints such as passenger cabin dimensions and floor angles. Structural analyses of the designs were performed to assess pressure loads on the design and to optimise the structure (for weight reduction). Other aspects of the flying-wing designs that were considered in the project included the design of the control system and requirements related to airport integration and passenger evacuation in an emergency.

Projects that have research improvements in aircraft technologies have included AVERT (2007-2009). This project targeted a 10 % improvement in aircraft lift-to-drag ratio during cruise (so giving a 10 % reduction in fuel consumption for an aircraft of the same weight) through improvements to flow control technologies giving reduced vortex drag.

The flow control technologies investigated included devices for controlling the transition of the air near the aircraft surfaces from a laminar to a turbulent state and skin friction control devices. Devices with particular relevance to low-speed control (for when the aircraft is taking-off or landing) included those for blowing into the flap gap (the gap between the flap and the rest of the wing structure) and for controlling flow separation at the wing leading edge.

All the flow control devices investigated were based on microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) technology. A key part of the project was the validation of the ability to manufacture the devices in sufficient quantity, and to an adequate quality and durability for application to aircraft in service.

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The devices were then tested in wind tunnel models to confirm their performance and their potential contribution to the development of more fuel efficient aircraft designs in the future.

A subsequent project with several of the same partners that also investigated active flow control was AFLONEXT. In this project, which includes a total of 40 partners, the aim is to investigate the use of active flow control to increase aerodynamic performance and reduce drag through applications to:

• achieve hybrid laminar flow on the fin;

• improve the aerodynamic performance of the outer part of the wing;

• control flow separation at the junction between the wing and the engine pylon, particularly during take-off and landing;

• actively manage the flow conditions at the wing trailing edge to reduce aerodynamic loads on the structure;

• reduce the aerodynamic interaction between the undercarriage and flaps to reduce noise during the landing approach;

• reduce vibrations in the undercarriage during take-off and landing.

The project plans to demonstrate several of these technologies on a test aircraft to raise their readiness level to prepare them for inclusion in production aircraft. Other technologies will be developed further through laboratory level demonstrations or in large-scale tests in wind tunnels.

The majority of fuel burn and emissions produced from an aircraft occur during the cruise portion of the flight. However, the need for the wings to be able to generate the lift required during the (low-speed) landing and take-off phases requires compromises in the wing’s design. The need to reduce fuel consumption and emissions encourages the use of longer, high aspect ratio wings, but the ability to use such designs is limited by the compromises for low-speed flight. Therefore, the SADE (2008-2012) project investigated the use of ‘morphing’ wing structures to achieve the same increase in low-speed lift without the constraints on the wing structure. The specific morphing elements investigated were the ‘smart leading edge’ and the ‘smart single slotted flap’. Both devices contribute to the ability to achieve the required low-speed lift without requiring the large internal wing structure. Another benefit is the reduction in discontinuities in the wing surface (where traditional high-lift devices are attached) improving the aerodynamics and contributing to the ability to maintain laminar airflow across the surface, giving lower drag in the cruise phase.

Research during the SADE project focused on laboratory-scale wind tunnel experiments investigating the ability of the wing structure (and skin) to withstand the forces caused by the morphing and also from the flight loads. The results showed that the wing skins were capable of accommodating the forces from morphing without damage and that the deflections due to flight loads were small.

Another project that addressed improvements on fuel consumption and emissions through reducing airframe drag was the AEROMUCO project. This project investigated improved coatings for application to aircraft surfaces, particularly the wing. These coatings were intended to reduce the adhesion of insects and dirt to maintain a smooth surface and hence improve the retention of laminar flow close to the surface, so reducing drag. In addition, the coatings were intended to reduce the energy required for in-flight de-icing systems on aircraft wings. The coatings investigated were customised to the particular requirements of the locations on the wing surface (avoiding contamination near the leading edge, avoiding ice build-up on the upper wing surface). The tests on the different coatings included confirmation of their resistance to ice build-up and erosion through rain or abrasion. As well as academic institutions, the project team for AEROMUCO included aircraft manufacturers Airbus, Alenia Aermacchi and Dassault Aviation, providing a route to exploitation of the project results.

A further project that is investigating improvements in wing aerodynamics through the use of coatings is the WINNER project. This project aims to develop multifunctional coatings to provide erosion protection (primarily for carbon-fibre wing panels, which are particularly susceptible) and resistance to ice build-up. Plasma vapour deposition has been identified as a key technology for applying such coatings.

4.5.2.1.2 Aircraft systems

As well as airframes, developments to aircraft systems have also been researched. The MOET (2006-2009) project investigated the development of aircraft electrical systems as part of the ‘more electric aircraft’ concept (in which systems such as control surfaces and anti-icing units are powered electrically rather than using hydraulics or pneumatics). As well as the development of concepts for the on-board electrical networks, the project also performed some validation tests on fully integrated systems. The project showed good progress in developing the required systems for a ‘more-electric’ aircraft (a concept that has since been implemented on the American Boeing 787 aircraft) and noted that further progress was needed on a number of technologies:

• For the electrical power system:

- simplification of the architecture (only one high voltage network – 230 V alternating current (AC) or 270 V direct current (DC), but not both);

- multipurpose power-electronics motor controller units;

- higher power-to-weight ratio for power electronics;

- reduction of electrical load analysis budget at aircraft level;

- higher power distribution centre integration;

- smart management of generators overload capability.

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• For other aircraft systems:

- wider use of power-electronics motor controllers (not just air-conditioning and engine start);

- reduce the electrical environmental control system (ECS) and cooling system drag penalty;

- ECS ground operation optimisation;

- higher integration of the ECS and liquid cooling system;

- power electronics cooling to be investigated further;

- hydraulics deletion to be investigated further (specifically for regional jets);

- electromechanical actuators (EMA) for flight control actuators and landing gear to be investigated further (specifically for regional jets).

The German ELFA (2007-2010) project built on the progress of MOET (and other projects) to focus on the development of specific technologies. ELFA was split into three sub-projects (VELKESA, BREZEN and AKTUEL) that focused on air-conditioning and ice-protection systems, hydrogen fuel cells and electrical actuators, respectively. Although it was a national project, a key feature of ELFA was that it was led by Airbus, giving a route for the exploitation of the project results.

4.5.2.1.3 Novel aircraft types

In addition to research on reducing the fuel consumption and emissions from conventional aircraft, there has also been a number of studies focusing on unconventional aircraft. The LAPCAT (2005-2008), ATLLAS (2006-2009), LAPCAT-II (2008-2012) and FAST20XX (2009-2012) projects all investigated the development of supersonic and hypersonic aircraft. The investigations also included consideration of improving the fuel efficiency of such aircraft types. Although the results indicate that the development of supersonic and hypersonic aircraft (including for sub-orbital space flight) may be feasible in the future, the technologies developed do not contribute to reducing emissions from current and near-term future (subsonic) aircraft and will not be discussed in further detail here.

4.5.2.2 Aircraft engines

Except for airframe noise and unintentional leaks of fluids, the majority of pollutants emitted from an aircraft in flight are from the engines. The engines also play a major role in determining the fuel efficiency of the aircraft. As a result, they have a large influence on the fuel consumed and emissions produced. Therefore, it is to be expected that a significant part of the funding on aircraft research goes into research on engine technologies.

4.5.2.2.1 Combustion

A key area of technology development that contributes to reduced emissions from aircraft engines is the engine combustion chamber or ‘combustor’. The combustor lies at the heart of an aircraft gas-turbine engine. It is in there that the fuel is burned and the emissions are generated.

The INTELLECT D.M. project aimed to develop a design methodology for low-emissions ‘lean-burn’ combustors. The lean-burn combustor concept had been proposed as a means of obtaining low emissions (particularly of NOx) by using a lean (low fuel:air ratio) flame throughout the combustor. This is in contrast to the more conventional approach that has a rich (high fuel:air ratio) zone near the entry to the combustor with more air added to lean the flame out further downstream. While offering low emissions, the lean-burn combustor concept introduces problems with achieving a stable flame and the project used a knowledge-based engineering tool to develop design rules for achieving a stable flame across the flight envelope. The project also used a Monte Carlo statistical approach combined with a large eddy simulation (LES) computer program to model the flow of the fuel spray in the combustor to assist in developing an understanding of designs for good stability.

The project produced guidelines for the design of lean-burn combustors (for low NOx emissions) that are able to provide reliable and safe operation. Particular aspects of the combustor operation that were considered included ignition, lean blow-out and altitude relight.

The TECC-AE (2008-2012) project also investigated the design of lean-burn combustors for low NOx emissions. In this project, the emphasis was on the development of combustor designs using staged fuel injectors. The projects developed a design for a new combustor concept known as the ‘trapped vortex combustor’. The design concepts developed by the project were validated through rig tests.

At a similar time, a German national project (GerMaTec (2007-2011)) investigated improvements in the design of fuel injectors for lean-burn combustors. The focus of the research was on the vibrations (particularly acoustically driven vibrations) that occur in an engine and how they contribute to the difficulties in achieving stable fuel spray patterns and, hence, stable flames.

The IMPACT-AE project also investigated the development of the technology to design low emissions lean-burn combustors. The project brought together the major European aircraft engine manufacturers with universities, research establishments and small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) to form a consortium including the key European capabilities in the topic. The main effort was on the development of the design system itself to provide the capability to design successful lean-burn combustors for future engines. Another aim was to allow the design of aircraft engine combustors to be accomplished in a shorter time. As well as the gas flows within the combustor, the methods developed included heat transfer analyses to allow advanced wall-cooling concepts to be designed.

The development and application of advanced design methods for combustors was also the focus of the TIMECOP-AE project. This project investigated the application of a range of different analysis methods, including LES, to the detailed modelling of flows inside combustors and also generated rig test data for validation. Areas of development in the tools included models for turbulence, chemistry, turbulence-chemistry interactions, and for modelling liquid sprays.

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The TLC project also analysed the performance of different modelling tools, incorporating different turbulence models of different levels of complexity, when applied to the calculation of flows in aircraft engine combustors.

The LEMCOTEC project identified high compressor pressure ratios (up to 70:1) as a key route to the achievement of more efficient engines, giving reduced fuel consumption and lower emissions (particularly of CO2). However, the use of such high pressure ratios also leads to an increase in NOx emissions. Therefore, as well as compressor technology (needed to achieve high pressure ratios), the project also investigated improvements in combustor technology to avoid high NOx emissions.

The project investigated advanced fuel injector technologies for lean-burn combustors as a means of achieving reliable and stable operation with low NOx emissions. Advanced fuel control systems were developed to provide the required control of the fuel flows through the injectors.

In addition to the achievement of low NOx emissions, research has also been performed into reductions in emissions of soot from combustors. The FIRST (2010-2014) project developed improved numerical tools for the design and analysis of fuel injectors to improve the control of fuel atomisation and, hence, reduce harmful emissions. The project also performed tests on fuel sprays to provide validation data for the numerical methods under development. The project partners included all the main European aircraft engine manufacturers, providing an exploitation route for the methods that were developed in the design of combustors for future engines.

The Horizon 2020-funded SOPRANO project is also investigating the reduction of soot emissions from aircraft engines. It is doing this through the design and analysis of innovative combustors (for reduced soot emissions) and rig tests for validation.

4.5.2.2.2 Turbines

The AITEB-2 (2005-2009) project investigated improvements to the design of engine turbines for greater efficiency. It evaluated the use of a range of different analysis tools, based on computational fluid dynamics (CFD) methods, but with a range of temporal and spatial detail. Although the more advanced methods were found to give closer comparisons to experimental results, further developments were identified as being needed to improve the accuracy in particular areas. These included turbine film-cooling flows and areas of high heat transfer.

Developments in turbine design technology were also considered by the German national project ME2 Turbine (2007-2011). It focused on the development of more efficient low-pressure turbines, with an emphasis on their performance at low Reynolds numbers (as occur when an engine is operating at altitude). A rig test also demonstrated the feasibility of using titanium aluminide (TiAl) blades in such a turbine, giving a reduced engine weight.

The HYSOP (2010-2014) project also investigated the use of novel materials, particularly silicide-based composite materials, to reduce the weight of turbines, but are still able to survive in the difficult environment of an aircraft engine.

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4.5.2.2.3 Other components

As well as research targeted at reducing the emissions of pollutants from combustors, several projects have investigated developments to the design of other engine components to improve efficiency and reduce fuel consumption and emissions. Improved actuators and sensors were the focus of the ADVACT and STARGATE (2012-2015) projects. Both projects aimed to improve the actuation of devices for managing the airflows within an engine, which can help to improve the stability of the engine operation and, hence, allow it to be designed for a higher efficiency.

The AIDA project investigated the design of intermediate ducts (e.g. the ducts between the low-pressure and high-compressor compressors in a two-spool engine). The aim was to understand the airflow in these ducts better so that engines could be designed with shorter ducts (without incurring airflow separations), so reducing weight and giving a reduction in the fuel consumption. The potential for a 2 % reduction in fuel consumption (and CO2 emissions) was identified for optimised duct designs. The project team included the major European engine manufacturers, giving a route for the exploitation of the project results in the design of future engines.

The E-BREAK (2012-2016) project concentrated on developing improved seals and abradable components in the low-pressure systems of gas turbine engines. The aim of this was to reduce the efficiency losses that occur as these components wear, so improving the efficiency of the engine in service. The technologies investigated also included active tip-clearance control to increase turbine efficiency.

The German VerDeMod (2007-2011) project developed improved designs for compressor stator vanes to give improved efficiency. The research included fixed and variable stators, and considered the potential benefits of using non-axisymmetric annulus designs. The recent advances in CFD software allowed the design optimisation to also take account of the flow unsteadiness.

4.5.2.2.4 Technology demonstration

The demonstration of technology on major aircraft engine components is a highly expensive process that is normally undertaken by the engine manufacturers. One such project was VITAL (2005-2009), which was performed by a consortium comprising a number of major European manufacturers, research institutions and universities. The research brought together a range of technologies developed under previous projects and demonstrated them through large-scale rig tests. Included in the demonstration rig tests were:

• two fully instrumented fans targeted at direct-drive and counter-rotating turbofan designs;

• low-pressure compressor (‘booster’) designs;

• turbines for direct-drive turbofan and geared turbofan applications;

• composite high-torque engine shafts.

4.5.2.2.5 Environmental assessment

The ability to assess the effects of technologies and policies on the environmental impacts of aviation is key to ensuring the correct decisions on which technologies and policies should be pursued. The wide range of impacts of aviation (noise, climate change, LAQ and economics) presents difficulties in fully assessing the impacts of policy measures. The TEAM_PLAY (2010-2012) project created a modelling framework to combine and advance European modelling capabilities to support the European perspective in the international policy arena.

TEAM_PLAY brought together a wide range of European models for the analysis of the economic and environmental impacts of aviation, with data exchange between the models through each communicating with a dedicated data warehouse. The project developed a tool suite that provides full capabilities for analysing the long-term effects of policies, including interdependencies.

4.5.2.3 Aircraft APUs

An additional form of engine that is fitted to most aircraft is the APU. The APU usually takes the form of a small gas turbine engine that is connected to an electrical generator and is configured to provide electric power for the aircraft systems and/or high-pressure air for cabin air-conditioning. The APU is only used when the aircraft is on the ground (as the main engines provide the necessary electric power and air once the aircraft takes off) and has only a small contribution to GHG emissions. However, the APU does contribute significantly to emissions that affect LAQ (mainly NOx and PM), particularly as all its emissions occur very close to the ground.

Some projects have investigated options for reducing emissions from APUs. In particular, two projects have considered the potential to replace the APU with a fuel cell to produce electric power. The CELINA (2005-2008) project reviewed the potential application of existing fuel cell designs to replace aircraft APUs. The project identified that the power-to-weight ratio of existing designs would need to be improved to match those of conventional APUs and that it would be important to use all the outputs from the fuel cell (electricity, heat, water and exhaust gases) to maximise efficiency. To maintain a long service life, the project identified the need to develop kerosene reformers (to generate hydrogen from the aircraft’s aviation fuel) and to improve the tolerance of the fuel cell to sulphur and carbon.

The GREENAIR project pursued one of those challenges, namely the development of reformer technology for on-board hydrogen generation. Two different options for reformation were investigated – partial dehydrogenation and plasma-assisted fuel processing. The project advanced the technology level of both of these options, although both require more work to make them ready for a production application.

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4.5.2.4 Ships

It is apparent from the analysis of the research projects on aviation and maritime vehicle design that there is very much less emphasis on the latter than on the former. Nonetheless, there has been, and continues to be, some significant research performed to improve the technology and reduce emissions from ships.

4.5.2.4.1 Ship design

The STREAMLINE (2010-2014) project used the latest design and analysis tools (based on CFD models) to investigate improvements to ship design to improve efficiency (and reduce emissions). The particular elements considered included the optimisation of ship design (with particular reference to reducing cavitation), distributed propulsion systems (for inland vessels), increased diameter propellers (for ocean-going vessels) and a novel propulsion concept based on a ‘whale’s tail’ concept.

The JOULES (2013-2017) project is studying improvements to ship design through the use of an integrated assessment approach. The aim is to develop tools for predicting energy consumption and emissions during the design phase so that the complete design can be optimised to reduced fuel consumption and emissions.

The HOLISHIP (2016-2020) project is continuing work to develop an integrated design environment for ships to achieve lower emissions. A particular focus of HOLISHIP is the additional difficulty caused by the nature of ship designs – they are frequently ‘one-off’ or bespoke designs, optimised for a particular application. This creates challenges to efforts to develop design guidance and methodologies for reduced emissions. The aim of the project is to integrate all design requirements and constraints (technical constraints, performance indicators, life-cycle cost and environmental impact) at an early stage in the design process. In this way, it is hoped that ships can be designed for lower environmental impacts and a reduced design time.

The LeanShips (2015-2019) project aims to validate the potential of new technologies for reduced emissions by demonstrating them on full-size ships. In most cases, the ships on which the technologies will be demonstrated are existing operational ships, so the results of the trials will provide real-world evidence of the effectiveness of the technologies, including the ability to retrofit them to in-service ships. The ships that will be involved in the trials include small to mid-size ships for intra-European waterborne transport, vessels for offshore operations and those for the leisure and cruise markets. Initial estimates indicate that fuel savings of up to 25 % should be achievable, together with reductions in emissions of NOx and PM of 10-100 %.

Like other transport modes, international shipping has introduced minimum standards for energy efficiency (related to GHG emissions). These standards have been introduced as the Energy Efficiency Design Index (EEDI) by the IMO. However, concerns have been expressed that the regulations may leave ships with insufficient power and steering ability to manoeuvre safely in adverse conditions. The SHOPERA (2013-2016) project investigated these concerns using high-fidelity hydrodynamic simulation tools to analyse the manoeuvring performance of

ships in complex environmental conditions. The results of these analyses were validated through model tests and were reported to the IMO for consideration in future developments of the EEDI.

4.5.2.4.2 Propulsion

As for aviation, it is the propulsion system of a ship that creates the pollutants that are emitted. Improvements to these systems to reduce emissions have been the focus of a number of research projects.

Foremost among the EU-funded research projects on ship propulsion has been the HERCULES series of projects. This series commenced with the HERCULES project, which was subsequently followed by HERCULES-B (2008-2011), HERCULES-C (2012-2014) and HERCULES-2 (2015-2018). In each case, the project partners comprised a number of European designers, manufacturers and operators. The total value of these four projects is over EUR 100 million.

The HERCULES project concentrated on the development of engine designs featuring advanced combustion concepts with intelligent multistage turbocharging, energy recovery and compounding. Internal measures for emissions reduction and exhaust aftertreatments were also developed. The design concepts that were developed were demonstrated through rig tests. The results showed:

• 1.4 % reduction in CO2 emissions;

• 50 % reduction in NOx emissions;

• 40 % reduction in PM emissions.

The subsequent HERCULES-B and HERCULES-C projects targeted greater reductions in emissions through more extreme combustion pressures. The results from HERCULES-C, which included the use of gas direct injection on a diesel engine and exhaust gas recirculation, showed NOx emissions 80 % below IMO Tier 1 levels. The research also included efforts to improve performance retention, so that the engine’s fuel efficiency will degrade by no more than 5 % over its anticipated 20-year lifetime.

A further follow-on is the HERCULES-2 project. The key technologies under investigation include a fuel flexibility capability, which will allow engines to be switched from one fuel type to another, including alternative fuels, quickly and easily. The project is also developing the application of new materials to provide higher temperature capabilities for improved efficiency, the improvement of exhaust gas aftertreatment to give a ‘near-zero’ emissions capability and adaptive control system concepts to assist in retaining performance throughout an engine’s lifetime.

Another project that investigated improvements to maritime diesel engine efficiency was HELIOS (2010-2013). This project developed a dual-fuel capability for two-stroke marine diesel engines, allowing them to run on CNG or LNG and diesel fuel. The technology was designed to be retrofittable to in-service diesel engines. Tests showed that higher efficiencies and lower emissions were achieved when the engines ran on the natural gas fuels than on diesel. The project coordinator was a major European marine-diesel-engine manufacturer, which should ease the widespread application of the technology.

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4.5.2.4.3 Alternative power/propulsion technologies

Although the primary focus for improved efficiency and reduced emissions has been on developments to the traditional marine diesel engine, work has also been performed on alternative power and propulsion technologies for ships.

As in other modes of transport, electric power represents a potential approach to achieving significant reductions in emissions. The POSE²IDON project investigated the ability to obtain enhanced efficiency through the ‘electric ship’ concept. In this concept, the main on-board engines (usually diesel engines) are used to generate electricity that, in turn, powers the electric motors that power the propellers. This is in contrast to the conventional configuration in which the diesel engines power the propellers directly. The main advantage of the electric-ship concept lies in the ability to operate the engines at, or near to, their best efficiency condition, with different size engines being used when lower power is required, such as in coastal waters. This is in contrast to the situation when the engines are connected directly to the propellers and must be throttled back to a lower power condition (with reduced efficiency and higher emissions) when lower power is required because the layout that is imposed by the fixed link between the engine and the propeller makes it difficult to incorporate additional engines for the low-power condition.

The electric-ship concept is in widespread use for large, ocean-going ships, but has not been exploited for smaller merchant ships.

The POSE²IDON project pursued the application of the concept to this class of vessel through the reduction in size and increase in efficiency of electric machines using high temperature superconductivity. Other technologies that were investigated included an active stator design (also aimed at reducing the size of electric machines), and wireless monitoring and control systems. The project encountered delays and so demonstration of the full target reduction of 20 % in fuel consumption was not achieved. However, the project was able to determine that the 20 % reduction in fuel consumption would be achievable once the high-temperature superconducting machines reached ‘industrial maturity’.

Another project that is investigating electric ships is the E-ferry project. However, this project is targeting the development of a 100 % electric, emission-free, ferry that is able to carry passengers and vehicles over distances of more than 5 nautical miles. Planned applications include medium-range (about 10 nautical miles) connections on the Danish part of the Baltic Sea. The ship is designed to have a lightweight construction, featuring carbon fibre in the vessel superstructure, to maximise energy efficiency. It is anticipated that the e-ferry will reduce CO

2 emissions by 2 000 tonnes per year when in service. As well as the operational CO2 emissions savings, the design considerations also include savings in other emissions (NOx, SO2 and PM) and the life -cycle emissions over the design life of 30 years.

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4.5.3 Research outcomes

4.5.3.1 Achievements of the research under this sub-theme

4.5.3.1.1 Aircraft

Aircraft are highly complex vehicles and research is able to contribute to improvements in many specific aspects.

In the area of aircraft aerodynamics, and particularly active flow control, the AVERT project made progress in the development of the flow-control technologies, including the manufacture of the required MEMS devices, which are now being followed up with flight test demonstrations by the AFLONEXT project. The results from the studies to date have contributed to the understanding of how flow-control devices can be manufactured and integrated with the airframe. If the flight tests are able to demonstrate the expected reduction in aircraft drag, the technology will be able to contribute to significant improvements in the fuel consumption of future aircraft designs.

Other projects that have targeted reductions in airframe drag have also progressed the knowledge of the technology, particularly the necessary mechanical aspects to implement it in airframes. For example, the SADE project advanced the understanding of the mechanical design aspects of morphing wings, which are expected to lead aircraft with a lower drag in the future. Similarly, the AEROMUCO and WINNER projects have successfully demonstrated the properties of coatings that have been developed with the aim of enabling higher levels of laminar flow, giving reduced wing drag, on future aircraft wings. Although these projects do not immediately lead to the incorporation of these low-drag technologies in aircraft wings, they provide important steps towards the final exploitation of the technology.

Another technology that has the potential to reduce aircraft fuel consumption is the ‘more-electric aircraft’, in which many of the functions conventionally performed by hydraulic or pneumatic systems are performed using electric systems. This technology is already incorporated in the Boeing 787 aircraft and is expected to be more widely used in the future. Two European projects (MOET and ELFA) have contributed to the advancement of this technology through the development of the relevant electrically powered devices and understanding of the requirements for the on-board electric management systems.

Research projects have contributed significantly to the development of aircraft engine technology for reduced emissions. A key future engine concept is the lean-burn combustor, which is expected to offer significantly reduced NOx emissions. Several projects (INTELLECT D.M., TECC-AE, GerMaTec and IMPACT-AE) have contributed to the development of the design capability to enable these combustors to be incorporated in future engine designs. This early capability development is important given the protracted development cycles for new aircraft and engines.

The LEMCOTEC project also investigated future combustor developments for reduced NOx emissions, particularly in the context of future increases in compressor pressure ratios leading to further challenges for managing NOx emissions. In addition to considering the design requirements for high pressure ratio engines, the project also developed and tested a new fuel injector design intended for use in a lean-burn combustor.

Another pollutant that has been investigated is soot. Two projects, FIRST and SOPRANO have considered the development of combustor designs for reduced soot. The FIRST project also performed tests on fuel sprays to provide validation data for design tools that include soot generation models. These developments in design and analysis tools will enable future combustors to be designed for reduced soot emissions, though it is important that the reduced NOx emission technology (such as lean burn combustors) is integrated with the reduced-soot technology.

Other projects have also developed design technology for reducing fuel consumption (and hence CO

2 emissions) by improving the efficiency of other engine components, particularly compressors and turbines. Projects such as AITEB-2, ME2 Turbine and VerDeMod have improved the knowledge of how advanced CFD methods can be applied to designing compressors and turbines for greater efficiency. This improved knowledge will be exploited by engine manufacturers when designing future engines (and, potentially, improved compressors and turbines as part of upgrades for existing engine designs). As well as improved aerodynamic designs, research has been performed on using alternative materials to obtain reduced fuel consumption through reduced weight. The HYSOP project developed the manufacturing technology to allow turbine blades and vanes to be manufactured from a silicide-based composite material. As well as giving reduced weight components, such materials also have lower cooling requirements to traditional metallic components, giving further improvements to the engine efficiency.

As described above, several projects developed or investigated improved design methods for small engine components. The VITAL project brought several of these elements together to design and test major components (e.g. fan and compressor assemblies), including novel configurations such as counter-rotating fans. The project produced results from these major assembly tests, which are normally only performed by engine manufacturers, that will contribute to the development of advanced future engine technologies.

Addressing the topic of environmental impact analysis, the TEAM_PLAY project successfully developed a capability for modelling the environmental and economic impacts of a wide range of policy options, including interdependencies, through the construction of a dedicated data warehouse and the linking of several European models to it. The capability that was developed was demonstrated on an aircraft CO2 standard test case and has been presented to European policy makers for potential application to future policy development.

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4.5.3.1.2 Ships

A major part of European research on ship technology for reduced emissions has taken part under the HERCULES project and its follow-on projects. The projects have developed and tested diesel engine designs with significantly reduced NOx and PM emissions through multistage turbocharging and exhaust aftertreatments. Tests performed under the HERCULES-C project demonstrated NOx emissions of 80 % below the IMO Tier 1 levels. Continuing efforts are expected to result in further improvements, giving near-zero emissions from future engine designs.

HELIOS, another project targeting reduced emissions from ship diesel engines, developed retrofittable technologies for dual-fuel operation, allowing the engine to operate on diesel or natural gas (CNG or LNG) fuels. The results showed higher efficiencies and lower emissions when the engine was run on the natural gas fuels.

The E-ferry project is also targeting the development of a ship with near-zero or zero emissions. In this case, the approach is a 100 % electric ship design. When it is put into service, the electric ferry that is being developed is expected to save 2 000 tonnes of CO2 emissions per year compared with a conventionally fuelled ship.

4.5.3.2 Transferability from research to practical use

The majority of research projects are developing improved design capabilities or understanding of technologies for application to the future design of aircraft, engines or ships. The involvement of the major European aircraft and engine manufacturers ensures that successful design methods or technologies can be exploited in future products. However, the long gestation period for new aircraft or engines, together with the need to ensure that any new technology can be integrated with other technologies and will operate reliably and safely, extends the period between research and incorporation in an in-service product. The complexity of the final product development also often makes it difficult to trace a direct link between the research and the product.

Examples of research with clear applications on near-term future aircraft include the work on developing the technology for hybrid laminar flow on aircraft surfaces for lower aerodynamic drag, so reducing fuel consumption and emissions. The Boeing 787 aircraft type now incorporates this technology on the fin and tailplane, and it is expected to be applied to further future aircraft types. Another low-emissions technology that is expected to be included in future aircraft engines is that of lean-burn combustors, the General Electric GEnx engine already includes many elements of lean-burn combustion. A significant body of research has been performed to develop these technologies and the results of this research will be exploited in future engine designs.

4.5.3.3 Indications for future research

The existing research projects are already well aligned with the requirements for future aircraft, ship and engine (aviation and maritime) designs. The inclusion of the major manufacturers in many research projects ensures that the results are exploitable in future products.

A clear trend through much of the research, particularly on aircraft and aircraft engines, is the development of design tools that will enable the incorporation of advanced concepts in future products, together with the development of small components. The full development of major aircraft or engine components for demonstrating new technologies is usually performed by the manufacturers under their own funding (and is not reported). However, there are benefits (as exemplified by the VITAL project) from large-scale technology demonstration projects with results being available to several manufacturers.

On a specific area, research has been performed into reducing emissions of NOx from aircraft engines (particularly using lean-burn technology) and soot (or nvPM). It is important that future research on reduced emissions from engines addressed all pollutants (or, at least, NOx and soot together) so that any interdependencies can be considered.

4.5.3.4 Implications for future policy development

A common feature of aviation and maritime vehicles (aircraft and ships) is that they are used predominately on international operations and their regulations, particularly regarding emissions, are set by international bodies. EU regulations recognise this and EU bodies are involved in the development of new regulations through the ICAO and IMO. These efforts should continue and future policy development (e.g. in relation to a future tightening of the CAEP NOx standard for aircraft engines) should take account of the emissions reductions being achieved by the different technologies arising from the research projects.

In addition, the development of future EU policies related to emissions from aviation and maritime sources (e.g. air quality regulations) should take account of the low-emissions technologies being developed and the improvements in emissions that may be expected when these technologies are ultimately incorporated in in-service aircraft and ships.

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4.5.4 List of projects

Table 4-6 lists the projects that were reviewed during the assessment of this sub-theme.

Table 4-6 Projects reviewed in the vehicle design and manufacture – aviation and maritime sub-theme

Project acronym Project name Project duration Source of funding

ADVACT Development of Advanced Actuation Concepts to Provide a Step Change in Technology Use in Future Aero-engine Control Systems

https://goo.gl/P7oM3u

2004-2008 EU (FP5-GROWTH)

AEROMUCO AEROdynamic Surfaces by advanced MUltifunctional Coatings

https://goo.gl/9lMxGj

2011-2013 EU (FP5-GROWTH)

AFLONEXT 2nd Generation Active Wing Active Flow- Loads & Noise control on next generation wing

https://goo.gl/mBhevP

2013-2017 EU (FP6-AEROSPACE)

AIDA Aggressive Intermediate Duct Aerodynamics for Competitive and Environmentally Friendly Jet Engines

https://goo.gl/yISB9A

2004-2008 EU (FP6-AEROSPACE)

AITEB-2 Aerothermal Investigations on Turbine End-walls and Blades II

https://goo.gl/ufD5qv

2005-2009 EU (FP6-AEROSPACE)

ATLLAS Aerodynamic and Thermal Load Interactions with Lightweight Advanced Materials for High-Speed Flight

https://goo.gl/9x85Im

2006-2009 EU (FP6-AEROSPACE)

AVERT Aerodynamic Validation of Emission Reducing Techniques

https://goo.gl/FMcVK6

2007-2009 EU (FP6-AEROSPACE)

CELINA Fuel Cell Application in a New Configured Aircraft

https://goo.gl/K0QlzS

2005-2008 EU (FP6-AEROSPACE)

DART Development of an advanced rotor for tilt-rotor

https://goo.gl/RvejOZ

2002-2006 EU (FP6-AEROSPACE)

E-BREAK Engine Breakthrough Components and Subsystems

https://goo.gl/xQsNBx

2012-2016 EU (FP6-AEROSPACE)

E-ferry Prototype and full-scale demonstration of next generation 100 % electrically powered ferry for passengers and vehicles

https://goo.gl/S2UDrn

2015-2019 EU (FP6-AEROSPACE)

ELFA System requirements and integration aspects for electrical air vehicles

https://goo.gl/1i0ZXm

2007-2010 National (Germany)

FAST20XX Future high-altitude high-speed transport 20XX

https://goo.gl/nUlY7J

2009-2012 EU (FP6-AEROSPACE)

FIRST Fuel Injector Research for Sustainable Transport

https://goo.gl/J14xaU

2010-2014 EU (FP6-AEROSPACE)

GerMaTec Low noise and low emission lean combustion technology

https://goo.gl/UTYb8D

2007-2011 National (Germany)

GREENAIR Generation of Hydrogen by Kerosene Reforming via Efficient and Low Emission new Alternative, Innovative, Refined Technologies for Aircraft Application

https://goo.gl/cCRPyZ

2009-2012 EU (FP6-AEROSPACE)

HELIOS The Development of a New Ship Engine Generation

https://goo.gl/XGt9rf

2010-2013 EU (FP6-AEROSPACE)

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Table 4-6 (continued) Projects reviewed in the vehicle design and manufacture – aviation and maritime sub-theme

Project acronym Project name Project duration Source of funding

HERCULES High-efficiency Engine R&D on Combustion with Ultra-low Emissions for Ships

https://goo.gl/OObb8j

2004-2007 EU (FP6-SUSTDEV)

HERCULES-2 Fuel Flexible, Near-Zero Emissions, Adaptive Performance Marine Engine

https://goo.gl/VvvBDs

2015-2018 EU (FP7-Transport)

HERCULES-B Higher-efficiency Engine with Ultra-Low Emissions for Ships

https://goo.gl/rMgaWI

2008-2011 EU (FP7-Transport)

HERCULES-C Higher Efficiency, Reduced Emissions, Increased Reliability and Lifetime, Engines for Ships

https://goo.gl/FKUxJj

2012-2014 EU (FP7-Transport)

HOLISHIP HOLIstic optimisation of SHIP design and operation for life cycle

https://goo.gl/oJRHZM

2016-2020 EU (FP7-Transport)

HYSOP Hybrid Silicide-Based Lightweight Components for Turbine and Energy Applications

https://goo.gl/fKMi69

2010-2014 EU (FP7-Transport)

IMPACT-AE Intelligent Design Methodologies for Low Pollutant Combustors for Aero-Engines

https://goo.gl/bbYzZs

2011-2015 EU (FP7-Transport)

INTELLECT D.M. Integrated Lean Low Emission Combustor Design Methodology

https://goo.gl/y3gBNr

2004-2007 EU (FP7-Transport)

JOULES Joint Operation for Ultra Low Emission Shipping

https://goo.gl/axTne2

2013-2017 EU (FP7-Transport)

LAPCAT Long-Term Advanced Propulsion Concepts and Technologies

https://goo.gl/wc42d0

2005-2008 EU (FP7-Transport)

LAPCAT-II Long-term Advanced Propulsion Concepts and Technologies II

https://goo.gl/DL3DS4

2008-2012 EU (FP7-Transport)

LeanShips Low Energy And Near to zero emissions Ships

https://goo.gl/p9IZW7

2015-2019 EU (FP7-Transport)

LEMCOTEC Low Emissions Core-Engine Technologies

https://goo.gl/nhFBwg

2011-2015 EU (FP7-Transport)

ME2 Turbine Enhancement of turbine efficiency and electric power

https://goo.gl/D9BwN9

2007-2011 National (Germany)

MESEMA Magnetoelastic Energy Systems for Even More Electric Aircraft

https://goo.gl/SX4m1e

2004-2007 EU (FP7-Transport)

MOET More Open Electrical Technologies

https://goo.gl/xXKyCc

2006-2009 EU (FP7-Transport)

POSE²IDON Power Optimised Ship for Environment with Electric Innovative Designs on Board

https://goo.gl/ZJrvUI

2009-2012 EU (FP7-Transport)

SADE Smart High Lift Devices for Next Generation Wings

https://goo.gl/U2zjLu

2008-2012 EU (FP7-Transport)

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Table 4-6 (continued) Projects reviewed in the vehicle design and manufacture – aviation and maritime sub-theme

Project acronym Project name Project duration Source of funding

SHOPERA Energy Efficient Safe SHip OPERAtion

https://goo.gl/eDr69L

2013-2016 EU (FP7-Transport)

SOPRANO Soot Processes and Radiation in Aeronautical inNOvative combustors

https://goo.gl/ksWGNs

2016-2020 EU (FP7-Transport)

STARGATE Sensors Towards Advanced Monitoring and Control of Gas Turbine Engines

https://goo.gl/uZjcZs

2012-2015 EU (FP7-Transport)

STREAMLINE Strategic Research For Innovative Marine Propulsion Concepts

https://goo.gl/2lg29E

2010-2014 EU (FP7-Transport)

TEAM_PLAY Tool Suite for Environmental and Economic Aviation Modelling for Policy Analysis

https://goo.gl/YdlJL6

2010-2012 EU (FP7-Transport)

TECC-AE Technologies Enhancement for Clean Combustion in Aero-Engines

https://goo.gl/RvW9Hs

2008-2012 EU (Horizon 2020)

TIMECOP-AE Toward Innovative Methods for Combustion Prediction in Aero-Engines

https://goo.gl/hmlYKk

2006-2010 EU (Horizon 2020)

TLC Towards Lean Combustion

https://goo.gl/qaI2jy

2005-2010 EU (Horizon 2020)

VELA Very efficient large aircraft

https://goo.gl/O5eVp7

2002-2005 EU (Horizon 2020)

VerDeMod Design and simulation of compressors for vision 10 aircraft engine concepts

https://goo.gl/8KfP6b

2007-2011 National (Germany)

VITAL Environmentally Friendly Aero-Engine

https://goo.gl/5X0yDe

2005-2009 EU (Horizon 2020)

VORTEX New technologies for Hydrodynamic Optimisation of Transport and Technical Ship Propellers for Improving their Performances and for Observing the European Standards Regarding the Transport Safety and Comfort Aboard

https://goo.gl/0HeBdw

2003-2005 National (Romania)

WINNER smart WINg panels for Natural laminar flow with functional Erosion Resistant COATings

https://goo.gl/xTAe69

2016-2019 EU (Horizon 2020)

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4.6 Vehicle design and manufacture – road and rail

This section summarises current research in the design and construction of road vehicles and rail rolling stock. In the case of road vehicles, there are two main categories:

• light vehicles primarily for passenger travel;

• heavy vehicles primarily for cargo movement.

However, the definition of these two categories is not precise as the first group includes cars and small vans for goods transport, and the second group may include buses and coaches. Within these categories, focus areas for research have been powertrains, vehicle configuration/materials and the interface with the driver. Due to the smaller number of projects identified, it has not been possible to define a similar structure for rail rolling stock.

In total, 55 projects were identified on road and rail vehicle construction and design. The majority of these, 43 projects, were on road passenger and freight vehicles, 11 were on rail rolling stock and 1 project dealt with both modes. Based on the contents, volume and dates of the project entries in the TRIP database, 23 road and 3 rail projects were identified for more detailed elaboration in this section.

4.6.1 Introduction to the sub-theme

In the period after the world economic and financial crisis, road vehicle propulsion technology appeared to be at a crossroads. In the early years of the 21st century, the pathway to exit oil-based combustion technologies was not clear – with biofuels, hydrogen and electricity having equal chances to lead. Now, electromobility seems to be ahead of competing technologies. Inspired by technical options, the European Commission’s

2011 Transport White Paper and succeeding international and national roadmaps and platforms, many cities and some countries (including Sweden and China) announced plans to phase out carbon fuels by 2030.

Following the diesel-gate affair (which affected several car manufacturers, and consequent trade restrictions to the US market), recent EU legislation has targeted cutting carbon emissions from cars. In addition, the enormous efforts of China to expand battery capacities and improve price efficiency have also influenced market dynamics. However, energy efficiency and fuel economy are not only driven by fuels and powertrains. Aerodynamics and lightweight construction play an essential role for low-emissions cars or trucks. While the role of publicly funded research to the success of battery powered cars may be limited, material and construction science should have benefited from European and national research funds.

With the options for decarbonising and cleaning road transport taking shape, research attention has now moved to fuels and propulsion technologies for railways. The sector has long profited from its image as the ‘clean’ mode. However, with cars and trucks being powered by renewable electricity, the sector needs to catch up. This is particularly the case for diesel-powered elements of the network and services. New rail vehicle concepts are also required to reduce noise pollution and to improve rail’s suitability for intermodal freight services. By enabling new or better concepts to shift goods from road to rail will help to make transport cleaner overall. It should be noted that this section focuses on the technical development of vehicle or vehicle components. Another way of decarbonising road and rail transport is through the use of alternative fuels. This topic is covered in section 4.1 and is not addressed by the projects covered in this section.

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4.6.1.1 Overall direction of European-funded research

The overall trends of European-funded research in the field of road and rail vehicle technologies are towards downsizing and turbocharging of combustion engines for greater fuel efficiency. There are only a few projects on ‘end-of-pipe’ technologies for filtering exhaust fumes.

In terms of large goods vehicles, the latest research projects have investigated the use of fuel cell APUs for supplementary power.

Rail technology projects have dealt with heat recovery systems for a more efficient and sustainable use of traction power. Further topics are international cooperation and standardisation. Infrastructure issues related to rail vehicle technologies are not considered in this section.

4.6.1.2 Overall direction of nationally funded projects

Only one national project was identified under this sub-theme – a French project covering alternative diesel technology. Therefore, it has not been possible to identify trends in national projects.

4.6.2 Research activities

In terms of road vehicles, this review considers passenger vehicles for individual and public transport. Freight vehicles are considered separately.

4.6.2.1 Road passenger vehicles

4.6.2.1.1 Powertrain

A key point of research activities for road passenger vehicles is the development of improved engine and powertrain concepts. The NICE project (2004-2008) focuses on five integrated combustion systems for different types of fuel (petrol, diesel, CNG and synthetic biomass-based fuels). While fuel economy and reduced emissions are major goals for petrol and diesel engines, implementing modern technologies (e.g. turbocharging) into CNG engines is the key to gain market share. For biofuels, additional potential in terms of costs and fuel economy can be addressed by new engine designs. The goals for petrol and diesel engines have been achieved by a combination of turbocharging and downsizing. Additionally, it has been shown that diesel engines can meet Euro 6 emission limits without NOx-aftertreatment. Turbocharging is also a promising technology for CNG engines as it increases torque and power.

A 10 % higher fuel conversion efficiency in CNG engines with specific aftertreatment systems for passenger cars and light duty vehicles is the main objective of the INGAS (2008-2012) project. In three different technological approaches, fuel reductions of 10-16 % have been demonstrated. Moreover, the weight of the storage system has been reduced by 50 % with only a small increase in costs, while a 30 % cost reduction could be realised using an improved 3-way catalyst.

High-speed electric motors have significant potential for the reduction of weight and size, but normally have less torque capability. Therefore, a multispeed geartrain is needed to keep the acceleration performance of the vehicle as high as possible. ODIN (2012-2015) aims to develop a compact, efficient, highly integrated electric motor for a typical entry power level urban EV. The project partners focus on optimising the integration of mechanical and electrical components into one electrical drive housing.

Due to their small size and light weight, ELVs can contribute to reducing traffic in cities, emissions and noise. In the RESOLVE (2015-2018) project, two demonstration ELVs are being developed to build a cost and energy-efficient basis for future ELVs, thus providing an alternative to the conventional car for transport in urban areas.

Besides BEVs, fuel cell drivetrains are seen as the most promising technology for sustainable mobility. However, to meet the requirements for mass production, the system components of fuel cell hybrid vehicles have to be improved. For this reason, the HYSYS (2005-2009) project has been set up as a consortium of OEMs and suppliers to develop fuel cell system components (air supply, hydrogen supply, humidifier, and hydrogen sensors) that are suitable for mass production. This also includes electrical drive components (electric motor, power electronics and battery).

4.6.2.1.2 Lightweight construction

In addition to more efficient powertrains, weight reduction measures can contribute to lower emissions and fuel consumption. While weight reduction technologies are already implemented for expensive cars in low quantities, these concepts are not extensively used in mass-produced vehicles.

In this context, the development of a multimaterial, lightweight and affordable car-body concept (including a front structure demonstrator for results validation) is the focus of the SLC (2005-2009) project which involves seven European car manufacturers. The goal is a weight reduction of up to 30 %, which will lead to a reduction in CO

2 emissions of 8 g/km. At the same time, today’s structural performance standards must be met. Another constraint is the cost of lightweighting, which should not exceed EUR 5/kg. Using a multimaterial approach of aluminium, new steel, magnesium and fibre-reinforced plastics, a car body has been developed that has achieved a 35 % weight reduction. The additional costs for each kg of weight saved totalled of EUR 7.8, so a further reduction to EUR 5/kg is needed for a fully economical solution

The EVOLUTION (2012-2016) project was a more recent project covering vehicle lightweighting. It demonstrated the feasibility of the sustainable production of a 600 kg weight FEV for urban use. The existing concept of the body-in-white has been completely reviewed through a design strategy aimed at reducing the number of parts and using innovative lightweight materials technologies such as aluminium alloys and polymers.

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4.6.2.1.3 Driver-to-vehicle interaction and routing

The benefit of advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS), which are already implemented in modern vehicles, was measured in the euroFOT (2008-2012) project. This project consisted of a large field test and revealed improvements to driver behaviour, traffic safety and fuel efficiency with overall cost savings. It was shown that cars and trucks equipped with adaptive cruise control (ACC) and forward collision warning (FCW) have a higher fuel efficiency – 3 % and 2 % respectively.

Driver behaviour and optimised routes can contribute to a significant reduction in fuel consumption and CO2 emissions. Therefore, inefficiencies in terms of route choices, driving performance, and traffic management and control were addressed by the ECOMOVE (2010-2013) project to reduce fuel wastage to a minimum. Structured in several sub-projects, ECOMOVE focused on the interaction between driver, vehicle, infrastructure and traffic management systems. Additional information from driver assistance systems can support drivers and road operators to avoid inefficiencies (e.g. through route choices and driving behaviour).

Drivers are often not aware they have a major influence on their vehicle’s fuel consumption, potentially leading to significant unnecessary emissions. Therefore, the ECODRIVER (2011-2015) project concentrated on the driver-powertrain-environment feedback loop to encourage a more efficient driving behaviour. Human-machine interfaces such as graphics, haptics and voice messages were examined to determine their impact on the driver behaviour in terms of eco-efficient driving. This was carried out for a number of different vehicles – ranging from cars and vans to heavy trucks – with conventional powertrains, but the conclusions are also relevant for hybrid or EVs.

Key for the acceptance of FEVs is an adequate operating range, which can be achieved by enhanced battery technologies and efficient energy consumption. For the latter, new driving strategies and driver assistance systems can contribute to meeting the goal of saving energy. In the OPENER (2011-2014) project, data from different on-board and off-board sources were merged. With particular emphasis on coordinating electric drivetrain and braking system – supported by data from radar, video, satellite navigation, car-to-infrastructure and car-to-car communication systems – drivers were able to adapt their route and driving style to achieve the best energy efficiency and thus electrical driving range.

4.6.2.2 Road freight vehicles

4.6.2.2.1 Powertrain and engine

As with passenger cars, further efforts are required to accelerate the commercialisation of fuel cell technologies for heavy-duty transport. Polymer electrolyte fuel cells (PEFC) and solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC) are seen as the most promising technologies.

Further developments for these technologies have been examined by the FELICITAS (2005-2008) project for road and marine use. By recuperating kinetic energy, FELICITAS demonstrated the feasibility of an energy efficiency of 60 % for 200 kW PEFC units and a high power density of 0.32 kW/kg. In addition, durability, robustness and reliability were improved significantly. Using SOFC for heavy-duty applications is challenging due to the low power density and restricted maturity of some core components. This sets strong limitations for instant migration from stationary to mobile SOFC applications. In terms of marine use, the harsh conditions of the marine environment were a great challenge for all SOFC developments.

Developments on low-emissions powertrain concepts for conventional petrol and diesel engines in light-duty vehicles have been carried out in the POWERFUL (2010-2013) project. Sub-project V1 of POWERFUL focused on an extremely downsized engine, integrating the electronic valve control and other add-on technologies to reduce CO2 emissions by 40 %. By the end of the project, a 30 % CO2 reduction was achieved. A downsized four-stroke diesel engine achieving emissions 10 % lower than Euro 6 pollutant limits and CO2 emissions 20 % lower than 2005 levels was developed in sub-project V2. A core element in the approach for reducing NOx and soot was the low temperature combustion (LTC) technology. The objective of sub-project V3 was to downsize a two-stroke diesel engine to achieve emissions 10 % lower than Euro 6 pollutant limits and CO2 emissions 20 % lower than 2005 levels.

Low-emissions powertrains for heavy-duty vehicles were also developed in three sub-projects of the CORE (2012-2015) project. Focusing on turbocharger systems, variable valve actuation, reduced friction and low-temperature aftertreatment, simulations showed a CO2 reduction of 11-18 % for three diesel powertrains and one natural gas truck.

Developing subsystems for a heavy-duty powertrain based on the integration of a new engine concept was the objective of the GREEN (2005-2008) project. The new engine concept was characterised by flexible components, an improved combustion process, model-based closed-loop emission control, high power density and an integrated exhaust aftertreatment system. In sub-project A1 of GREEN, a CNG heavy duty multi-cylinder engine for urban buses was developed, giving advantages in terms of emissions (80 % reduction in NOx and PM emissions), global warming index (-7.4 %), thermal efficiency (equal to current heavy duty diesel engines) and power density (+20 % compared with current CNG values). Sub-project A2 evaluated the potential of variable valve timing and fuel injection, in combination with tailored exhaust aftertreatment systems, to reduce emissions. In sub-project A3, an innovative, highly flexible prototype fuel injection system was developed. The potential of a diesel engine with a high brake-mean effective pressure (BMEP) was investigated in sub-project A4. In summary, GREEN achieved very low emissions values together with improved fuel consumption, on heavy-duty gas and diesel engine applications.

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4.6.2.2.2 Auxiliary power unit

For truck applications, the increasing demand for electrical power (e.g. air-conditioning and media devices) has led to an increasing need for an on-board electric power generator which operates at a high efficiency and with very low emissions. In the FCGEN (2011-2015) project, a fuel cell-based APU, with a diesel fuel processor that converts diesel fuel to hydrogen, was regarded as one of the most promising options as it combines high efficiency, low emissions and the use of the same fuel as the main engine. APUs for yachts moored in harbours are seen as another application for this technology. The overall objective of the FCGEN project was to develop and demonstrate a proof-of-concept in the laboratory environment, thereby improving key components in terms of stability and cost efficiency. As a result, the generation of electricity using an autonomous polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cell-based APU running on commercially available diesel fuel has been demonstrated.

Using an SOFC as an APU was the topic of the DESTA (2012-2015) project. SOFC technology offers advantages over other fuel cell technologies due to its compatibility with conventional road fuels such as diesel. Key components of the system include a DC/DC converter, electrical junction box, batteries and battery state of charge sensor, control panel and wireless router, isolation monitor, keypad and vehicle engine control unit (ECU). In addition, various optimisation tasks were performed to improve system performance, lifetime and reliability. As a result, the first European SOFC APU aboard a heavy duty truck was successfully demonstrated. The solution has considerable fuel savings potential, resulting in lower costs and CO2 emissions. It will also reduce engine hours, engine maintenance and service costs.

4.6.2.2.3 Reducing fuel consumption/overall energy management

As fuel is a major factor in operational costs, there are commercial pressures for manufacturers to reduce the fuel consumption of trucks.

The CONVENIENT (2015-2015) project targeted a 30 % reduction in the fuel consumption of long-distance freight transport vehicles by developing an innovative heavy-truck concept. The holistic approach included innovative energy-saving technologies and solutions, including hybrid transmission, electrified auxiliaries, solar panels for the truck and semi-trailer, and advanced aerodynamics. However, the most relevant and novel aspect of the project was the on-board energy management system, which considered the truck, semi-trailer, driver and the mission as a whole. Three prototype heavy-duty vehicles were designed to demonstrate and validate sustainable fuel-saving technologies.

A considerable amount of energy is wasted due to the lack of an overall on-board management strategy for thermal and electrical energy. This was addressed by the EE-VERT (2009-2011) project, which used a co-ordinated and predictive approach to the generation, distribution and use of energy. In this context, the electrification of auxiliary systems is central. For this reason, brake energy is recuperated, waste heat is recovered and solar cells are used to create electrical energy, so bridging the gap between conventional vehicles and hybrid EVs or FEVs. The actual savings achieved will depend on the driving conditions, the energy management strategy applied and the behaviour of the driver. However, initial indications suggested that the amount of energy saved should exceed 10 %. For a large vehicle, CO2 savings of 40 % for the auxiliary system are possible.

4.6.2.2.4 Platooning

Several projects at a national level (e.g. the KONVOI (2005-2009) and UK DfT Feasibility Study for Heavy Vehicle Platoons on UK Roads (2013-2014) projects) and at a European level (e.g. the SARTRE (2009-2012) project), have examined the technical requirements for the platooning of vehicles on public roads. As a result of improved aerodynamics through the short gaps between the vehicles, environmental benefits in the form of a reduction in fuel consumption of up to 15 % have been realised. This leads to a lower CO2 emissions and reduced freight transport costs.

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4.6.2.2.5 Ongoing projects

Alternative engine and powertrain concepts are under development in different projects. The objective of the HDGAS (2015-2018) project is to provide a LNG vehicle that complies with the Euro VI emission regulations and achieves a CO2 reduction of 10 % compared with state-of-the-art technology. It also needs to achieve an operating range of at least 800 km and must be competitive in terms of performance, engine life, cost of ownership, safety and comfort to 2013 best-in-class vehicles. Further developments for hybrid powertrains, in terms of increased functionality, improved performance, comfort, safety and emissions, are being carried out in the ECOCHAMPS (2015-2018) project. This includes developments for passenger cars and commercial vehicles (buses, and medium and heavy duty trucks).

4.6.2.3 Rail rolling stock

For the non-electrified part of the railway network, diesel-electric trains (diesel multiple units (DMU)) are used. To recover some of the lost heat and to increase the efficiency of DMUs, the French TRENERGY (2013-2016) project aimed to evaluate the use of a Rankine cycle. These systems (and their derivatives such as organic Rankine cycles (ORC)) have already been investigated in the past for transportation means, but have been mainly used for stationary equipment or for heavy ships. For lighter transportation means, several scientific and technical bottlenecks still have to be addressed. Therefore, the key aspects of the project are to select a best control approach for an ORC system, design a compact highly efficient, low-power turbine design and test a more environmentally friendly working fluid for transportation applications such as pentafluoropropane (R245fa).

The aim of the CLEANER-D (2009-2013) project was to achieve emission levels below the limits established by the European Directive 2004/26/EC, covering emissions from non-road mobile machinery, by improving and integrating emissions reduction technologies for diesel locomotives and rail vehicles. The project aimed to find the best balance between environmental and economical requirements to avoid a shift from rail transport to a less sustainable mode such as road. In the project, two different ways of lowering exhaust emissions were implemented. NOx emissions can be reduced by using exhaust gas recirculation inside the engine. An alternative is a selective catalytic reduction exhaust aftertreatment, which is used for smaller railcar engines, which have to comply with a 2.0 g/kWh NOx limit, and for larger engines in the US market.

Developments in the field of lightweighting are not only pursued for road vehicles, but also for the rolling stock. The SUSTRAIL (2011-2015) project aimed to initiate a new rail era by designing novel freight vehicles that use lightweight materials. The project planned to develop new track infrastructure, which involved optimised track geometry, ground stabilisation and innovative monitoring techniques. The developments should improve rail freight efficiency and reliability, while reducing maintenance frequency and costs. With this holistic approach, a higher reliability and increased performance of the rail freight system can be achieved as a whole and profitability for all the stakeholders can be increased.

4.6.3 Research outcomes

4.6.3.1 Achievements of the research under this sub-theme

Technical developments in the field of road passenger vehicles concentrate mainly on the improvement of engines and powertrains. This includes conventional vehicles and alternative concepts such as hybrid, electric or fuel cell drives. Since 2010, several projects have focused on eco-efficient driving behaviour and routing that can be achieved by suitable human-machine interfaces and data exchange between vehicle and traffic management.

For road freight vehicles, strong research activities can be observed in terms of conventional powertrains with an emphasis on improved fuel consumption and reduced CO2 emissions. Extending the focus to the overall energy management of a vehicle enables additional fuel savings (e.g. by recovering brake and thermal energy, which can then be used for auxiliary components). Besides low fuel consumption during driving, energy efficient APUs are of great importance in the parking mode. For this purpose, innovative fuel cell approaches for power generation have been examined. They are characterised by producing hydrogen from diesel fuel and turning it into electrical energy. This comes with a significant reduction in fuel consumption, emissions and costs.

Developments for rail vehicles concentrate on the improvement of diesel engines and aftertreatment systems to reduce CO2

and NOx emissions.

4.6.3.2 Transferability from research to practical use

Most of the projects analysed under this sub-theme are closely linked to practical implementation, either through the development of technologies and prototypes or more directly though scaling up of technologies for mass production. Due to the nature of the subject, OEMs and technology suppliers were involved in most projects as partners or associated entities. All of the projects were specialised in solving specific problems in vehicle performance, emission reductions, etc., such that the share of basic research tends to be rather low.

4.6.3.3 Indications for future research

Most of the projects described above focus on improvements in the technology of existing vehicle components. Although promising results have been achieved, breakthrough innovations of new vehicle concepts with the potential to replace current technologies are not in sight. However, fuel cell APUs may represent such a breakthrough to some extent.

As has been already shown in some of the projects, moving the research efforts from single vehicle components towards a holistic view of the transport system may bring benefits. This includes the behaviour of drivers and their interaction with the vehicle via the human-machine interface, but also with the infrastructure. A crucial factor for this is the provision of data and its exchange at all levels. With modified driving strategies and improved route choices, further fuel savings seem to be reachable.

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4.6.4 List of projects

Table 4-7 lists the projects that were reviewed during the assessment of this sub-theme.

Table 4-7 Projects reviewed in the vehicle design and manufacture – road and rail sub-theme

Project acronym Project name Project duration Source of funding

CLEANER-D Clean European rail – diesel

https://goo.gl/S4azfV

2009-2013 EU (FP7-Transport)

CONVENIENT Complete Vehicle Energy-saving Technologies for Heavy-Trucks

https://goo.gl/Si5QOM

2012-2015 EU (FP7-Transport)

CORE CO2 REduction for long distance transport

https://goo.gl/zuHWzo

2012-2015 EU (FP7-Transport)

DESTA Demonstration of 1st European SOFC Truck APU

https://goo.gl/JeYyAU

2012-2015 EU (FP7-JTI)

ECOCHAMPS European COmpetitiveness in Commercial Hybrid and AutoMotive PowertrainS

https://goo.gl/uhSOFo

2015-2018 EU (Horizon 2020)

ECODRIVER Supporting the driver in conserving energy and reducing emissions

https://goo.gl/8vERkM

2011-2015 EU (FP7-ICT)

ECOMOVE Cooperative Mobility Systems and Services for Energy Efficiency

https://goo.gl/WhGH69

2010-2013 EU (FP7-ICT)

EE-VERT Energy Efficient Vehicles for Road Transport

https://goo.gl/J9XWIv

2009-2011 EU (FP7-Transport)

euroFOT European Field Operational Test

https://goo.gl/OmnPSq

2008-2012 EU (FP7-ICT)

EVOLUTION The Electric Vehicle revOLUTION enabled by advanced materials highly hybridized into lightweight components for easy integration and dismantling providing a reduced life cycle cost logic

https://goo.gl/GCezSC

2012-2016 EU (FP7-NMP)

FCGEN Fuel Cell Based Power Generation

https://goo.gl/dWIfYa

2011-2015 EU (FP7-JTI)

FELICITAS Fuel-cell Powertrains and Clustering in Heavy-duty Transports

https://goo.gl/qINR5b

2005-2008 EU (FP6-SUSTDEV)

GREEN Green Heavy Duty Engine

https://goo.gl/9jVctA

2005-2008 EU (FP6-SUSTDEV)

HDGAS Heavy Duty Gas Engines integrated into Vehicles

https://goo.gl/NtCoQ4

2015-2018 EU (Horizon 2020)

HYSYS Fuel-Cell Hybrid Vehicle System Component Development

https://goo.gl/DfRCoi

2005-2009 EU (FP6-SUSTDEV)

INGAS Integrated Gas Powertrain - Low Emission, CO2 Optimised and Efficient CNG Engines for Passenger Cars (PC) and light duty vehicles (LDV)

https://goo.gl/hoaeQV

2008-2012 EU (FP7-Transport)

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Table 4-7 (continued) Projects reviewed in the vehicle design and manufacture – road and rail sub-theme

Project acronym Project name Project duration Source of funding

KONVOI Road train using electronic coupling – development and evaluation of implementation (Project no. 19G5024).

https://goo.gl/PI3LJ5

2005-2009 Germany

NICE New Integrated Combustion System for Future Passenger Car Engines

https://goo.gl/0LGDOI

2004-2008 EU (FP6-SUSTDEV)

ODIN Optimized electric Drivetrain by Integration

https://goo.gl/AOzxVN

2012-2015 EU (FP7-ICT)

OPENER Optimal Energy Consumption and Recovery based on system network

https://goo.gl/hp89ZM

2011-2014 EU (FP7-ICT)

POWERFUL POWERtrain for FUture Light-duty vehicles

https://goo.gl/PgMJuJ

2010-2013 EU (FP7-Transport)

RESOLVE Range of Electric SOlutions for L-category Vehicles

https://goo.gl/BEhsMC

2015-2018 EU (Horizon 2020)

SARTRE Safe road trains for the environment; Developing strategies and technologies to allow vehicle platoons to operate on normal public highways with significant environmental, safety and comfort benefits

https://goo.gl/g7n1aK

2009-2012 EU (FP7-Transport)

SLC Sustainable Production Technologies of Emission-reduced Lightweight Car Concepts

https://goo.gl/fU84lp

2005-2009 EU (FP6-SUSTDEV)

SUSTRAIL The sustainable freight railway: Designing the freight vehicle track system for higher delivered tonnage with improved availability at reduced cost

https://goo.gl/HP2kEm

2011-2015 EU (FP7-Transport)

TRENERGY Train Energy Efficiency via Rankine-cycle exhaust Gas heat recovery

https://goo.gl/9efjsj

2013-2016 France

UK DfT Feasibility

Study for Heavy Vehicle

Platoons on UK Roads

UK DfT Feasibility Study for Heavy Vehicle Platoons on UK Roads

https://goo.gl/Kwshpn

2013-2014 UK

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4.7 Automation4.7.1 Introduction to the sub-theme

Automated vehicle technologies allow the transfer of driving functions from a human driver to a computer. Automation, and in particular digitalisation, of driving will revolutionise road transport. Highly automated driving is estimated to reduce congestion, so contributing to lower emissions, and enhancing traffic safety. However, there is also evidence that suggests the opposite might be the case.

During the past two decades, significant efforts have been allocated to the advancement of the technology and level of automation. Large automotive manufacturing actors are competing with new market actors related to the Internet of Things (IoT), in collaboration with a plethora of software developers, to reach Level 5 automation within the next 5 years.

Today, with Level 2 automation introduced, the challenges facing the deployment and market introduction of high and full automation become more apparent. Notably, the transition from one level of automation to the next increases the requirement for a seamless interaction between human and automated driving, and for field testing. It also raises the challenge of mixed (automated and conventional) traffic, especially with respect to traffic safety and of building public confidence in the technology.

Finally, automation without using alternatively powered vehicles limits the potential benefits to the environment.

This sub-theme includes a total of 10 research projects, of which 9 were funded by EU research programmes, while one was funded by a national programme. Table 4-8 presents a list of the research projects under this sub-theme together with their duration and sources of funding.

4.7.1.1 Overall direction of European-funded research

The number of projects available in this sub-theme is limited. Except for the MA-AFAS (2000-2003) project, which covered aviation aspects, all other projects concern road automation for passenger and freight vehicles. Four were concluded around 2010, four have been completed recently and one is ongoing. The overarching focus has been on addressing the challenges of advancing levels of automation. An increase in the level and sophistication of automation is sought after in terms of employing cooperative vehicle technologies and ensuring that automation responds dynamically to the situation and the driver. In addition, attention has been paid to the autonomous active path. Two projects focused on introducing automation in goods transport systems. Another important issue brought forward is the identification and alleviation of all barriers (technological, legal and administrative) that hinder the market introduction and adoption of automated systems, and the effective integration of automated vehicles in the transport network.

4.7.1.2 Overall direction of nationally funded projects

The recently completed national project under this sub-theme was funded in Germany. It focused on the advancement of vehicle automation technology through the development and testing of novel autonomous concept vehicles. It also adopted a forward-looking approach on the future use of these vehicles in the urban environment.

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4.7.2 Research activitiesThe research projects in this sub-theme may be considered as examples of research to address the challenges in the advancement and market introduction of highly and fully automated vehicles.

4.7.2.1 Challenge 1: The transition between human and automated driving

Three projects in this sub-theme face this challenge:

• HAVEit (2008-2011) dealt with the next generation of ADAS by developing and validating a scalable and safe vehicle architecture with an optimised task partition between the driver and the highly automated vehicle. The project achieved significant intermediate steps towards the realisation of highly automated driving.

• AdaptIVe (2014-2017) is developing novel integrated automated functions to improve traffic safety by minimising the effects of human errors through a shared control concept, ensuring appropriate collaboration between driver and automation system.

• MA-AFAS developed an operational concept to fit into the future ATM concept and a corresponding avionics package that would allow for more autonomous aircraft operation in European airspace. This includes enhanced surveillance and separation assurance, four-dimensional flight path generation, negotiation and guidance, taxiway management, airline operation centre fleet management and data link communications.

4.7.2.2 Challenge 2: Field testing

The challenge concerns introducing highly and fully automated vehicles to real driving conditions. The SARTRE (2009-2012) project is such an example. The project developed environmental road trains (platoons) and systems to facilitate their safe adoption on unmodified public highways with full interaction with other traffic. It also demonstrated fuel savings, reduced CO2 emissions and commercial viability of the road trains. The Compass4D (2013-2015) project tested and assessed three cooperative intelligent transport system (C-ITS) solutions (road hazard warning system, red light violation warning and energy efficiency intersection service) in seven EU cities. The aims of the project were to increase road safety and comfort by reducing the number and severity of accidents and traffic congestion and, in doing so, contribute to local environmental benefits, such as reduced CO2 emissions and fuel consumption.

The national DaBrEM (2013-2015) project assessed the use of EVs in the areas of data logging and analysis, and the development and use of new concept vehicles. It compared behaviours in field tests in protected and unprotected conditions.

4.7.2.3 Challenge 3: Building public confidence

The CITYMOBIL (2006-2011) project developed a bidimensional matrix, the ‘Passenger Application Matrix’, to present the results of the evaluation of the various activities carried out by the

project with the goal of achieving a more effective organisation of urban transport. In the field of automation, it focused on removing barriers to the large-scale introduction of automated systems. The project demonstrated that there is interest from the public and transport stakeholders in automated transport systems. However, it highlighted the need for an increased effort to conform to widely accepted certification guidelines.

The CATS (2010-2014) project introduced novel services for more efficient urban mobility, either through the short-term rental of clean autonomous vehicles or the use of flexible public transport shuttles along a line at fixed time intervals. The introduction of such innovative services in cities was intended to enhance mobility, accessibility and safety, while reducing congestion, noise and CO2 emissions. The autonomous transport system was found to be more suitable for people with reduced mobility, young passengers and tourists.

4.7.2.4 Challenge 4: Automated goods transport solutions

Two projects have addressed this challenge:

COMPANION (2013-2016) developed cooperative mobility technologies for monitored vehicle platoons (road trains) with the aim of improving fuel efficiency and safety for goods transport. The proposed real-time coordination system defined optimised vehicle flows to create, maintain and dissolve platoons dynamically. This was based on an online decision-making tool, taking into account historical and real-time data about infrastructure conditions.

FURBOT (2011-2014) proposed innovative concept architectures of light-duty FEVs for efficient urban freight transport. The prototype vehicle that was developed demonstrated the anticipated performance, including energy efficiency, sustainability, modularity, intelligent automated driving and cargo handling robotisation.

4.7.3 Research outcomes4.7.3.1 Achievements of the research under this sub-theme

There are very few projects in this sub-theme to allow for a significant contribution to achievements with considerable impact. Nevertheless, the challenges facing the deployment and market introduction of highly and fully automated vehicles are gradually being addressed.

4.7.3.2 Transferability from research to practical use

The results of the projects in this sub-theme lay the foundations for the required technology and its future deployment. Given the novelty of the topic, the project outcomes are not yet highly transferable into practice in terms of large-scale implementations of automated systems.

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4.7.3.3 Indications for future research

Increasing the level of automation inevitably brings about additional challenges, such as the optimal way of engaging the driver, ensuring the safe termination of the automation and the smooth transfer of the system back to the driver. In addition, the effect of major or minor accidents with automated transport systems must be explored. Within the clean transport context, further research is required to determine the contribution of automation, as an alternative to the use of private vehicles, to low-emissions mobility, and the conditions under which automated driving will contribute to cleaner transportation.

Furthermore, future endeavours should move away from purely technological research and focus on recommended strategies for overcoming obstacles that could disrupt or delay the operation of automated vehicles, social issues (such as liability) and other regulatory issues.

4.7.3.4 Implications for future policy development

The coordinated and rapid deployment of cooperative, connected and automated vehicles in road transport urgently requires EU action. While the technology advances, society needs to focus more on the challenges and impacts (positive and negative) the market introduction of automated vehicles will have on the transport sector, other related technology frameworks and society as a whole. Respective policy and legal frameworks need to be further developed (e.g. ownership of legal responsibility in the event of an accident).

The European Commission communication on C-ITS (European Commission (2016)) addresses these concerns.

4.7.4 List of projects

Table 4-8 lists the projects that were reviewed during the assessment of this sub-theme.

Table 4-8 Projects reviewed in the automation sub-theme

Project acronym Project name Project duration Source of funding

AdaptIVe Automated Driving Applications and Technologies for Intelligent Vehicles

https://goo.gl/OhvDFg

2014-2017 EU (FP7-ICT)

CATS City Alternative Transport System

https://goo.gl/shXTl4

2012-2013 EU (FP7-Transport)

CITYMOBIL Towards Advanced Road Transport for the Urban Environment

https://goo.gl/Q4xS0S

2006-2011 EU (FP6-SUSTDEV)

COMPANION Cooperative dynamic formation of platoons for safe and energy-optimized goods transportation

https://goo.gl/id1BaX

2013-2016 EU (FP7-ICT)

Compass4D Cooperative Mobility Pilot on Safety and Sustainability Services for Deployment

https://goo.gl/nkgC7R

2013-2015 EU (CIP)

DaBrEM Dalian - Bremen Electric Mobility

https://goo.gl/p35oDG

2013-2015 Germany

FURBOT Freight Urban RoBOTic vehicle

https://goo.gl/5qYaRp

2011-2014 EU (FP7-Transport)

HAVEit Highly Automated Vehicles for Intelligent Transport

https://goo.gl/sSFKRk

2008-2011 EU (FP7-ICT)

MA-AFAS The more autonomous - aircraft in the future Air Traffic Management system

https://goo.gl/W6RUhT

2000-2003 EU (FP5-GROWTH)

SARTRE Safe road trains for the environment; Developing strategies and technologies to allow vehicle platoons to operate on normal public highways with significant environmental, safety and comfort benefits

https://goo.gl/g7n1aK

2009-2012 EU (FP7-Transport)

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4.8 Modern infrastructure4.8.1 Introduction to the sub-theme

Cleaner transport, as a paramount goal of recent EU policies, can only be attained through the adoption of innovative solutions that combine vehicle technologies with supportive modern infrastructure, higher level system management, planning and policy making.

The majority of research projects reported in this sub-theme focus on the development and exploitation of smart transport infrastructures in support of the new vehicle and engine technologies. Raising awareness and appropriate decision or planning frameworks for the development, maintenance and exploitation of the infrastructure are highlighted as having significant contributions. The common ground is the promotion of the significant economic and environmental impacts derived from cleaner transport solutions at local, regional and national/EU level.

The analysis of this sub-theme identified a total of 54 research projects, of which 47 were funded by EU research programmes and 7 by national programmes. Table 4-9 lists the projects that were reviewed during this sub-theme analysis, their duration and source of funding.

This sub-theme should also be viewed in combination with the Research Theme Analysis report on Transport Infrastructure (TRIP, 2017) and, specifically, section 4.4.2.4 of that report.

4.8.1.1 Overall direction of European-funded research

The European-funded research on modern infrastructure mainly focuses on the supply of alternative energy sources for new power technology vehicles. Early research work on EVs and fuel cell/hydrogen EVs focused mainly on the optimisation of power production and engine performance. The need for harmonisation between energy demand and supply has recently become the subject of several projects on passenger and freight transport. Smart grid and reliable innovative charging infrastructures that enable increased vehicle autonomy are the latest trends in road transport. Improved energy efficiency and reduced environmental impacts of rail transport systems have been scrutinised in various research actions over the last 10 years. A lesser emphasis is placed on the port and maritime sector.

Optimising transport system efficiency corresponds to key projects in, predominately, the rail, maritime and aviation sectors.

Projects address issues on innovative vehicle, engine and infrastructure solutions that endorse the adoption of more sustainable urban mobility options, and direct planning and policy to encourage the move away from conventional fossil-fuel transport modes and towards, energy efficient technologies that have a reduced environmental impact.

Sustainable urban mobility planning is a dominant topic in recent research, including actions under the CIVITAS initiative across several European cities. Innovative planning and management of urban systems has been the focus of these projects, along with extensive awareness raising and promotion activities in favour of cleaner transport modes (walking, cycling and public transport). More recent work focused on specific innovations towards greener transport solutions. These have included alternative fuel/energy technologies, ITS and smart traffic management, and an increased use and testing of electric and/or energy efficient vehicles for public transport.

4.8.1.2 Overall direction of nationally funded projects

The nationally funded projects under this sub-theme have been conducted in Germany, France and Finland. They generally complied with European guidelines towards zero-emissions vehicles and the roll-out of infrastructure for alternative fuels. Activities such as the introduction and testing of EVs for city logistics and bus systems, the promotion of e-bikes for commuters and the development of smart charging technologies for EVs demonstrate the practical character of most national research projects. These usually aim to promote applicable solutions to reduce energy consumption, and air and noise pollution in urban areas; and to validate innovative technologies in real conditions.

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4.8.2 Research activities

The sub-theme of modern infrastructure covers all transport modes. The key emphasis is on the adaptation of the infrastructure to support advances in cleaner technologies for vehicles. In addition, the vehicle/infrastructure system is recognised as requiring optimisation in its overall management, operation and planning. The promotion of SUMPs and other eco-mobility initiatives also influence infrastructure planning and management.

4.8.2.1 Coordination of energy supply

4.8.2.1.1 Road infrastructure

The energy supply infrastructure is the topic of several projects performed since 2010, including the need for better connection between vehicles and infrastructure, and traffic and energy management centres. The key issues covered in the following projects include smart grid and road infrastructure in conjunction with new ICT services and sufficient autonomy solutions for EVs:

• ELVIRE (2010-2013) developed an interactive electric energy ICT service interface to assist drivers of EVs to manage the charge of their vehicle to achieve efficient use of sustainable energy, minimise the ‘range anxiety’ of drivers and promote fully electric road transport;

• GREEN EMOTION (2011-2015) analysed and defined EU standards for developing a framework of interoperable, scalable technical solutions in a sustainable business model for public charging stations, taking into account smart grid improvements, renewable energy sources, innovative ICT applications, different EV types and urban mobility ideas;

• FOTsis (2011-2014) tested road infrastructure management systems required for the operation of mature cooperative vehicle to infrastructure (V2I), infrastructure to vehicle (I2V) and infrastructure to infrastructure (I2I) technologies to evaluate their effectiveness and potential for an Europe-wide deployment;

• E-DASH (2011-2014) aimed to manage and harmonise high electricity demand for the sustainable integration of EVs by exchanging charge-related data between vehicles and the grid in near real time;

• IOE (2011-2014) developed hardware and software to provide harmonised, secure connectivity and interoperability by connecting the internet with the energy grids in real time. The Internet of Energy (IoE) application will form the electromobility infrastructure;

• SGI (2013-2015) developed methods to coordinate electric charging operations and tackle the challenge of concurrent charging of a large number of EVs, which may lead to grid bottlenecks;

• EDAS (2013-2016) among others, this project aimed to address wireless kerb charging with thermal pre-conditioning (e.g. while parking) based on existing infrastructure in cities;

• komDRIVE (2013-2016) examined the essential conditions to attain technical, environmental and economic benefits through the use of EVs in commercial transport, and the possible synergies with the electricity industry;

• FABRIC (2014-2017) entails a feasibility and market analysis of on-road charging technologies for long-term EV range extension taking into account key wireless charging technologies, trends and R&D activities, and the needs of EV manufacturers and users;

• NeMo (2016-2019) deals with electromobility restraints (e.g. limited charging options, lack of interoperability and energy grid overload) via an hyper-network to enable smooth and interoperable use of electromobility services across multiple charging networks in Europe;

• ELECTRIFIC (2016-2019) delivers innovative techniques and ICT tools that can coordinate all actors in the electromobility ecosystem (grid, EV users and EV fleet).

The supply of energy is also addressed in projects concerning hydrogen FCEVs:

• HyWays (2004-2007) developed a European hydrogen energy roadmap comparing the regional hydrogen supply options and (renewable) energy scenarios for transport fuelling infrastructures. It also considered the supply of hydrogen for stationary and portable electricity generation.

• HYCHAIN MINI-TRANS (2006-2011) deployed small FCEV fleets in EU regions demonstrating attractive end-use technologies that meet the market demands and setting up the related hydrogen infrastructure;

• ZERO REGIO (2004-2010) demonstrated the mature technologies, but also the regulatory issues related to hydrogen fuel cell cars and hydrogen refuelling infrastructure in two EU regions (Frankfurt in Germany and Lombardia in Italy);

• H2REF (2015-2018) is addressing the compression and buffering function for a hydrogen refuelling system for passenger vehicles (operating at a pressure of 70 MPa), and optimising the design of the refuelling stations;

• H2ME (2015-2020) is attempting to expand the network of hydrogen refuelling stations and fleets of FCEVs operating in EU countries, with an ultimate vision of developing a pan-European refuelling network.

LNG transport and infrastructure technology is addressed within the LNG Blue Corridors (2013-2017) project, which aims to promote LNG as a fuel by defining European LNG Blue Corridors with strategic refuelling points to guarantee LNG availability for road transport in a cost-effective and obstacle-free way. The project encourages cooperation between heavy duty vehicle manufacturers, fuel suppliers, distributors and fleet operators.

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4.8.2.1.2 Urban infrastructure

Concentrating more on public transport EVs, FCEVs and related infrastructures, the ELIPTIC (2015-2018) project is developing new use concepts and business cases that optimise existing electrical infrastructure and rolling stock for road and rail public transport, saving money and energy, reducing fossil-fuel consumption and improving air quality. The EBSF (2008-2012) and EBSF_2 (2015-2018) projects focus on increasing the attractiveness and efficiency of bus systems by developing new technologies on vehicles and infrastructure, in combination with operational best practice (e.g. developing innovative energy strategies and auxiliaries, providing green driver assistance systems, introducing IT standards into existing fleets, improving vehicle design, and ensuring an effective interface between bus and urban infrastructures). The EBSF handbook reported key characteristics of the future bus system and strategic performance indicators for its quality assessment. Two national projects, E-BUS Berlin (2013-2016) and HyLine-S (2013-2015), tested innovative technologies (an inductive charging system for electric and hybrid buses) in everyday public transport services to gain practical experience in this area and validate the relevant ecological and economic benefits. The V-Charge (2011-2015) project aimed to develop and demonstrate a smart car system, enabling autonomous driving (driverless vehicles) in designated areas. This would also offer advanced driver support, valet parking and battery charging within urban areas. The MIL project created an electric vehicle (with or without driver) with the aim of assessing and developing the efficiency of a car-sharing service including the optimisation of parking space and automated convoy.

The introduction of hydrogen fuel cell technologies in urban transport systems has been a continuing subject of EU projects, such as CUTE (2001-2006), HyFLEET:CUTE (2006-2009) and CHIC (2010-2016). CUTE and HyFLEET:CUTE developed and demonstrated zero-emissions and low-noise transport systems, including conducting research on and piloting the application of hydrogen powered bus technologies; efficient and reliable hydrogen production methods with a reduced environmental impact; and refuelling infrastructures. They also performed promotion activities related to the potential advantages of a hydrogen-based transport system. The CHIC project went a step further and promoted the full commercialisation of hydrogen-powered fuel cell buses and investigated approaches to reduce the ‘time to market’ for this technology.

4.8.2.1.3 Maritime infrastructure

The H2OCEAN (2012-2014) project developed innovative design specifications for an economic and low environmental impact open-sea platform to convert wind and wave power into energy (which is used on-site for various applications) and hydrogen, which could be stored and shipped to shore as a ‘green’ energy carrier.

4.8.2.2 Infrastructure – vehicle as a system

There is recognition of the need to optimise the system, rather than each component independently. Projects addressing overall energy consumption and improving efficiency are described below for the rail, maritime and aviation sectors.

4.8.2.2.1 Rail

Research activities in this area refer to improvements in rail infrastructure and rolling stock, with the primary goal of improving energy efficiency in the sector and to promote the attractiveness of rail systems against the less efficient road transport networks.

The BRAVO (2004-2007) project developed a variety of advanced management and information systems that enable open access to, and cross-border coordination of, combined transport services along an intermodal rail corridor to increase its capacity and interoperability levels. The RAILENERGY (2006-2010) project developed a holistic framework approach, new concepts, standards and operational measures, and integrated technological solutions to cut energy consumption and improve energy efficiency. This showed that significant reductions in CO2 emissions and life-cycle costs of railway operations are feasible. Based on the same goals, the ECORAILS (2009-2011) project showed that it is possible to increase the quality of procurement for rail infrastructure and rolling stock by introducing environmental criteria. This leads to enhanced awareness of ‘green’ technologies and strategies in the regional rail transport. The project also helped to create an EU expert community on the subject, providing an enhanced transfer of knowledge. Focusing on the rail freight system, the SUSTRAIL (2011-2015) project proposed combined design improvements and innovations in rail freight vehicles and tracks with the aim of achieving higher reliability, improved performance and increased profitability of the rail freight sector.

Improved energy efficiency is also the common objective of other projects such as OSIRIS (2012-2014), MERLIN (2012-2015) and ROLL2RAIL (2015-2017). OSIRIS assessed the requirements and risks of different innovations in vehicles, infrastructures and operation that reduce the overall energy consumption in Europe’s urban rail systems (e.g. on-board energy saving/storage technologies, regenerative braking and energy-efficient traction drives, and geothermal solutions in metro stations and tunnel auxiliaries). MERLIN dealt with European electric mainline railway systems and the viability of an integrated management system to achieve optimised energy consumption. It adopted a comprehensive approach that included several technological elements, dynamic supply and demand forecasting and business model aspects. These were tested in five case studies across the EU. ROLL2RAIL also aims to develop essential technologies and remove bottlenecks for revolutionary innovations in rolling stock. It is expected that this will lead to increased capacity, improved energy efficiency and flexibility, reduced life-cycle costs of vehicles and tracks, improved passenger comfort and overall attractiveness of rail transport.

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4.8.2.2.2 Ports

The PERSEUS (2012-2015) project developed a decision-support tool that assesses the impacts of identified natural and human-derived pressures on the Southern European marine ecosystems and coastal infrastructures. An innovative research governance framework has been developed in line with the Marine Strategy Framework Directive.

4.8.2.2.3 Aviation

The ERAT (2007-2010) project aimed to reduce the environmental impact per flight to allow for sustainable growth while maintaining safety levels and airport/airspace capacity. This has been demonstrated through the development of a concept of operations for the expanded terminal airspace of a medium and a high-density traffic airport. The 2050AP (2011-2014) project investigated revolutionary solutions to prepare airport infrastructures for 2050 and beyond by creating a concept development methodology to eventually minimise intra-European door-to-door journeys, reduce air and noise pollution, and promote cost effectiveness through low operating costs and optimal revenue.

4.8.2.2.4 Road

At a higher strategic level, the VRA (2013-2016) project was a coordination and support initiative for networking and EU/international cooperation of vehicle and road automation actors, addressing common issues and deployment requirements (e.g. implementation scenarios, legal/regulatory needs, standardisation and certification requirements).

The Finnish E8 – Aurora (2016-2017) project focuses on four key topics:

• arctic testing for intelligent transport automation;

• digital transport infrastructure and connected cars;

• intelligent infrastructure asset management;

• Mobility as a Service.

The Aurora test ecosystem is being designed for validating new ITS solutions and innovations in real, extreme climate conditions.

4.8.2.3 Sustainable Urban Mobility Plans

The key issues addressed are related to the promotion of SUMPs and other eco-mobility initiatives; the introduction of cleaner public transport vehicles and systems; and, ultimately, the development of modern infrastructures and the shift to greener transport modes (see also Section 4.2). Several projects were realised via the CIVITAS initiative which proposed various innovative and sustainable urban, passenger and freight transport strategies and actions in European cities.

The PROMOTION (2007-2010) project raised awareness and tested measures to reduce the attractiveness of the private car as a means of transport in favour of more sustainable mobility. It focused on changing users’ decision-making and proposing infrastructural planning or organisational measures. The promotion of existing or planned investments and infrastructure for alternative, energy-saving transport modes was the outcome of the ADDED VALUE (2007-2010) project. This was achieved through the application of marketing methods and campaigns to make better use of the infrastructure.

The ECOMOBILITY SHIFT (2010-2013) project established a quality management system to improve the assessment of the energy efficiency of urban transport. This was done by developing SUMPs for the participants and creating a highly valued EcoMobility label for urban areas, setting EU-wide standards for non-motorised and public transport. The development of a SUMP methodology to overcome barriers was the topic of the POLY-SUMP (2012-2014) project, which focused on polycentric regions including numerous stakeholders and town centres, where services, goods and transport needs are scattered in different municipalities. The SUPERHUB (2011-2014) project developed a framework for the real-time coordination and negotiation between providers and consumers of mobility resources. The aim was to improve the use of urban mobility resources to improve energy efficiency, reduce CO2 emissions and promote growth of urban economies and mobility systems. To achieve the same objectives in the participating European cities, the 2MOVE2 (2012-2016) project focused on proposals for e-mobility, freight and ITS/ICT solutions for traffic management, matching the proposed measures with the existing SUMPs and other urban development plans.

The CIVITAS projects in this sub-theme (TRENDSETTER (2000-2005), CARAVEL (2005-2009), MOBILIS (2005-2009) and MIRACLES (2002-2006)) mainly considered actions to improve the quality of life in the participating urban areas by reducing transport-related environmental impacts; and promoting alternative fuel production and use, and new technologies in transport. This was achieved through various sustainable urban mobility measures and policies including public-private partnerships, stakeholder consultations, and dissemination and monitoring activities. Another CIVITAS project, PORTIS (2016-2020), examines major port cities to demonstrate that sustainable mobility is particularly favourable in developing multimodal hubs for urban, regional, national and international transport of passengers and freight.

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The following projects focus on the advantages of cycling in urban transport systems:

• SPICYCLES (2006-2008) provided an integrated set of long-term measures to endorse local cycling policies, including a plan for infrastructural improvements and effective promotion campaigns to achieve increased modal share of cycling in European cities (e.g. via the developed public bicycle systems);

• Netz-E-2-R (2012-2014) was a national project that endorsed the use of low-powered e-bikes (pedelecs) by commuters in the Stuttgart region by creating smart parks for rental pedelecs and parking spaces for private pedelecs at railway stations, thus offering greener park-and-ride options;

• PTP-Cycle (2013-2016) has delivered a pan-EU personalised travel plan (PTP) programme to increase PTP capacity and skills in cities across Europe to achieve behavioural and policy shift from private car towards cycling and other sustainable modes.

4.8.3 Research outcomes

4.8.3.1 Achievements of the research under this sub-theme

The common ground for the majority of research work under this sub-theme is the improved energy efficiency and reduced environmental impact of transport systems.

For road transport, the research has mainly achieved tangible outcomes with regard to the advancement of EV/FCEV technologies and the promotion of their full market deployment in the near future. The development of innovative infrastructure that supports electromobility operations and the introduction or upgrade of advanced I2V communication systems increase vehicle autonomy and improve the optimisation of the charging or refuelling process. This will reduce ‘range anxiety’ for drivers, which has been identified as a factor hindering the mass market roll-out of electromobility.

The study of V2I functionality has also been introduced in support of the future deployment of autonomous vehicles.

For urban/public transport systems in particular, the field tests and demonstration activities of novel technologies (e.g. e-buses, e-bikes and e-trucks) have demonstrated the potential

environmental and economic benefits for modern cities, and the high readiness level for wider adoption of cleaner vehicles in everyday operations. Other key achievements, particularly from CIVITAS projects, involve the adoption of holistic approaches for developing sustainable urban mobility policies and plans, and integrated planning of new, and management of existing, infrastructures in support of ‘green’ transport modes and ITS solutions.

The research outcomes about improved energy efficiency of rail infrastructure and rolling stock provide realistic and tangible solutions to reduce energy consumption and life-cycle costs of vehicles and tracks, increase capacity and flexibility of rail networks, and improve the overall attractiveness and share of the mode.

4.8.3.2 Transferability from research to practical use

The transferability from research to practical use is an integral part of most research activities in this sub-theme because the technologies, pilot applications and optimisation methods that have been developed can be adopted for everyday operations, series production or retrofitted to existing transport systems and infrastructure. The holistic framework approaches and the interaction of a large number of relevant stakeholders are also indicative of the high practical level and usability of the planning, management and decision-making tools developed mostly within the context of SUMPs or intermodal/interoperable systems.

In addition, the continuation of research work in several consecutive projects increases the reliability and maturity of the proposed technologies and, hence, their deployment.

4.8.3.3 Indications for future research

The integrated development and coordination of secure electromobility ecosystems is vital to the acceleration and extension of EV/FCEV use. The combined development with hydrogen-based vehicles/infrastructures and other clean vehicle technologies may provide for faster and more widespread ecological and economic benefits in the future.

The requirements for the development and testing of V2I and I2V functionality need further investigation in support of the deployment of autonomous vehicles and the issues of safety, related to real driving conditions.

Extended synergies between different transport modes can also lead to broader positive effects. As shown in the research projects described here (e.g. e-bikes at rail stations, urban mobility hubs and cross-border intermodal corridors), co-modality and innovative technologies can achieve substantial results in terms of integrated management and coordination of operators, and user acceptance and modal shift to cleaner transport options. The rapidly growing sector of autonomous driving should also be taken into account in future research on novel infrastructure and V2I/I2V communication technologies.

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4.8.3.4 Implications for future policy development

The achievement of ambitious EU targets for reducing GHG and other emissions is closely connected with greener, more efficient transport systems and sustainable urban mobility planning. The overall direction from low-emissions to zero-emissions transport modes is endorsed by the most recent research activities to provide integrated solutions for electric and hydrogen-based mobility, for non-motorised modes (walking and cycling) and for minimising rail energy consumption.

Future policies should further support and stimulate the optimisation, convergence and standardisation of such

technologies; the full digitisation and high sophistication of vehicle to vehicle (V2V), V2I and I2V communication channels; and the high-level coordination of infrastructure investors and operators. The need for enhanced cooperation among a variety of stakeholders and for real-time supply/demand management will drive the necessary legislative and regulatory steps.

4.8.4 List of projects

Table 4-9 lists the projects that were reviewed during the assessment of this sub-theme.

Table 4-9 Projects reviewed in the modern infrastructure sub-theme

Project acronym Project name Project duration Source of funding

2050AP The 2050+ Airport

https://goo.gl/1TKysh

2011-2014 EU (FP7-Transport)

2MOVE2 New forms of sustainable urban transport and mobility

https://goo.gl/NvTsCJ

2012-2016 EU (FP7-Transport)

ADDED VALUE Information and awareness campaigns to enhance the effectiveness of investments and infrastructure measures for energy-efficient urban transport

https://goo.gl/1hOCdf

2007-2010 EU (IEE)

BRAVO Brenner Rail Freight Action Strategy Aimed at Achieving a Sustainable Increase of Intermodal Transport Volume by Enhancing Quality, Efficiency, and System Technologies

https://goo.gl/CIEjP2

2004-2007 EU (FP6-SUSTDEV)

CARAVEL Travelling Towards a New Mobility

https://goo.gl/O4pCpX

2005-2009 EU (FP6-SUSTDEV)

CHIC Clean Hydrogen in European Cities

https://goo.gl/8jp4Lr

2010-2016 EU (FP7-JTI)

CUTE Clean Urban Transport for Europe

https://goo.gl/3L4LzF

2001-2006 EU (FP5-EESD)

E8-Aurora E8 - Aurora

https://goo.gl/IBMVjQ

2016-2017 Finland

EBSF European Bus System of the Future

https://goo.gl/K2izM5

2008-2012 EU (FP7-Transport)

EBSF_2 European Bus Systems of the Future 2

https://goo.gl/ORkGWr

2015-2018 EU (Horizon 2020)

E-BUS Berlin Fully electric bus operations including recharging infrastructure

https://goo.gl/ZQovvv

2013-2016 Germany

ECOMOBILITY SHIFT EcoMobility Scheme for Energy-Efficient Transport

https://goo.gl/9j1arG

2010-2013 EU (IEE)

ECORAILS Energy efficiency and environmental criteria in the awarding of regional rail transport vehicles and services

https://goo.gl/gUeS4w

2009-2011 EU (IEE)

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Table 4-9 (continued) Projects reviewed in the modern infrastructure sub-theme

Project acronym Project name Project duration Source of funding

EDAS Holistic Energy Management for third and fourth generation of EVs

https://goo.gl/Zo73xT

2013-2016 EU (FP7-ICT)

E-DASH Electricity Demand and Supply Harmonizing for EVs.

https://goo.gl/C4RBtw

2011-2014 EU (FP7-ICT)

ELECTRIFIC Enabling seamless electromobility through smart vehicle-grid integration

https://goo.gl/ZHsFtb

2016-2019 EU (Horizon 2020)

ELIPTIC Electrification of Public Transport in Cities

https://goo.gl/TzReoV

2015-2018 EU (Horizon 2020)

ELVIRE ELectric Vehicle communication to Infrastructure, Road services and Electricity supply

https://goo.gl/z0j1bt

2010-2013 EU (FP7-ICT)

ERAT Environmentally Responsible Air Transport

https://goo.gl/oSEiby

2007-2010 EU (FP6-Aerospace)

FABRIC FeAsiBility analysis and development of on-Road charging solutions for future electric vehiCles

https://goo.gl/gXd1B2

2014-2017 EU (FP7-SST)

FOTSIS European Field Operational Test on Safe, Intelligent and Sustainable Road Operation

https://goo.gl/SoaM4u

2011-2014 EU (FP7-ICT)

GREEN EMOTION Green eMotion

https://goo.gl/n7uxFU

2011-2015 EU (FP7-Transport)

H2ME Hydrogen Mobility Europe

https://goo.gl/9M9OeD

2015-2020 EU (Horizon 2020)

H2OCEAN Development of a wind-wave power open-sea platform equipped for hydrogen generation with support for multiple users of energy

https://goo.gl/9cAObY

2012-2014 EU (FP7-Transport)

H2REF Development of a Cost Effective and Reliable Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicle Refuelling System

https://goo.gl/L3pprU

2015-2018 EU (Horizon 2020)

HYCHAIN MINI-TRANS Deployment of Innovative Low Power Fuel Cell Vehicle Fleets To Initiate an Early Market for Hydrogen as an Alternative Fuel in Europe

https://goo.gl/KQNhWP

2006-2011 EU (FP6-SUSTDEV)

HyFLEET: CUTE Hydrogen for Clean Urban Transport in Europe

https://goo.gl/zL1A6P

2006-2009 EU (FP6-SUSTDEV)

HyLine-S Operation of a Hybrid Bus Route in Stuttgart

https://goo.gl/EXtJSK

2013-2015 Germany

HyWays Development of a harmonised “European Hydrogen Energy Roadmap” by a balanced group of partners from industry, European regions and technical and socio-economic scenario and modelling experts

https://goo.gl/bh1mwM

2004-2007 EU (FP6-SUSTDEV)

IOE Internet of Energy for Electric Mobility

https://goo.gl/bJ6jEH

2011-2014 EU (FP7-JTI)

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Table 4-9 (continued) Projects reviewed in the modern infrastructure sub-theme

Project acronym Project name Project duration Source of funding

komDRIVE Electric potential of commercial vehicle fleets as decentralised energy source for urban distribution grids

https://goo.gl/0tsei3

2013-2016 Germany

LNG Blue Corridors LNG Blue Corridors

https://goo.gl/DCfdef

2013-2017 EU (FP7-SST)

MERLIN Sustainable and intelligent management of energy for smarter railway systems in Europe: an integrated optimisation approach

https://goo.gl/fXgwn5

2012-2030 EU (FP7-SST)

MIL Muses-Induct-Livic: Full Automated Parking Valet

https://goo.gl/jrTTUV

2013 France

MIRACLES Multi Initiatives for Rationalised Accessibility and Clean, Liveable Environments

https://goo.gl/A7l7m2

2002-2006 EU (FP5-GROWTH)

MOBILIS Mobility Initiatives for Local Integration and Sustainability

https://goo.gl/X7Glxc

2005-2009 EU (FP6-SUSTDEV)

NeMo NeMo: Hyper-Network for electroMobility

https://goo.gl/gzIO9Q

2016-2019 EU (Horizon 2020)

Netz-E-2-R Integrated Electric 2-Wheeler Mobility in the Stuttgart Region

https://goo.gl/8NlqTL

2012-2014 Germany

OSIRIS Optimal Strategy to Innovate and Reduce energy consumption In urban rail Systems

https://goo.gl/PLzJEs

2012-2014 EU (FP7-Transport)

PERSEUS Policy-oriented marine Environmental Research in the Southern EUropean Seas

https://goo.gl/XZBr9z

2012-2015 EU (FP7-Environment)

POLY-SUMP Polycentric Sustainable Urban Mobility Plans

https://goo.gl/jdClF5

2012-2014 EU (IEE)

PORTIS PORT-Cities: Integrating Sustainability

https://goo.gl/GbGpQn

2016-2020 EU (Horizon 2020)

PROMOTION Creating Liveable Neighbourhoods while Lowering Transport Energy Consumption

https://goo.gl/ZFwxah

2007-2010 EU (IEE)

PTP-Cycle Personalised Travel Planning for Cycling

https://goo.gl/rCuvmd

2013-2016 EU (IEE)

RAILENERGY Innovative Integrated Energy Efficiency Solutions for Railway Rolling Stock, Rail Infrastructure and Train Operation

https://goo.gl/HP1hud

2006-2010 EU (FP6-SUSTDEV)

ROLL2RAIL New Dependable Rolling Stock for a More Sustainable, Intelligent and Comfortable Rail Transport in Europe

https://goo.gl/Z3C5FT

2015-2017 EU (Horizon 2020)

SGI Smart Grid Integration

https://goo.gl/naXlFV

2013-2015 Germany

SPICYCLES Sustainable Planning & Innovation for biCYCLES

https://goo.gl/V9O78C

2006-2008 EU (IEE)

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Table 4-9 (continued) Projects reviewed in the modern infrastructure sub-theme

Project acronym Project name Project duration Source of funding

SUPERHUB SUstainable and PERsuasive Human Users moBility in future cities

https://goo.gl/xDjQLt

2011-2014 EU (FP7-ICT)

SUSTRAIL The sustainable freight railway: Designing the freight vehicle track system for higher delivered tonnage with improved availability at reduced cost

https://goo.gl/HP2kEm

2011-2015 EU (FP7-Transport)

TRENDSETTER Setting Trends for a Sustainable Urban Mobility

https://goo.gl/cpO9Pa

2000-2005 EU (FP5-EESD)

V-Charge Automated Valet Parking and Charging for e-Mobility

https://goo.gl/0LgPAF

2011-2015 EU (FP7-ICT)

VRA Support action for Vehicle and Road Automation network

https://goo.gl/pfomF9

2013-2016 EU (FP7-ICT)

ZERO REGIO Lombardia & Rhein-Main towards Zero Emission: Development and Demonstration of Infrastructure Systems for Hydrogen as an Alternative Motor Fuel

https://goo.gl/1NT5r7

2004-2010 EU (FP6-SUSTDEV)

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5.1 Research environment and developmentThe significant rise in demand for transport (passengers and freight) over time has led to increased negative impacts on the environment, particularly through emissions of greenhouse gases (principally carbon dioxide (CO2)) and pollutants that affect local air quality (LAQ). It has long been recognised that it is important to develop improved technologies and practices to reduce these adverse impacts and that research is important to enable these developments.

This review has concentrated on larger research projects (in terms of budget and number of partners) as indicative of their likely impact on real emissions from transport. Such projects first became evident in the European Union’s (EU) 5th Framework Programme for Research and Technological Development (FP5), with a primary emphasis on sustainable mobility in urban areas. There was also a growing element of technology development for aviation, particularly for unconventional or very large aircraft.

Under the FP6 programme, there was a growing prioritisation of the cleaner transport topic and an increase in funding for major research and demonstration projects. Key areas were the development of advanced technologies to reduce fuel consumption and emissions from road transport. There was also a growing number of projects investigating alternative fuels, such as hydrogen.

In the aviation area, there was a strong emphasis on developing technologies for reduced emissions from engines, particularly emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx) and particulate matter (PM). In comparison, there was relatively little research performed into reducing emissions from maritime transport.

Under FP7, there was a large growth in research on cleaner transport. The focus in road transport was on increasing the efficiency of conventionally fuelled vehicles. There was also an emphasis on the development of technology for electric vehicles (EVs), including the necessary infrastructure for their widespread use. In aviation, there was a continued emphasis on technologies to reduce NOx and PM emissions from aircraft engines. There was also significant research on the development of advanced technologies to improve the fuel efficiency of aircraft, including technologies such as hybrid laminar flow for drag reduction.

Under Horizon 2020, many of the key elements of cleaner transport remain priorities, with a particular emphasis on improvements in fuel efficiency and reductions in emissions of CO2. For road vehicles, there is a continued emphasis on the development of EV technologies, while the emphasis for aviation remains to advance technologies to reduce CO2 and PM emissions.

In addition to the research performed under the FPs, significant technology development has also been performed under other major EU programmes, particularly in the aviation field. The Single European Sky ATM Research (SESAR) project has been

developing the technology required to implement the Single European Sky (SES). This aims to improve the safety and efficiency of the European air traffic management (ATM) system, while enabling increased capacity to allow for future growth in demand through cooperation and interconnectivity between the different national ATM systems employed.

The Clean Sky Joint Technology Initiative (JTI), together with the follow-on programme, Clean Sky 2, is developing and demonstrating technologies for reducing noise and emissions of CO2 and other pollutants from future aircraft. The technology development includes novel aircraft configurations, advances in wing design and aerodynamics, and breakthroughs in propulsion technologies. These are applicable to a range of aircraft types, including large passenger aircraft, ‘green regional aircraft’ and advanced rotorcraft.

While major programmes such as SESAR and Clean Sky perform their own research, development and technological demonstration activities, they also draw heavily on the results from the research performed under the FPs and, hence, provide a route for the exploitation of those results.

5.2 Research activities and outcomesThe research projects within the alternative fuels sub-theme aim to develop cleaner transport systems via the use of alternative fuels that result in lower emissions of CO2 and/or of local air pollutants.

A variety of alternatively fuels are already being tested in buses in public transport systems across Europe. For example, City VITAlity and Sustainability (CIVITAS) initiative projects such as MOBILIS and TELLUS have tested compressed natural gas (CNG) and biofuels for buses, while a number of cities have trialled hydrogen fuel cell electric buses during projects such as CHIC and HYCHAIN MINI-TRANS. Many of the vehicles tested during these projects continue to operate under real market conditions after the projects have finished, so delivering continued emissions benefits. Similar projects involving alternatively fuelled cars have also been carried out.

Research is also underway to test the use of alternative fuels in heavy duty vehicles used for freight transport. Projects such as ENCLOSE and BEAUTY have demonstrated the potential of biofuels to help achieve future emissions limits. These projects have also helped to overcome technical challenges such as fuel conversion efficiency and cold startability. Another project, FELICITAS, investigated fuel cell powertrains and the performance of hydrogen powered vehicles, while HDGAS investigated the applicability of liquefied natural gas (LNG).

In aircraft, biofuels and synthetic fuels have been investigated. The research projects identified were generally smaller scale projects at an earlier stage of research that developed innovative fuels (such as FIRST). As the technologies are not yet optimised, quantitative information on the potential environmental impacts

5 Conclusions and recommendations

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is usually not available. However, the next stage will be to conduct larger scale trials. Another project, ECATS, developed a network to further develop and share scientific expertise in aviation, atmospheric science and industry.

In the shipping sector, a number of research projects are being conducted to develop ships capable of using alternative fuels. Most notably, HERCULES-2 is developing fuel-flexible engines that will allow for high-performance and low-emissions transport, while MC-WAP developed fuel cell systems suitable for large ships.

The focus on modal shift in urban transport remains unchanged throughout the years, with the outcomes from the majority of projects comprising soft measures aimed at fostering a transition process to less energy intense transport modes and reducing the demand for private vehicles. These include a range of measures to encourage the use of walking, cycling and public transport; mobility sharing schemes; clean, energy-efficient vehicles, and measures to reduce emissions from urban freight logistics operations. Inevitably, more recent research is coordinated with technological advancements. Therefore, an increasing introduction of modern technology and innovation is noticeable in these measures. In addition, recent research has been directed towards encouraging a modal shift in the tourism sector, as well as the development of intermodal systems. There is a continuous flow of marketing and information campaigns to trigger behavioural change – the key driver to mobility choices.

Several projects on modal shift achieved tangible results in terms of reductions of traffic-related CO2 emissions and demand for private car trips, and dissemination and training actions. Most importantly, in several cases, further development continued after the end of a project, resulting in an increased impact. Another key achievement of CIVITAS projects was that demonstration measures did not constitute isolated attempts, but were, in most cases, integrated into the cities’ urban transport policies and plans.

The coverage of modal shift in other sectors and, more specifically, long-distance freight transport, is minimal in the projects identified. However, they include one of the most prominent projects to date regarding an increase of the inland water transport modal share.

The analysis has shown that battery management systems are essential to encourage electromobility. An actively managed battery has the advantage of keeping the battery in a beneficial operational state, so improving its safety and lifetime, which leads to lower costs. In terms of battery cell development, progress has been made regarding materials research for anodes, cathodes and electrolytes, which contributes to a better recyclability, longer lifetimes and an improved performance.

Improved energy efficiency and safety of EVs requires not only improved battery technology, but other vehicle components also need to be considered. These include the vehicle’s climate control, its braking system and, increasingly, the collection and processing of data with suitable software.

The implementation of electromobility into the power grid is another major issue. Coordinating the charging processes of multiple EVs can lead to improvements in terms of a balanced grid and to cost reduction for the end user.

An increasing number of cities are establishing some form of sustainability plan, either in the form of full-scale sustainable urban mobility and logistics plans or in more sectoral DSPs. The respective concepts and policy strategies proposed by earlier research activities are being exploited through the latest research.

As a result of new mobile communication technologies, cooperative capacity and freight platforms are now operational and may lead to a large boost in freight transport efficiency. However, these platforms need to respect the reluctance of shippers and their customers to share sensitive data with their competitors.

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Research and demonstration projects indicate that, in freight transport, clean vehicle technologies can be implemented quicker than in passenger transport due to the shorter life cycles of vehicles and, in many cases, more regular driving cycles. However, economic viability must be guaranteed.

Considerable research has been performed on reducing the environmental impact of vehicles in all modes (air, sea, road and rail) through the development of new and improved technology.

In the area of aircraft aerodynamics and, particularly, active flow control, progress has been made in the development of the flow control technologies, including the manufacture of the required microelectromechanical system (MEMS) devices. These technologies are now being demonstrated in flight tests. The results from the studies have contributed to the understanding of how flow control devices can be manufactured and integrated with the airframe. If flight tests are able to demonstrate the expected reduction in aircraft drag, the technology will be able to contribute to significant improvements in the fuel consumption of future aircraft designs.

Other projects that have targeted reductions in airframe drag have also progressed the knowledge of the technology, particularly the necessary mechanical aspects to implement it in airframes. These have included the understanding of the mechanical design aspects of morphing wings and coatings to enable higher levels of laminar flow on wings for reduced drag.

Another technology that has the potential to reduce aircraft fuel consumption is the ‘more-electric aircraft’, in which many of the functions conventionally performed by hydraulic or pneumatic systems are performed by electrical systems. This technology is already incorporated in the Boeing 787 aircraft and is expected to be more widely used in the future. European projects have contributed to the development of this technology by improving the relevant electrically powered devices and understanding the requirements for the on-board electrical management systems.

Research projects have contributed significantly to the development of aircraft engine technology for reduced emissions. A key future engine concept is the lean-burn combustor, which is expected to offer significantly reduced NOx emissions. Several projects have contributed to the development of the design capability to enable these combustors to be incorporated in future engine designs. This early capability development is important given the protracted development cycles for new aircraft and engines. Other projects have investigated specific technologies, such as fuel injectors, for lean-burn combustors.

In addition to technologies for reduced NOx emissions, projects have investigated the design of combustors (including fuel-spray pattern requirements) for reduced soot emissions from engines.

Other projects have also developed design technology for reducing fuel consumption (and, hence, CO

2 emissions) by improving the efficiency of other engine components, particularly compressors and turbines. The improvements will be exploited by engine manufacturers when designing future engines (and, potentially, improved compressors and turbines as part of upgrades for existing engine designs). As well as improved aerodynamic designs, research has been performed on using

alternative materials to obtain reduced fuel consumption through reduced weight.

The majority of projects have developed or investigated improved design methods or improved minor components. The VITAL project brought several of these elements together to design and test major components, such as fan and compressor assemblies, including novel configurations such as counter-rotating fans. The project produced results from these major assembly tests, which are normally only performed by engine manufacturers, that will contribute to the development of advanced engine technologies.

Addressing the topic of environmental impact analysis, the TEAM_PLAY project successfully developed a capability for modelling the environmental and economic impacts of a wide range of policy options, including interdependencies, through the construction of a dedicated data warehouse and the linking of several European models to it. The capability that was developed was demonstrated on a policy test case and has been presented to European policy makers for potential application to future policy development.

A major part of European research on ship technology for reduced emissions has taken part under HERCULES and its follow-on projects. The projects have developed and tested diesel engine designs with significantly reduced NOx and PM emissions through multistage turbocharging and exhaust aftertreatments. Tests performed under the HERCULES-C project demonstrated NOx emissions 80 % below the International Maritime Organisation (IMO) Tier 1 levels. Continuing efforts are expected to result in further improvements, giving near-zero emissions from future engine designs.

Another project targeting reduced emissions from ships developed retrofittable technologies for dual-fuel operation, allowing a ship diesel engine to operate on diesel or natural gas (CNG or LNG) fuels. The results showed higher efficiencies and lower emissions when the engine was run on natural gas fuels.

The E-ferry project is targeting the development of a ship with near-zero or zero emissions. In this case, the approach is a 100 % electric ship design. When it is put into service, the electric ferry (e-ferry) that is being developed is expected to save 2 000 tonnes of CO

2 emissions per year compared with a conventionally fuelled ship.

Technical developments in the field of road passenger vehicles concentrate mainly on the improvement of engines and powertrains. This includes conventional vehicles and alternative concepts such as hybrid, electric or fuel cell drives. In recent years, several projects have focused on eco-efficient driving behaviour and routing that can be achieved by suitable human-machine interfaces, and a data exchange between vehicle and traffic management.

For road freight vehicles, considerable research has been performed into conventional powertrains with an emphasis on fuel consumption and CO2 emissions reduction. Additional fuel savings can be achieved by extending the focus to the overall energy management of a vehicle (e.g. by recovering brake and thermal energy, which can then be used for auxiliary components).

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In addition to low fuel consumption during driving, energy efficient auxiliary power units (APUs) are of great importance in the parking mode. For this purpose, innovative fuel cell approaches for power generation have been examined. They are characterised by producing hydrogen from diesel fuel and turning it into electrical energy. This comes with a significant reduction of fuel consumption, emissions and costs.

Developments for rail vehicles have concentrated on the improvement of diesel engines and aftertreatment systems to reduce CO2 and NOx emissions.

The common ground for the majority of research work under the modern infrastructure sub-theme is the improved energy efficiency and reduced environmental impact of transport systems.

For road transport, the research has produced significant outcomes with regard to the advancement of EV/fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV) technologies, which will help to realise their full market deployment in the near future. The development of an innovative infrastructure that supports electromobility operations and the introduction or upgrade of advanced infrastructure-to-vehicle (I2V) communication systems increase vehicle autonomy and the optimisation of the charging or refuelling process. As a result, the ‘range anxiety’ of drivers may be reduced. This addresses a number of factors that hinder the mass market roll-out of electromobility.

The field tests and demonstration activities of novel technologies for urban transport systems (e.g. e-buses, e-bikes and e-trucks) have demonstrated the potential environmental and economic benefits for modern cities and the high readiness level for a wider adoption of cleaner vehicles in everyday operations. Other key achievements, particularly from CIVITAS projects, involve the adoption of holistic approaches for developing sustainable urban mobility policies and plans, and integrated planning of new, and management of existing, infrastructures in support of ‘green’ transport modes and intelligent transport systems (ITS) solutions.

The results of research related to improvements in the energy efficiency of rail infrastructure and rolling stock provide realistic and tangible solutions to reduce energy consumption and life-cycle costs of vehicles and tracks, increase capacity and flexibility of rail networks, and improve the overall attractiveness and share of the mode.

5.3 Indications for future researchMuch of the research carried out to date on alternative fuels has focused on road transport, with a small number of projects relevant to aviation. Further research should be performed into the potential of alternative fuels suitable for shipping such as LNG, methanol and hydrogen. These fuels are attractive as part of a long-term strategy as, in the future, each could be replaced by a renewable alternative.

Further research is also required on the quantification of the costs and benefits of switching to alternative fuels. The publication of detailed results concerning the emissions benefits from European funded pilot projects would support such efforts by encouraging other regions to test alternative fuels.

Furthermore, life-cycle assessments for a variety of alternative fuels, transport modes and European countries should be performed.

The links between transport fuels and other sectors should continue to be explored. This could include links between hydrogen and energy systems and integrated biorefineries, in which biofuel, bio-based chemicals and power can all be produced.

Given the long-term need to transfer from low-emissions to zero-emissions mobility, research efforts on modal shift should increasingly be directed towards supporting this transition through the development of related knowledge, technology and skills.

As the total demand for freight transport in Europe has increased significantly in recent years, additional sectors should also be addressed, such as the modal shift from road freight transport to rail, and short-sea and inland waterways shipping.

Software development is a key issue for EVs. As battery development is largely confined to Asia, vehicle software can be a competitive advantage for European industry. This includes battery management systems and embedded systems in other vehicle components. The monitoring and coordinating of the systems on board and their communication with related road or energy infrastructure can be seen as promising areas for future research due to their potential to save energy, improve safety and reduce costs.

The TRAILBLAZER project has identified a number of issues for future research directions in the field of cleaner freight transport such as:

• continuing to promote the use of Delivery and Servicing Plans (DSPs) to reduce the amount of fuel used in freight delivery and servicing activities with the specific goal of reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and primary energy consumption;

• giving consideration to future projects that investigate the wider savings that can be achieved through the use of goods consolidation centres;

• giving consideration to future projects that investigate the wider savings that can be achieved through the implementation of area-wide DSPs and their transferability across the EU;

• consideration should be given to an in-depth study of the Swedish municipality consolidation experience to understand the wider effects of the increasing take-up of the concept and its transferability across the EU.

Given the large contribution of long-distance road transport to GHG and air pollutant emissions, and against a background of large financial and acceptability problems of rail freight services, future research should return to inter-urban logistics. Research on institutional aspects for more efficient and cooperative solutions, and for increasing innovation in the sector appears to be of greatest importance for curbing the environmental impacts of freight transport, while maintaining its economic competitiveness.

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A clear trend through much of the research on aircraft and aircraft engine technology is the development of design tools to enable the incorporation of advanced concepts in future products, together with the development of small components. The full development of major aircraft or engine components for demonstrating new technologies is usually performed by the manufacturers under their own funding (and hence is not reported). However, there are benefits (as exemplified by the VITAL project) from large-scale technology demonstration projects with results being available to several manufacturers.

Research has been performed into reducing emissions from aircraft engines of NOx (particularly using lean-burn technology) and soot (or non-volatile particulate matter (nvPM)). It is important that future research on reduced emissions from engines addresses all pollutants (or, at least, NOx and soot together) so that any interdependencies can be considered.

Most of the projects on road and rail vehicle technologies focus on incremental improvements of technical vehicle components. Breakthrough innovations of new vehicle concepts are not yet evident. However, fuel cell APUs may provide such a breakthrough.

Moving research efforts from single vehicle components and towards a holistic view of the transport system may provide significant benefits. This includes the behaviour of drivers, and their interaction with the vehicle via the human-machine interface and with the infrastructure. A crucial factor needed for this is the provision and exchange of data on all levels. With adjusted driving strategies and improved route choices, further fuel savings may be achievable.

Increasing the level of automation in the transport system brings about additional challenges, such as the optimal way of engaging

the driver, ensuring the safe termination of the automation and the smooth transfer of the system back to the driver. In addition, the effect of major or minor accidents with automated transport systems must be explored. Within the clean transport context, further research is required to determine the contribution to low-emissions mobility of automation as an alternative to the use of private vehicles and the conditions under which automated driving will contribute to cleaner transportation.

Moreover, future efforts should also move away from purely technological research and focus on recommended strategies for overcoming obstacles that could disrupt or delay the operation of automated vehicles, social issues (such as liability) and other regulatory issues.

The integrated development and coordination of secure electromobility ecosystems is vital to the acceleration and extension of EV/FCEVs use. The combined development of the necessary infrastructure with that for hydrogen-based vehicles and other clean vehicle technologies may facilitate faster and more widespread ecological and economic benefits in the future.

Extended synergies between the infrastructures for different transport modes can also lead to broader positive effects. As demonstrated by some research projects (e.g. e-bikes at rail stations, urban mobility hubs and cross-border intermodal corridors), co-modality and innovative technologies can achieve substantial results in terms of integrated management and coordination of operators, user acceptance and modal shift to cleaner transport options. The rapidly growing sector of autonomous driving (driverless vehicles) should also be taken into account in future research on novel infrastructure and vehicle to infrastructure (V2I)/I2V communication technologies.

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5.4 Implications for future policy developmentExisting European policy provides a platform for bringing alternative fuels to the market, while research programmes are supporting the development of innovative new technologies. In the future, a greater focus may be needed on supporting the infrastructure requirements of alternative fuels and ensuring that Member States develop clear strategies to adopt alternatively fuelled vehicles. In particular, regular assessments should be carried out to ensure that progress is being made throughout the EU, and to justify further policies and research funding in the area of alternative transport fuels. Analysis of, and collaboration with, non-EU countries could also be carried out to ensure that the EU remains competitive globally.

Modernising transport and reaping the environmental, economic and social benefits of a modal shift to low-carbon/zero-emissions mobility is considered one of the pillars of the EU’s future policy development for achieving reductions of CO2 and other harmful emissions. Nevertheless, the growing global competitiveness and emerging business models in an increasingly digitalised economy, together with continuous technological advancements, call for a more integrated approach that creates synergies between the transport sector and those related to energy, technology, automation, etc.

Current research in the field of policy design, regulations and incentives related to electromobility is targeted at different parts of the transport market. Mainly focused on urban areas – which is the area where EVs, with their specific driving characteristics and range limitations, can operate best – options can be identified for creating acceptance for electric passenger cars, delivery vehicles and infrastructure. The key results from the research are that campaigns and opportunities for testing EVs, including addressing local conditions, are needed to create acceptance, and that viable business models for EVs and, in particular, for infrastructures are still problematic. Here innovative solutions (e.g. combining different sectors and use case) are needed.

The policy recommendations that have been identified in relation to low-emissions logistics include:

• EU and national bodies should continue to encourage all types of cities to establish Sustainable Urban Mobility Plans (SUMPs) with special consideration given to logistics aspects. Which types of incentives work best for this purpose and how the (extended) SUMPs may look like will vary from region to region.

• The cooperation of companies and institutions for more efficient freight delivery requires more than providing good platforms and encouragement. The establishment of urban goods consolidation centres needs investment, respective priorities on local land use planning, access regulations, financial incentives for cooperation and other tools. Again, the mix of tools is subject to the local context.

• All available means of enforcement and incentive should be used to transform clean modes of transport (particularly railways) into vital market players. This also implies a strategic assignment of investment and maintenance funds for transport infrastructure. Agreements on European and national strategies would help in that respect.

A common feature of aviation and maritime vehicles (aircraft and ships) is that they are used predominately on international operations and their regulations, particularly regarding emissions, are set by international bodies. EU regulations recognise this and EU bodies are involved in the development of new regulations through the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) and IMO. These efforts should continue and future policy development (e.g. in relation to a future tightening of the Committee on Aviation Environmental Protection (CAEP) NOx standard for aircraft engines) should take account of the emission reduction being achieved by the different technologies arising from the research projects.

In addition, the development of future EU policies related to emissions from aviation and maritime sources (e.g. air quality regulations) should take account of the low-emissions technologies being developed and the improvements in emissions that may be expected when these technologies are ultimately incorporated in in-service aircraft and ships.

The achievement of ambitious EU targets for the reduction of GHG and other emissions is closely connected with greener, more efficient transport systems that rely on a modern transport infrastructure and sustainable urban mobility planning. The overall direction from low-emissions to zero-emissions transport modes is endorsed by the most recent research activities to provide integrated solutions for electric and hydrogen-based mobility, for non-motorised modes (walking and cycling) and for minimising rail energy consumption.

Future policies should further support and stimulate the optimisation, convergence and standardisation of such technologies, the full digitisation and high sophistication of vehicle to vehicle (V2V), V2I and I2V communication channels, and the high-level coordination of infrastructure investors and operators. The need for enhanced cooperation among a variety of stakeholders and for real-time supply/demand management will drive the necessary legislative and regulatory steps.

The coordinated and rapid deployment of cooperative, connected and automated vehicles in road transport urgently requires EU action. While the technology continues to advance, society needs to focus more on the challenges and impacts (positive and adverse) that the introduction of automated vehicles will have on the transport sector, other related technology frameworks and society as a whole. Respective policy frameworks need to be further developed.

The European Commission communication on C-ITS addresses several of these concerns.

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Advisory Council for Research and Innovation in Europe (ACARE) (n.d.).Flightpath 2050 Goals.http://www.acare4europe.org/sria/flightpath-2050-goals

European Biofuels Technology Platform (2011). Biofuel fact sheet - Liquid, synthetic hydrocarbons. http://www.etipbioenergy.eu/images/synthetic-hydrocarbons-fact-sheet.pdf

European Commission. (2011).WHITE PAPER Roadmap to a Single European Transport Area. Towards a Competitive and Resource Efficient Transport System, COM(2011) 144 final. Brussels: European Commission.

European Commission. (2011b).JRC Scientific and Technical Report – Well to wheels analysis of future automotive fuels and powertrains in the European context v3c. JRC 65998. European Commission, 2011.http://iet.jrc.ec.europa.eu/about-jec/sites/iet.jrc.ec.europa.eu.about-jec/files/documents/wtw3_wtw_report_eurformat.pdf

European Commission. (2016a).A European Strategy for Low-Emission Mobility, COM(2016) 501 final. Brussels: European Commission.https://ec.europa.eu/transport/sites/transport/files/themes/strategies/news/doc/2016-07-20-decarbonisation/com% 282016%29501_en.pdf

European Commission. (2016b).A European strategy on Cooperative Intelligent Transport Systems, a milestone towards cooperative, connected and automated mobility. (COM(2016)766 Final).

International Maritime Organization (2007).International maritime transport and greenhouse gas emissions – climate change: a challenge for IMO too!http://www.imo.org/en/KnowledgeCentre/ShipsAndShipping FactsAndFigures/TheRoleandImportanceofInternational Shipping/IMO_Brochures/Documents/InternationalMaritime TransportandGreenhouseGasEmissions[1].pdf

TRIP (2017). Research Theme Analysis Report – Transport Infrastructure. http://www.transport-research.info/sites/default/files/TRIP_Transport_infrastructures_0.pdf

6 References/bibliography

80R e s e a r c h T h e m e A n a l y s i s R e p o r t C l e a n e r T r a n s p o r t

The following abbreviations have been used in this review.

AC Alternating current

ADAS Advanced driver assistance systems

APU Auxiliary power unit

ATM Air traffic management

BMS Battery management system

BEV Battery electric vehicle

CAEP Committee on Aviation Environmental Protection

CFD Computational fluid dynamics

C-ITS Cooperative intelligent transport system

CIVITAS City VITAlity and Sustainability

CNG Compressed natural gas

CO Carbon monoxide

CO2 Carbon dioxide

DC Direct current

DG-MOVE Directorate-General for Mobility and Transport

DSP Delivery and Servicing Plan

EBTP European Biofuels Technology Platform

ELA Electric L-category vehicles

ERA European Research Area

EU European Union

EV Electric vehicle

FCEV Fuel cell electric vehicle

FCH JU Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Undertaking

FEV Fully electric vehicle

FP Framework Programme for Research and Technological Development

GHG Greenhouse gas

HC Hydrocarbons

I2V Infrastructure to vehicle

I2I Infrastructure to infrastructure

ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization

ICT Information and communications technology

IEE Intelligent Energy Europe

IMO International Maritime Organization

IT Information technology

ITS Intelligent transport systems

JTI Joint Technology Initiative

7 Glossary

81R e s e a r c h T h e m e A n a l y s i s R e p o r t C l e a n e r T r a n s p o r t

LAQ Local air quality

LES Large eddy simulation

Li Lithium

LNG Liquefied natural gas

LPG Liquefied petroleum gas

MEMS Microelectromechanical systems

NOx Nitrogen oxides

OEM Original equipment manufacturer

nvPM Non-volatile particulate matter

PM Particulate matter

R&D Research and development

SES Single European Sky

SESAR Single European Sky ATM Research

SOx Sulphur oxides

SOFC Solid oxide fuel cell

SULP Sustainable Urban Logistics Plan

SUMP Sustainable Urban Mobility Plan

tCO2e Tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent

TRIP Transport Research & Innovation Portal

V2I Vehicle to infrastructure

V2V Vehicle to vehicle

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www.transport-research.info

Publication: Research Theme Analysis Report Cleaner Transport Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Union

ISBN: 978-92-79-71871-7DOI: 10.2832/44900 Catalogue: MI-02-17-952-EN-N

83R e s e a r c h T h e m e A n a l y s i s R e p o r t C l e a n e r T r a n s p o r t