Research Methodology

CMS 203: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY



1

Copyright

All rights reserved. No unauthorised reproduction of this manual or part thereof in any

form is allowed.


2

About this STUDY MANUAL

CMS 203, RESEARCH METHODOLOGY, has been produced by

KCA University. All Modules produced by are structured in the

same way, as outlined below.

How this STUDY MANUAL is structured

The course overview

The course overview gives you a general introduction to the course.

Information contained in the course overview will help you

determine:

If the course is suitable for you.

What you will already need to know.

What you can expect from the course.

How much time you will need to invest to complete the course.

The overview also provides guidance on:

Study skills.

Where to get help.

Course assignments and assessments.

Activity icons.

CHAPTERs.

We strongly recommend that you read the overview carefully

before starting your study.

The course content

The course is broken down into CHAPTERs. Each CHAPTER

comprises:


3

An introduction to the CHAPTER content.

CHAPTER outcomes.

New terminology.

Core content of the CHAPTER with a variety of learning

activities.

A CHAPTER summary.

Assignments and/or assessments, as applicable.

Resources

For those interested in learning more on this subject, we provide

you with a list of additional resources at the end of this STUDY

MANUAL; these may be books, articles or web sites.

Your comments

After completing CMS 203, we would appreciate it if you would

take a few moments to give us your feedback on any aspect of this

course. Your feedback might include comments on:

Course content and structure.

Course reading materials and resources.

Course assignments.

Course assessments.

Course duration.

Course support (assigned tutors, technical help, etc.)

Your constructive feedback will help us to improve and enhance

this course


4

MODULE TITLE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Introduction

Research Methodology is a comprehensive introductory course on the research process

from a managers perspective, with particular emphasis on the sequence, skills,

competences, techniques and knowledge needed to successfully manage a research

process.

This unit examines the logical flow of the academic research work from the beginning to

the end. It also outlines the ethical issues involved in the research process.

The whole course unit is composed of 15 lectures which are sub-divided into units to

support the student to demonstrate and show understanding and appreciation of the

management.

The assessment is as follows:

2 Assignments of 10 marks each --------------------------------Total = 20 Marks

2 Self-administered Tests of 5 marks each---------------------Total = 10 Marks

1 Examination------------------------------------------------------Total = 70 Marks

Grand Total--------------------------------------------------------------=100 Marks

Course Description

The purpose of this course is to give students a firm grounding in the fundamentals of

social science research, and to familiarize students with a range of typical research

designs in the field of management and organization.

The first half of the course introduces the basics of social science research, such as

philosophy of science, theory development and testing, sampling, measurement, internal

validity and external validity. We then, in the second half, apply these general principles

to specific methodological options, including experiment, DID research design, and

various quantitative/qualitative research methods. We conclude this course with a

getting your research into journals workshop based on a real paper at different stages of

the review process.

Course Objectives

By the end of this course, the students should be able to:


5

understand some basic concepts of research and its methodologies

identify appropriate research topics

select and define appropriate research problem and parameters

prepare a project proposal (to undertake a project)

organize and conduct research (basic project) in a more appropriate manner

write a research proposal

write a research dissertation

Expected Outcomes

Students completing this course are expected:

1. To understand the logic underlying social science research

2. To become a critical consumer of social science research

3. To be confident in applying appropriate research methods to answer their own research

questions

Table of Contents

LECTURE 1: MEANING AND SOME DEFINITIONS

1 Session objectives

1.1 Meaning of Research

1.1.1 Some Definitions

1.1.2 The Need for Research

1.1.2.1 What is an Objectives?

1.1.2.2 Examples of Objectives

1.2 Importance of Research

1.2.1 Role of Research in Business and Management

1.2.2 Importance of Business Research in Management Functions:

1.2.2.1 Testing New Products

1.2.2.2 Ensuring Adequate Distribution

1.2.2.3 Measuring Advertising Effectiveness

1.2.2.4 Studying the Competition

1.2.3 Motivation in Research

1.2.3.1 Importance of Research to Individuals

1.2.3.2 Importance of Research to Organizations

1.3 Session Review

1.4 Session further reading


6

LECTURE 2: CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH

2 Session Objectives

2.1 What does classification of research mean?

2.1.1 Why Do We Need Classify?

2.1.2 Classification on Based on Purpose

2.1.3 Classification Based on Purpose Method

2.2 Types of Research

2.2.1 Historical Research

2.2.2. Descriptive Research

2.2.3 Correlational Studies

2.2.4 Ex-Post Facto Studies

2.2.5 Experimental Research

2.2.6 Applied Vs. Basic Research

2.2.7 Other Types of Research

2.3 Factors that Determine the Type of Research to be Undertaken

2.3.1 Time constraints

2.3.2 Availability of Data

2.3.3 Nature of the Decision

2.3.4 Benefits versus Costs

2.3.5 Session Review

2.3.6 Further Reading materials for the Session

LECTURE 3: CONDUCTING ACTUAL RESEARCH

3.1 Session Objectives

3.2 What is Business Research?

3.3 Scientific Method of Research

3.4 Characteristics of Scientific Research Method

3.5 The Steps in the Scientific Research Method

3.5.1 Define the Research Problem

3.5.1.1 Selecting and Defining a Problem

3.5.1.2 What are the Functions of a hypothesis?


7

3.5.1.3 Describing Methodology of Research

3.6 Example of decision making that could necessitate research

3.7 Example of problem solving that could necessitate research

3.8 Formulate Objectives and Questions/Hypotheses

3.9 Review the literature

3.9.1 What is literature review?

3.9.2 Why do Researchers need to do Literature Review?

3.9.3 When to review the literature

3.9.4 How to Carry out a Literature Review?

3.9.4.1 Ways of finding

relevant material

3.10 Session Review

3.11 Further Reading materials for the Session

LECTURE 4: LITERATURE REVIEW

4.1 Session Objectives

4.2 Introduction

4.2.1 What then is literature review?


4.2.3 When to Review the Literature

4.2.4 How Do Researchers Carry out a Literature

Review?

4.3 Ways of Finding Relevant Material

4.4 Qualities of an Effective Literature Review

4.5 Challenges Faced when Formulating Literature Review

4.6 Session Summary

4.7 Further Reading

LECTURE 5: RESEARCH DESIGN


5.1 Developing Research Design

5.1.1 Research Design

5.1.2 Classification of Research Types


8

5.1.2.1 Descriptive Design

5.1.2.2 Experimental Design

5.1.2.3 Case Study Design

5.1.2.4 Cross-Sectional Design

5.1.2.5 Hybrid/Combined Research Design

5.1.3 Why does a Researcher Need a Research Design?

5.1.3 1 Categorization of Research Purposes

5.1.3.2 Considerations for the Preparation of Research Design

5.2 Session Review


LECTURE 6: SAMPLING DESIGN


6.1 Why do researchers use samples?

6.2 Determining Sample Design

6.3 Types of Samples Designs

6.3.1 Probability Samples or Non-Probability Samples

6.3.1.1 Deliberate Sampling

6.3.1.2 Simple Random Sampling

6.3.1.3 Systematic Sampling

6.3.1.4 Stratified Sampling

6.3.1.5 Quota Sampling

6.3.1.6 Cluster Sampling

6.3.1.7 Area sampling

6.3.1.8 Multi-stage Sampling

6.3.1.9 Sequential Sampling

6.4 Session Review


LECTURE 7: DATA COLLECTION


7.1 What is Data?

7.1.1 Types of Data to be Collected

7.2 Secondary Data

7. 2.1 Types of Secondary Data


9

7.2.2 Sources of External data

7.2.3 Verification of Secondary Data

7.3 Primary Data

7.3.1 Data Primary Collecting

7.3.2 Research Methods/Instruments

7.3.2.1 Collecting Data by Observation

7.3.2.2 Collecting Data through Personal Interview

7.3.2.3 Collecting Data through Telephone Interviews

7.3.2.4 Data Collection Using Mail Questionnaires

7.3.2.5 Data Collection through Interview Schedules

7.3.3 Considerations for a Researcher Make before Using Interviews

to Collect Data

7.4 Validity and Reliability of Research Instruments

7.5 Ethical Issues in Data Collection

7.6 Challenges Researchers Face in Data Collection

7.7 Session Review


LECTURE 8: ANALYZING AND INTERPRETING DATA


8.1 What should a researcher do to data before analysing it?

8.2 Meaning of Analysing and Interpreting Data

8.3 Importance and Challenges of Data Analysis

8.4 Qualitative or Quantitative Data Analysis?

8.4.1 What does the researcher do with the collected data?

8.4.1.1 How Researcher organize Data into Purposeful Categories

8.4.1.2 What does the researcher look for in the process of analysis?

8.4.2 Hypothesis-Testing

8.4.3 Generalizations and Interpretation

8.4.3.1 Interpretation of Research Findings and Drawing

conclusions

8.4.3.2 Drawing Conclusions

8.5 Session Review


10


LECTURE 9:



LECTURE 10:



LECTURE 10:




11

LECTURE ONE: MEANING AND SOME DEFINITIONS

1 Lecture objectives:

By the end of this session;

- the learner should be able to define in different ways the meaning of research and the

meaning of other research terminologies

-the learner should also be able to explain the importance of research to individuals,

organizations and to countries

-the learner should be able to use relevant examples in the definitions and explanations

1.1 Meaning of Research

Research refers to a search for knowledge. Research is an art of scientific investigation.

The Advanced Learners Dictionary of Current English lays down the meaning of

research as, a careful investigation or inquiry especially through search for new facts in

any branch of knowledge.

1.1.1 Some Definitions

Redman and Mory (2009) define research as a, Systematized effort to gain new

knowledge.

According to Redman and Mory (2009) some people consider research as a movement, a

movement from the known to the unknown.

Research comprises of definition and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or

suggested solutions collecting, organizing and evaluating data, making deductions and

reaching conclusions; to determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis.

Research is a process of determining, acquiring, analyzing, synthesizing, and

disseminating relevant business data, information, and insights to decision makers in

ways that mobilize the organization to take appropriate business actions that, in turn,

maximize business performance.


12

Having understood what research is, let us now consider why research is important. The

discussion below includes the need for and objectives of research, as well as examples of

objectives.

1.1.2 The Need for Research

One of the characteristics of scientific research is that it must have an aim or purpose. In

order to understand the aim of research, we need to understand objectives of research.

Below we discuss the characteristics of research objectives followed by examples of

objectives that researchers would aim to achieve.

1.1.2.1 What is an Objective?

An objective is the aim or goal someone wants to achieve. Objectives must be SMART,

that is, they must be;

Specific meaning they must have a focused aim to fulfil,

Measurable, that is, they must be stated in terms that allow them to be verified,

Achievable meaning they must be the kind of objectives that a researcher is

capable of attaining,

Realistic in that they must be based on facts and situations as they really are

Timely so that they may help solve the problem or make informed decisions for

which they are generated.

1.1.2.2 Examples of Objectives

Different researchers have different goals to achieve when they set out on research.

Below we discuss four main ones. A researcher can carry out a research to;

1. Gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it. This can be

done using exploratory or formulate research studies.

2. Describe accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group

which is also known as descriptive research.

3. Determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated

with something else research. This kind of is also known as diagnostic research.

4. Test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables. These kinds of studies are

known as hypothesis testing research.


13

Now, after the definition, research objectives and examples of research objectives, let us

now consider types of research in the next section.

1.2 Importance of Research

Research is a critical component of any business organization and to individuals. In the

following sub-section we discuss some of the reasons why organizations carry out

research as well as to individuals. We begin by discussing the role of research in business

and management, the importance of research in business and management functions then

move to the importance of research to individuals and finally to organizations.

1.2.1 Role of Research in Business and Management

The main aim of research in business and management is to solve business and

management problems:

1.2.1.1 Business problems: drop in sales, drop in customer base, consumer complaints,

high product rejection, negative word of mouth (WOM), class between customers and

sales people, high interest rates, poor ROI, poor turn-over/revenue (profits), etc

1.2.1.2 Management problems: high employee turn-over/complaints/grievances, class

between customers and sales people, run down institutions, promotion/demotion of

employees, transfers, management employee relations, etc.

It is good to take note that the prime managerial value of business research is to reduce

uncertainty by providing information that improves the decision making process.

Decision making process involves following interrelated stages.

Identifying problems and opportunities

Diagnosis and assessment

Selecting and implementing a course of action

Evaluating the course of action: includes Evaluation research and Performance

monitoring research

-Evaluation Research: is the formal, objective measurement and appraisal of the extent to

which a given activity, project, or program has achieved its objectives.


14

-Performance-monitoring Research: Research that regularly provides feedback for

evaluation and control; Indicates things are or are not going as planned; Research may be

required to explain why something went wrong.

1.2.2 Importance of Business Research in Management Functions:

Below is a brief discussion of the importance of research in business management

functions;

1.2.2.1 Testing New Products

Business research tests the potential success of new products. It is vital to know what

types of products and services customers want before they market them. For example, a

restaurant chain may initially interview focus groups to test half dozen types of fish

meals. The focus groups will likely consist of small groups of customers. The objective

of the focus group may be to determine which fish meal customers like the best. The

company may even use customer input in naming the entree and ask how much

consumers would spend for the meal. Eventually, the company may test the fish meal

through surveys with larger groups of people.

1.2.2.2 Ensuring Adequate Distribution

Business research ensures adequate distribution of their products/services. For example, a

telephone directory publisher may conduct a distribution follow-up study to make sure

phone directories have been delivered to all residential customers. Publishers of

telephone directories base their advertising rates on distribution. Therefore, ensuring that

all residences receive phone books is crucial to the success of the publisher's business

clients. Similarly, a consumer products company may want to talk to retailers about all

the different brands they sell. The results of the business research will help marketing

managers determine where they need to increase their product distribution.

1.2.2.3 Measuring Advertising Effectiveness

Business research helps determine the success of their advertising. For example, a milk

manufacturer may want to know what percentage of the population saw its most recent

television commercial. The firm can create awareness through television ad runs. The

milk company may need to run its television advertisements at different times if few


15

people have seen the commercials. Companies also use business research to see if

consumers recall the message or slogan of their commercials.

1.2.2.4 Studying the Competition

Companies often use business research to study key competitors in their markets.

Companies will often start with secondary research information or information that is

already available. There are many reasons why a business should study the competitor,

for example to be able to counter the competitor moves, to be able to develop superior

strategies than those of the competitor so as to to achieve competitive advantage, etc.

1.2.3 Motivation in Research

Research can be done by individuals or by organizations. Below we discuss reasons as to

why each carry out research. We start with why individuals carry out research then move

to why organizations do research.

1.2.3.1 Importance of Research to Individuals

What makes people to undertake research? Why do organizations carry out research? Let

us consider a few factors that prompt people to do research. The possible motives for

doing research may be either one or more of the following:

1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;

2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e., concern over

practical problems initiates research;

3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work and contribute to problem

solving;

4. Desire to be of service to society by providing solutions to social problems;

5. Desire to get respectability.

There are many other reasons that cause or motivate people to undertake research studies.

Many more factors such as directives of government, employment conditions, curiosity

about new things, desire to understand causal relationships, social thinking and


16

awakening, and the like may as well motivate (or at times compel) people to perform

research operations.

1.2.3.2 Importance of Research to Organizations

If you are asked the following questions, what would be your responses?

i. Why do organizations carry out research?

ii. What is the importance of research to organizations?

Let us now consider more answers to the above two questions. Research helps

organizations to understand;

1. Why consumers may prefer products from certain firms.

This means finding out what the consumers/customers feel is appealing about your firm

can help you find others just like them.

2. What the same consumers/customers are trying to avoid from certain firms. This is

also important in helping shape business practices and strategy.

3. . Who are your real competitors- why must an organization learn about its competitor?

There are various reasons. Let us consider a few of them;

-To understand what strategies competitors is adopting in order that that firm counters

them

-In order to borrow selectively those that would benefit that firm

-To understand how ones own firm is performing compared to their competitor in order

that they device strategies to attain competitive advantage

-Etc

4. How prospective consumers/customers see their greatest challenges.

-This would help firms understand what is on prospective clients' minds and how they are

likely to describe and talk about those issues.

5. What the real benefit a firm provides for its consumers/customers

Organizations must attempt to learn the true benefit of their service in order to enhance it

or even develop new services with other true benefits.


17

6. What are the emerging trends and challenges

This helps the firm to understand;

-Where the is market headed,

-Whether the market will grow or contract

-What services might be needed in the future

Understanding such emerging trends can help organizations conserve

7. How strong the firms brand is. This entails a firm knowing;

-What their firm is known for; how strong their reputation is, how visible they are in the

marketplace, etc

A firms knowledge of their position in the market place can guide its overall strategy

and also have a profound impact on its marketing budget.

A firms knowledge of their brand's strengths and weaknesses can help them understand

why they are getting traction in one segment and not another.

8. What is the best way to market to you prime target clients.

It pays for a firm to understand how their main consumers/customers want to be marketed

to.

9. How a firm should price their services.

Pricing plays a critical role in buying decisions.

It is the easiest reason for a buyer to share when providing feedback. Therefore research

is very important for it helps firms to understand how their customers view their prices

vis--vis that of the competitor

10. Generally how a firms current clients really feel about them.

Image is everything. Therefore through feedback from research firms can strategize to

improve their image


18

1.4 lecture Review:

1. Define the term research. Illustrate your answer.

2. Briefly discuss the five elements inherent in the process of research

3. Briefly discuss the functions of research to organizations and countries

4. Explain how research benefits individuals

5. What are the main characteristics of research objectives?

6. List five examples of objectives

1.5 Lecture Reading Materials;

1. Redman, L. V & Mory, A. V. H. (2009). The Romance of Research. Baltimore:

The Williams & Wilkins Co.

2. Kombo D. K. and Tromp, D. L. A. (2006). Proposal Writing and Thesis Writing:

An Introduction

3. Saonders, M, Lewis, P, & Thornhill, A,; Research Methods for Business

Students 3rd edition Delhi Pearson Education, 2003.

4. Cooper, DR & Schindler, PS; Business Research Methods 8th edition New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill, 2003.

5. Collis, Jice: Business Research 2nd ed. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003.


19

LECTURE TWO- CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH

2 Lecture Objectives

By the end of this session the learner should be able to;

1. Group research into related categories/types

2. Be able to identify the two main bases of research classification

3. Give examples of research work in each category

4. Explain why the categories are needed

5. Identify the type of research

6. Discuss the factors that determine the type of research to be undertaken


Classification of research simply means grouping the types of research together and it can

be done in various ways. We discuss some of these ways below but before that let us

understand why we need to classify research.



2.1.1 Why Do We Need Classify?

Reviewing related past research studies is an important step in the process of carrying

out research as it helps in problem formulation, hypothesis construction and selection of

appropriate research designs.

It is beneficial if you can classify a research study under a specific category because

each category or type of research uses a specific set of procedures.

Research can be basically classified into 2 types;

2.1.2 Classification on Based on Purpose

There are two ways of classifying research.


20

One way is to classify research on the basis of its purpose i.e. the degree to which the

research findings are applicable to an educational setting and the degree to which they are

generalizable.

The other way is to classify research on the basis of the method employed in research.

Taking purpose as the basis of classification, research is considered to be two types-

Basic and Applied (including Developmental research).

2.1.3 Classification Based on Purpose Method

The other basis for classifying research is by the method it employs.

Research method is characterized by the techniques employed in collecting and

analyzing data.

On the basis of method, research can be classified as historical, descriptive,

correlational, ex-post facto and experimental.

2.2 Types of Research

Let us now discuss the various types of research. In social Sciences, there are many

research types. There are eleven types of research depending on whether it is primarily

fundamental or applied in nature. They are as follows:

2.2.1 Historical Research

What is historical research and what are its characteristics?

This is a research about past event and

The purpose of historical research is to arrive at conclusions concerning trends, causes

or effects of past occurrences.

This may help in explaining present events and anticipating future events.

The data are not gathered by administering instruments to individuals, but

Rather, they are collected from original documents (secondary data) or by interviewing

the eye-witnesses (primary source of information).

In case primary sources are not available, data are collected from those other than eye-

witnesses (secondary sources).

The data thus collected are subjected to scientific analysis to assess its authenticity and

accuracy.


21

Nancy Burton and Lyle Jones (1982) examined trends in achievement levels of African

American versus White children.

They examined high school graduation rates between these 2 ethnic groups who were

born before 1913, between 1913 and 1922, between 1923 and 1932, etc.

They also examined a variety of historical indicators in more recent groups of African

American and White children.

One of their conclusions is that differences in achievements between these groups are

decreasing.

2.2.2. Descriptive Research

Let us understand what a descriptive research is;

Descriptive research studies deal with collecting data and testing hypotheses or

answering questions concerning the current status of the subject of study.

It deals with the question WHAT IS of a situation.

It concerns with determining the current practices, status or features of situations.

Another aspect of descriptive research is that data collection is either done through

asking questions from individuals in the situation (through questionnaires or interviews)

or by observation.

Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different kinds. It

tries to discover answers to the questions who, what, when and sometimes how. Here the

researcher attempts to describe or define a subject, often by creating a profile of a group

of problems, people, or events. The major purpose of descriptive research is description

of the state of affairs as it exists at present

Below is an example of Descriptive Research

Peter O. Peretti and Kris G. Majecen (1992) interviewed 58 elderly individuals, from 68

to 87 years of age, using a structured interview to investigate the variables that affect

emotional abuse among the elderly.

As a result of the interviews, they found 9 variables are common to elderly abuse,

including lack of affection, threats of violence and confinement.


22

What kind of descriptive research is this?

Descriptive and historical research provides a picture of events that are currently

happening or have occurred in the past.

Researchers often want to go beyond mere description and begin discussing the

relationship that certain events might have to one another.

The most likely type of research to answer the relationship among variables or events is

called core-relational research.

2.2.3 Correlational Studies

Class what do you think is referred to as correlational research?

Correlational research are studies that are often conducted to test the reliability and

predictive validity of instruments used for division making concerning selection of

individuals for the likely success in a course of study or a specific job.

A correlation study aims at determining the degree of relationship between two or more

quantifiable variables.

Secondly, the relationship thus determined could be used for making predictions.

A high value of relationship, however, does not signify a cause and effect relationship

which must be verified through and experimental study.

Some authors consider this research as a type of descriptive research, since it describes

the current conditions in a situation.

However, the difference lies in the nature of conditions studies.

A correlational study describes in quantitative terms the degree to which the variables

are related.

Let us consider the following example of Correlational research

In a study (by Vaughn et al., 1989) of the relationship between temperament and

attachment behaviour in infants, the correlation among different types of attachment

behaviours, how securely attached the infants were to their mothers, and the infants

general temperament were examined.

The researchers found that an infants temperament does not predict how securely

attached the child is to his or her mother.


23

2.2.4 Ex-Post Facto Studies

What do you think is an ex-post facto research?

There is some research where both the effect and the alleged cause have already

occurred and are studied by the researcher in retrospect.

Such research is referred to as EX-POST FACTO (after the fact).

Ex-post Facto research can be defined as Systematic empirical inquiry in which the

scientist does not have direct control of independent variables because their

manifestations have already occurred or because they are inherently not manipulable.

Thus, in ex-post facto research or causal-comparative research the researcher has no

control on the variables or he cannot manipulate the variables (independent variables)

which cause a certain effect (dependent variables) being measured.

Since this type of a study lacks manipulation of variables, the cause-effect relationship

measured are only tentative.

Some authors categorize Ex-post facto studies into the category of descriptive research.

Though it too describes conditions that exist in a situation, it attempts to determine

reasons or causes for the current status of the phenomena under study.

The procedures involved in this study are quite different than those in descriptive

research.

2.2.5 Experimental Research

Next we discuss about an experimental research or study;

We already know that core-relational research can help establish the presence of a

relationship among variables but not give us any reason to believe that variables are

causally related to one another.

How does one find out if the characteristics or behaviours or events are related in such a way that the relationship is a causal one?

Two types of research can answer this: (1) quasi-experimental research and (2)

experimental research.

Experimental research is where participants are assigned to groups based on some

selected criterion often called treatment variable.

Quasi-experimental research is where participants are pre-assigned to groups based on

some characteristic or quality such as differences in sex, race, age, neighborhood, etc.


24

These group assignments have already taken place before the experiment begins, and

the researcher has no control as to what the people will belong to each group.

The primary characteristic of experimental research is manipulation of at least one

variables and control over the other relevant variables so as to measure its effect on one

or more dependent variables.

The variables (s) which is manipulated is also called independent variables, a treatment,

an experimental variables or the cause.

Some of the examples of independent variables could be: temperature, pressure,

chemical concentration, type of material and conductivity.

Consider the following example of Experimental Research

Experimental research will always have two or more groups for comparison on the

dependent variables.

It is the only type of research which can establish truly the cause and effect relations.

Let us consider the following Example;

A researcher in technician education is interested in studying the effects of two methods

of instruction structured lecture method and programmed instruction on the achievement

of students in a course of one semester in Applied Mechanics.

Sixty students in the class are divided randomly into two groups of thirty each.

The groups receive the specified treatment for an equal amount of time during the

semester.

The participants are measured for their performance on the achievement test before and

after the program so as to measure the gain.

In this experiment, the experimental or independent variables is the method of

instruction and the dependent variable, is the achievement of students.

The difference in the gain on achievement between the two groups will show the effect

of the methods of instruction.

2.2.6 Applied Vs. Basic Research

The most basic distinction between the two research is that basic research is research

that has no immediate application, whereas applied research is research that does.


25

However, such distinctions are somewhat ambiguous as almost all basic research

eventually

results in some worthwhile application in the long range.

Applied research, also known as decisional research, use existing knowledge as an aid

to the solution of some given problem or set of problems.

Fundamental research- frequently called basic or pure research, seeks to extend the

boundaries of knowledge in a given area with no necessary immediate application to

existing problems.

2.2.7 Other Types of Research

There are other types of research which may not fall in the above types. These include

but not limited to;

1. Futuristic research: Futures research is the systematic study of possible future

conditions. It includes analysis of how those conditions might change as a result of the

implementation of policies and actions, and the consequences of these policies and

actions.

2. Explanatory research: Explanatory research goes beyond description and attempts to

explain the reasons for the phenomenon that the descriptive research only observed. The

research would use theories or at least hypothesis to account for the forces that caused a

certain phenomenon to occur.

3. Predictive research: If we can provide a plausible explanation for an event after it has

occurred, it is desirable to be able to predict when and in what situations the event will

occur. This research is just as rooted in theory as explanation.

This research calls for a high order of inference making. In business research, prediction

is found in studies conducted to evaluate specific courses of action or to forecast current

and future values.

4. Analytical research: The researcher has to use facts or information already available,

and analyse these to make a critical evaluation of the material.


26

5. Quantitative research: Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity

or amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity.

6. Qualitative research: It is concerned with qualitative phenomenon (i.e.) phenomena

relating to or involving quality or kind. This research aims at discovering the underlying

motives and desires, using in depth interviews for the purpose. Other techniques of such

research are word association test, sentence completion test, story completion tests and

similar other projective techniques. Attitude or opinion research i.e., research designed to

find out how people feel or what they think about a particular subject or institution is also

qualitative research.

7. Conceptual research: Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or

theory.

It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterpret

existing ones.

8. Empirical research: It is appropriate when proof is sought that certain variables affect

other variables in some way. Evidence gathered through experiments or empirical studies

is today considered to be the most powerful support possible for a give hypothesis.

2.3 Factors that Determine the Type of Research to be Undertaken

Below is a brief description of the factors that would determine the type of research to be

undertaken;

2.3.1 Time constraints

Some researches may take a short period of time ranging from a few day to a few months,

although other may stretch to years. Therefore, depending on the urgency and quantity of

the data required, a research should determine the length of his/her research

2.3.2 Availability of Data

Availability of secondary data will determine how much primary data will be required for

the research at hand.


27

2.3.3 Nature of the Decision

The use for which the data to be collected should determine what type of data to be

collected. For example health issues would more often than not require experimental type

of research.

2.3.4 Benefits versus Costs

Ideally the benefits received from the research should be much more than the expenditure

incurred during the research

2.3.5Lecture Review

1. Describe the two main categories of researches

2. Using valid illustrations discuss any six types of researches

3. Describe any six reasons why individuals carry out researches

4. Explain how governments can benefit from researches

2.3.6 Further Reading materials for the Lecture

1. Redman, L. V & Mory, A. V. H. (2009). The Romance of Research. Baltimore:

The Williams & Wilkins Co.

2. Kombo D. K. and Tromp, D. L. A. (2006). Proposal Writing and Thesis Writing: An

Introduction

3. Saonders, M, Lewis, P, & Thornhill, A. ( 2003). Research Methods for Business

Students 3rd edition Delhi Pearson Education.




28

LECTURE THREE: CONDUCTING ACTUAL RESEARCH



1. Define what business research is;

2. Describe the scientific research methods and discuss the characteristics of

scientific research;

3. Discuss each of the types of research;

4. Describe the functions of research objectives, research questions and research

hypotheses

5. To illustrate each of the descriptions and discussions mentioned above.

3 Introduction

In this session we are interested in discovering the how of the research process. Before

looking at the research process, let us remind ourselves of the meaning of research from a

business perspective.

3.1 What is Business Research?

Business research can be defined as the systematic and objective process of generating

information for aid in making business decisions.

This definition suggests that:

Research information is neither intuitive nor haphazardly gathered.

Business research must be objective meaning it must be detached personal opinion

and (it should be impersonal and unbiased)

It facilitates the managerial decision process for all aspects of a business.

It is a process of determining, acquiring, analysing, synthesizing, and disseminating

relevant business data, information, and insights to decision makers in ways that mobilize

the organization to take appropriate business actions that, in turn, maximize business

performance.


29

This means that worthwhile and/or meaningful research must be scientific and that

conclusions must be arrived at in a scientific manner. Let us now discuss what a scientific

method of inquiry is like;

3.2 Scientific Method of Research

Let us try to understand what a scientific method of research is.

The scientific method is the result of recognizing that personal and cultural beliefs

influence our perceptions and interpretations of natural phenomena.

Through the use of standard procedures and criteria, it is possible to minimize those

influences when developing a theory.

The term scientific method implies the principles that guide scientific research and

experimentation, and the philosophical bases of those principles.

Scientific methods involve techniques and procedures used to analyze empirical

evidence (facts from observation or experimentation) to confirm or disprove prior

conceptions.

Both pure and applied research employs scientific method to answer questions.

Use of SM in applied research assures objectivity in research.

The difference in techniques of basic and applied research is largely a matter of

degree rather than substance.

3.3 Characteristics of Scientific Research Method

What are these characteristics of scientific method of inquiry? It is characterized by the

following convictions:

a) Scientific research must have an aim. The aims include; problem solving, decision

making, provide knowledge, etc)

b) Scientific research is rigour which means that;

i. the process must be logical and objective to reduce bias in methods and

interpretation of results

ii. that the process should be systematic in that it ought to involve certain standard

procedures


30

iii. Enquiry should be conducted through a process of systematic observation that

can be verified by experience (empiricism).

iv. There should be careful recording, documenting, archival and sharing of all data

and methodology (full disclosure) to make it available for scrutiny by other

researchers, thereby allowing them to verify results by attempting to reproduce

them.

c) Scientific research is subject to generalizability (for the sample to be representative

of the population). It aims at generalizing findings to larger groups by discovering

general principles that will be helpful in predicting future occurrences. This calls for

careful sampling procedures to ensure that the sample is representative of the larger

group.

d) Scientific research Testability- (as proof of the conclusions reached)

e) Scientific research must be subjected to replicability in order to guard against

mistake or confusion in any research

f) Scientific research must be subjected to pprecision and confidence/pparsimony-

this means that researchers must take extreme care in use of resources and efforts

g) Scientific research must be subjected to objectivity in order to reduce biased

interpretations of results

3.4 The Steps in the Scientific Research Method

Figure 1.2 below is a diagrammatic representation of the scientific research method and

thereafter the discussion on the same.


31

Fig. 1:1- Summary of the Scientific Process of Research

3.4.1 Define the Research Problem

A research problem is the reason for which the research is to be carried out. What and

why does the research want to carry out a research? It could be for decision-making or for

problem solving.

Examples of research problems or need for decision-making through research:

i) In Human Resource area: High rate of employee turnover (Why would employee

leave an organization in large numbers- whether sacked or voluntarily?; Why

would employees remain agitated, always engaging in strikes, conflict with

management over and again?; etc)

ii) In the area of marketing: Drop in sales which may mean consumers are reducing

consumption of that organizations goods and/or services: What is the reason

behind this drop in sales? Or it could be that a product/service is receiving minimal

attention from the target consumers meaning it has been rejected. A researcher

would want to establish the reasons for the low level acceptability of a new product

by the target market.

AAsssseessss

rreelleevvaanntt

eexxiissttiinngg

kknnoowwlleeddggee

FFoorrmmuullaattee

ccoonncceeppttss &&

PPrrooppoossiittiioonnss

SSttaatteemmeenntt

ooff

HHyyppootthheesseess

DDeessiiggnn

rreesseeaarrcchh

AAccqquuiirree

eemmppiirriiccaall

ddaattaa

AAnnaallyyzzee &&

eevvaalluuaattee

ddaattaa

PPrroovviiddee

eexxppllaannaattiioonn--

ssttaattee nneeww

pprroobblleemm


32

3.4.1.1 Selecting and Defining a Problem

These mark the beginning of a research study and is the most difficult and important step.

There could be many problems, some minor and others major therefore there is need to

prioritize which one to tackle first. This involves:

(i) Identifying and stating the problem in specific terms; e.g. what exactly is ailing the

organization? What does the organization need to pay attention to urgently?

(ii) Identifying the variables in the problem situation and defining them adequately;

Variables are simply the factors that may be affecting each other that in the long run

call for an organizations attention.

E.g. in the Examples of research problems or need for decision-making through research

discussed in section 3.4.1 above, high employees turnover (can be a variable) may affect

the organizations performance (can be another variable)

(iii) Generating tentative guesses (hypotheses) about the relation of the variables or in

other words the solution of the problem, or writing explicitly the research questions)

for which answers are sought, e.g. still from the above mentioned scenario, the guess

may be that employee turnover is likely to cause low level productivity;

Hypotheses are propositions which are empirically testable. They are usually concerned

with the relationships between variables. For example, I may guess that employee

turnover results in low organizational productivity and it will be my desire to try and

prove this guess.

3.4.1.2 What are the Functions of a hypothesis?

Do you know how one goes about developing working hypotheses?

The answer is by using the following approach:

(a) Discussions with colleagues and experts about the problem, its origin and the

objectives in seeking a solution;

(b) Examination of data and records, if available, concerning the problem for possible

trends, peculiarities and other clues;

(c) Review of similar studies in the area or of the studies on similar problems; and

(d) Exploratory personal investigation which involves original field interviews on a

limited scale with interested parties and individuals with a view to secure greater insight

into the practical aspects of the problem.


33

And lastly

(iv) Evaluating the problem for its research ability

To achieve this, you review the literature related to the problem to know what other

researchers have done and discovered and to identify the possible methodology for

conducting the research. We shall look at literature review in a more detailed manner in

Session 4

Once the problem is selected and defined, the researcher then moves to describe the

methodology of research as is discussed below;

3.4.1.3 Describing Methodology of Research

Defining research methodology is critical in that it serves as a path finder for the

researcher. The researcher needs to state the purpose of the study and to define the

problem clearly. This guides you in deciding the methodology of research which

involves:

a) Identifying the method of research that is what is the research design for the study?

What is the roadmap for the current research?

b) Specifying the subjects of study (e.g. heat flow problem, etc.);

c) selecting an adequate representative sample of subjects;

d) selecting/constructing valid and reliable instruments for measuring the variables in

the problem;

e) Selecting a research design and describing the procedure to be employed for

conducting the research study.

3.5 Example of decision making that could necessitate research include;

i. When a firm wants to expand to new markets research would help then

understand the needs, wants, tastes and preferences of the new target market

ii. When a firm wants to increase its product scope a research would be necessary to

gauge the level of acceptability for the proposed new products range

3.6 Example of problem solving that could necessitate research includes;

i. Drop in sales (drop in customer base, consumer complaints)


34

ii. High employee turn-over/complaint,

iii. High product rejection, (negative word of mouth-WOM-)

iv. Clash between customers and sales people?

3.7 Formulate Objectives and Questions/Hypotheses

Objectives must be SMART (Refer back to section 1.2)

Identifying a research problem is often triggered by a question, curiosity, uncertainty, in

the mind of the researcher regarding some aspect of the business environment, for

example, why a particular industry is growing, declining, stagnating, etc. This is followed

by exploration of relevant published sources on the subject.


35

LECTURE FOUR: LITERATURE REVIEW

4.O Lecture Objective


1. Define literature review;

2. Explain why researchers need literature review (functions of literature review);

3. Discuss the sources of literature review;

4. Establish the qualities of an effective literature review;

5. Outline the guideline of formulating an effective literature review

4.1 Introduction

This is done to establish the existing information related to the problem at hand. Review

involves thoroughly discussing the concepts and theories. The researcher here reviews

previous research findings. An analytical review of existing literature should help the

research to define the overall research objective or research question or research

purpose. In one sentence the researcher should be able to say what is to be achieved by

conducting the study.

4.1.1 What then is literature review?

A literature review is a text written by someone to consider the critical points of current

knowledge including substantive findings, as well as theoretical and methodological

contributions to a particular topic.

Literature reviews are secondary sources, and as such, do not report any new or original

experimental work. Also, a literature review can be interpreted as a review of an abstract

accomplishment.

Most often associated with academic-oriented literature, such as a thesis or peer-reviewed

article, a literature review usually precedes a research proposal and results section.


36


There are many benefits of having a literature review before embarking on a current

research and researchers need to understand the importance of literature review in

research;

i. The main goal of literature review is to situate the current study within the body of

literature and to provide context for a particular reader.

ii. Literature reviews are a staple for research in nearly every academic field. It helps the

researcher to succinctly develop the research gap and therefore, avoid duplication of

research.

iii. Literature review sharpens and deepens the theoretical underpinnings of a research by

enabling the researcher to study different theories that are related to the specified

topic. Understanding the theories helps the researchers to gain clarity and grasp the

theoretical foundations related to the current research.

iv. Researchers have to understand the previous works I order that they develop a

significant problem of statement that will further knowledge in a field of study and

thereby avoid duplication of research (ensuring what has been done is not repeated)

but call for replication (applying already done researches in other environments or

periods of time).

v. A good literature review enables the researcher to read widely exposing them to vital

research issues including well designed methodology.

vi. It also helps the researcher to develop a sound base for analysing and interpreting the

collected data.

4.1.3 When to Review the Literature

Let us now look at when literature review in needed. With small-scale writing projects,

the literature review is likely to be done just once; probably before the writing begins.

With longer projects such as a dissertation for a Masters degree, and certainly with a

PhD, the literature review process will be more extended.

There are three stages at which a review of the literature is needed:


37

an early review is needed to establish the context and rationale for your study and to

confirm your choice of research focus/question;

as the study period gets longer, you need to make sure that you keep in touch with

current, relevant research in your field, which is published during the period of your

research;

As you prepare your final report or thesis, you need to relate your findings to the

findings of others, and to identify their implications for theory, practice, and research.

This can involve further review with perhaps a slightly different focus from that of

your initial review.

This applies especially to people doing PhDs on a part-time basis, where their research

might extend over six or more years. You need to be able to demonstrate that you are

aware of current issues and research, and to show how your research is relevant within a

changing context.

4.1.4 How Do Researchers carry out a Literature Review?

Carrying out literature review is very important to the researcher and also to the reader of

the thesis developed thereafter. Here are some of the benefits of a literature review.

A literature review goes beyond the information search. It helps you identify and

articulate the relationships between the literature and your field of research. The

following are the basic purposes for a literature review:

It provides a context for the research,

It justifies the research,

It ensures the research has not been done before (or that it is not just a "replication

study") or there are gaps in previous researches,

It shows where the research fits into the existing body of knowledge,

It enables the researcher to learn from previous theory on the subject,

It illustrates how the subject has been studied previously,

It highlights flaws in previous research,

It outlines gaps in previous research,

It shows that the work is adding to the understanding and knowledge of the field, and


38

It assists on refining, refocusing or even changing the topic.

Besides these basic points, a literature review can also help the researcher to;

identify the research trend in this area,

determine the definitions of the main terms appeared in previous researches

establish the knowledge base on the subject

adjust the scope of the research

4.2 Ways of Finding Relevant Material

It is good to note that not all information sources may be relevant or suitable for your

work. Below we discuss how you can find relevant material for literature review and

these include electronic sources, references of references and journals

Electronic sources- Searching electronic databases is probably the quickest way to

access a lot of material. Guidance will be available via your own department or school

and via the relevant Information Librarian. There may also be key sources of

publications for your subject that are accessible electronically, such as collections of

policy documents, standards, archive material, videos, and audio-recordings.

References for references

This means using other researchers references to find your own reading list for sources of

information. If you can find a few really useful sources, it can be a good idea to check

through their reference lists to see the range of sources that they referred to. This can be

particularly useful if you find a review article that evaluates other literature in the field.

This will then provide you with a long reference list, and some evaluation of the

references it contains.

Hand searching of journals- No electronic literature search can be 100%

comprehensive, as the match between search terms and the content of articles will never

be perfect. An electronic search may throw up a huge number of hits, but there are still

likely to be other relevant articles that it has not detected. So, despite having access to

electronic databases and to electronic searching techniques, it can be surprisingly useful


39

to have a pile of journals actually on your desk, and to look through the contents pages,

and the individual articles.

Often hand searching of journals will reveal ideas about focus, research questions,

methods, techniques, or interpretations that had not occurred to you. Sometimes even a

key idea can be discovered in this way. It is therefore probably worth allocating some

time to sitting in the library, with issues from the last year or two of the most relevant

journals for your research topic, and reviewing them for anything of relevance.

4.3 Qualities of an Effective Literature Review

Does a researcher need to bother about the type of literature review s/he uses? Of course

yes otherwise, the research outcome may not be able to serve the purpose for which it

may have been put into existence. And below we discuss the qualities of an effective

literature review;

i. One of the main issues that a research should concern himself with is the

identification of key issues to be addresses by the literature review. These include; the

research topic, the title, the objectives of the research and the relationship between the

independent and the dependent variables. The specific problem that the literature

review is meant to address should guide the researcher on what information to collect.

ii. Next the researcher should formulate a preliminary statement of the problem to

enable him to focus on the materials to be selected. This will in turn help the

researcher to identify the relevant sources of information.

iii. These sources of information include; books, journals; internal

documents/publications of the organizations under study, the internet, the

government, Newspapers, magazines, conference proceedings, theses and

dissertations, etc.

iv. The next step for the researcher is to consider how he is going to critically analyze the

identified sources of data. Such issues as the how clearly the book or article author

has identified the statement problem, its significance, relevance, clear objective for

research, etc

v. The code for the book or article should be well classified, creating an outline for the

review and synthesizing the gathered information


40

These are some of the things to consider if and when a researcher is preparing his

literature review. Besides these considerations, what do you think are some of the

challenges a researcher is likely to encounter when formulating the literature review?

Below we discuss a few of them;

4.4 Challenges Faced when Formulating Literature Review

i. The problem of failing to match the current research to the selected review materials.

This would be the case in a situation where the selected review materials are mere

listings instead of them being comprehensive research materials.

ii. The second challenge is the poor presentation of the review materials. Example of

poor presentation include too many short paragraphs (including a one sentence one-

three) making the work to be quite disjointed. The result may be that the researcher

will not adequately understand that kind of review material. Other examples include

starting each paragraph with the authors name instead of varying it with quoting

directly the authors opinion. Not all studies to be used for review are the same and

therefore, the researcher should give stress and emphasis on those that are more

important and relevant

iii. Some researchers have the habit of reading and reviewing too much material for their

topic. Literature review should only be a survey of the published works related to a

researchers work

iv. Other challenges include lack of documentation, lack of critique and failure to review

current studies.


41

4.5 Lecture Summary

1. What is literature review?

2. Explain any three functions of literature review?

3. What are the ways of finding relevant research materials?

4. What are the qualities of an effective literature review?

5. Describe the guidelines in formulating an effective literature review.

6. What are the challenges in formulating literature review?

4.6 suggestion for Further Reading

1. Kombo D. K. and Tromp, D. L. A. (2006). Proposal Writing and Thesis Writing: An Introduction

2. Saonders, M, Lewis, P, & Thornhill, A,; Research Methods for Business Students 3rd edition Delhi Pearson Education, 2003.




42

LECTURE FIVE: RESEARCH DESIGN


By the end of the session the learner should be able to;

vi. Define what a research design is;

vii. Classify the various research designs

viii. Give reasons for the kind of classification used

5 Introductions

In the previous session we looked at how to identify relevant sources of information, let

us now consider how to use a section of the population to collect data that can be

generalized to the population parameters. This entails developing the research developing

a research design and identifying the appropriate sampling procedure. We shall also

discuss about what sampling procedure is appropriate in which situation later in this

session.

5.1 Research Design

What is a research design?

Some researchers have thought of a research design as the structure of the research as it

links all the elements of a research together. It is the blueprint or outline for fulfilling

objectives and answering questions.

It involves asking questions such as: What type of research will it be? Will it be

quantitative? Will it be qualitative? Will it be a survey? Will it be a case Study? Will it be

exploratory? Will it be descriptive? Or will it consist a multiple of these? What

techniques or methods will be used?

5.1.1 Functions of a Research Design

What would be the main purpose of a research design?

A well formulated research design would ensure that the information gathered is

consistent with the study objectives and that the data are collected by accurate


43

procedures. Since, research designs germinate from the objectives, the accuracy and

adequacy of a research design depends on the unambiguous framing of the objectives.

Research design helps the research on his research journey. It enables him to choose the

right population that will provide the information needed to enhance the attainment of the

research objectives. It will also influence the choice of research site and also the

instrument for data collecting.

A research design is formulated after the research problem has been generated in clear cut

terms. The researcher will have to state the theoretical, conceptual and contextual

structures within which the research would be conducted.

5.1.2 Classification of Research Types

Let us now look at the types of research designs a researcher could adopt for his work.

Researches can be categorized partly in terms of purpose, manner or the period

considered while carrying out the research. Below we discuss each of them in turn;

5.1.2.1 Descriptive Design

A researcher using a descriptive design is simply interested in describing the state of

affairs as they exist and may also help to formulate useful principles of knowledge and

finding solutions to significant problems.

There are different types of descriptive designs, for example a descriptive survey gathers

information through interviews or through use of a questionnaire. The design can be used

to collect qualitative data such as peoples attitude, perceptions, opinions and other

feelings.

A good example of a descriptive research design is establishing the importance of

education to families. A researcher would identify a certain group of families just to

establish their views on the importance of education to their lives.

5.1.2.2 Experimental Design

What do you understand by the term experimental research? This design takes into

account collecting data by subjecting a certain group of elements (which may include

people) to certain treatment while at the same time refraining from doing the same to


44

another group. The second group is referred to as the control group. These groups must

have certain characteristics in common and therefore the researcher will want to compare

the outcome between them.

In business circles, a researcher would want to find out how consumers respond to

changes in price. He will choose two stores and have one maintain their prices while

another would have prices being adjusted frequently. The responses of consumers on

these two stores would then be recorded signalling the changes in the sales volume.

The results may show causal relationship between the dependent and independent

variables.

In order to use this design successfully, the researcher must be able to identify which is

the dependent variable and which is the independent variable. For example, in the above

illustration the dependent variable is the sales volume which the dependent variable is the

pricing.

5.1.2.3 Case Study Design

For a researcher who wants to describe a unit of analysis in detail, s/he will use a case

study. The detail must be justified before the researcher decides to use this design. A

good example of a case study design is The impact of increase of prices of basic

commodities: A case study of residents in Kibera, Kenya.

Studying the impact of increase of prices of basic commodities in Kibera will allow the

researcher to gain a better understanding of the problems faced by consumers. Here the

research must justify why s/he has chosen Kibera to be a case study.

5.1.2.4 Cross-Sectional Design

This type of a design considers issues across different perspectives in terms of

geographical location (e.g. across different regions within a country or different

institutions that enjoy some commonalities, etc), time frame (using a period before the

implementation of a strategy, e.g. before the new constitution and after the new

constitution in Kenya) or even across different cultures.

Therefore, it is quite frequent to hear of longitudinal time series design. This means that a

researcher would consider research in different geographical locations and equally


45

different times. Cross section means considering responses of ones respondents found in

different places and equally at different periods of time, e.g. over a period of 5-10 years.

5.1.2.5 Hybrid/Combined Research Design

A hybrid or combined research design is found in a situation where a researcher has used

more than one type of research design. This is a common practice since it is not easy to

distinctively decide which design is the most suitable to use or one cannot successfully

separate a design from another.

A good example would be to carry out a survey design over a period of say, 2-3 years.

This becomes a time series survey or cross sectional survey design.

5.1.3 Why does a Researcher Need a Research Design?

A design is a blueprint or a road map. The preparation of such a design facilitates

research to be as efficient as possible yielding maximal information. In other words, the

function of research design is to provide for the collection of relevant evidence with

minimal expenditure of effort, time and money. But how all these can be achieved

depends mainly on the research purpose.

5.1.3.1 Categorization of Research Purposes

For every research to take place there is a reason for it. Below we discuss some of the

groups of purposes for which research is put into existence. Research purposes may be

grouped into four categories, viz.,

(ii) Exploration,

(iii) Description,

(iv) Diagnosis, and

(v) Experimentation.

A flexible research design which provides opportunity for considering many different

aspects of a problem is considered appropriate if the purpose of the research study is that

of exploration. But when the purpose happens to be an accurate description of a situation

or of an association between variables, the suitable design will be one that minimizes bias

and maximizes the reliability of the data collected and analyzed.


46

There are several research designs, such as, experimental and non-experimental

hypothesis testing. Experimental designs can be either informal designs (such as before-

and-after without control, after-only with control, before-and-after with control) or formal

designs (such as completely randomized design, randomized block design, Latin square

design, simple and complex factorial designs), out of which the researcher must select

one for his own project.

5.1.3.2 Considerations for the Preparation of Research Design

The preparation of the research design, appropriate for a particular research problem,

involves usually the consideration of the following:

(i) The means of obtaining the information;

(ii) The availability and skills of the researcher and his staff (if any);

(iii) Explanation of the way in which selected means of obtaining information will be

organized and the reasoning leading to the selection;

(iv) The time available for research; and

(v) The cost factor relating to research, i.e., the finance available for the purpose.


47

5.2 Lecture Review

1. Define what a research design is.

2. Discuss the importance of developing a research design

3. Explain how a researcher can combined research designs

4. What factors do researchers need to consider when developing a research design

5. What are the main purposes of research design?

5.3 Further Readings

1. Saonders, M, Lewis, P, & Thornhill, A,; Research Methods for Business

Students 3rd edition Delhi Pearson Education, 2003.

2. Cooper, DR & Schindler, PS; Business Research Methods 8th edition New

Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill, 2003.


4. Kombo D. K. and Tromp, D. L. A. (2006). Proposal Writing and Thesis Writing:

An Introduction


48

LECTURE SIX: SAMPLING DESIGN

Session Objectives

By the end of the session the learner should be able to;

i. Define the term sampling design

ii. Explain reasons why researchers use samples as opposed to population

iii. Explain factors that determine sampling and sample designs to be used

6.0 Introduction

To sample is to measure a small portion of something and then making a general

statement about the whole thing. It is a process of selecting a number of units for a study

in such a way that the units represent the larger group from which they are selected. The

sample design to be used must be decided by the researcher taking into consideration the

nature of the inquiry and other related factors.

Before we go into the details of sampling design, let us consider from where the sample

is generated. A sample is a small portion of a whole and this whole is referred to as

population let us now understand how to use a part of a population instead of a whole.

This is what we are calling sampling. But before that let us understand why researchers

work predominantly with samples other than the entire population.

6.1 Why do Researchers Use Samples?

When conducting research, one must often use a sample of the population as opposed to

using the entire population. Before we go further into the reasons why, let us first discuss

what differentiates between a population and a sample.

A population can be defined as any set of persons/subjects having a common observable

characteristic. For example, all individuals who reside in the United States make up a

population. Also, all pregnant women make up a population. The characteristics of a

population are called a parameter. A statistic can be defined as any subset of the

population. The characteristics of a sample are called a statistic.


49

Sampling makes possible the study of a large, heterogeneous (different characteristics)

population. - The universe or population to be studied maybe too large or unlimited that it

is almost impossible to reach all of them. Sampling makes possible this kind of study

because in sampling only a small portion of the population maybe involved in the study,

enabling the researcher to reach all through this small portion of the population.

Sampling may be applied for economy, that is, to save time- Research without sampling

may be too costly. Sampling reduces the study population to a reasonable size that

expenses are greatly reduced. Sampling is for speed. - Research without sampling might

consume too much time.

Sampling may also be applied for accuracy- If it takes too long a time to cover the whole

study population, there may be inaccuracy. The research must be finished within a

reasonable period of time so that the data are still true, valid and reasonable.

Sampling saves the sources of data from being entirely consumed- The act of gathering

data may consume all the sources of information without sampling. In such a case, there

is no more data to apply the conclusion to.

A sample is a part of the target population, carefully selected to represent that population.

Thus the population must be identified before thinking about sampling. Such questions as

these ones below need to answered fully when developing a sample design;

Who will be interviewed/ complete the questionnaire?

How many people/ institutions will be will be involved?

If using published information, how many records will be inspected?

For what time involved?

If using published information, how many records will be inspected?

In what time duration?

6.2 Determining Sample Design

All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry constitute a universe or

population. A complete enumeration of all the items in the population is known as a

census inquiry. It can be presumed that in such an inquiry when all the items are covered

no element of chance is left and highest accuracy is obtained. But in practice this may not


50

be true. Even the slightest element of bias in such an inquiry will get larger and larger as

the number of observations increases.

There is no way of checking the element of bias or its extent except through a resurvey or

use of sample checks. Besides, this type of inquiry involves a great deal of time, money

and energy. In addition, census inquiry is not possible in practice under many

circumstances.

For instance, blood testing is done only on sample basis. Hence, quite often we select

only a few items from the universe for our study purposes. The items so selected

constitute what is technically called a sample.

The researcher must decide the way of selecting a sample or what is popularly known as

the sample design. In other words, a sample design is a definite plan determined before

any data are actually collected for obtaining a sample from a given population. Thus, the

plan to select of a citys 200 drugstores in a certain way constitutes a sample design.

Next let us discuss the two main sample designs which are probability samples or non-

probability samples. We shall start with probability followed by non-probability.

6.3 Types of Samples Designs

Let us now consider the various sample types in business research. Each sample is used

in relation to the researchers objectives in terms of the data required and the situation at

hand.

6.3.1 Probability Samples or Non-Probability Samples

Samples can be either probability samples or non-probability samples. With probability

samples each element has a known probability of being included in the sample but the

non-probability samples do not allow the researcher to determine this probability.

Probability samples are those based on simple random sampling, systematic sampling,

stratified sampling, cluster/area sampling whereas non-probability samples are those

based on convenience sampling, judgment sampling and quota sampling techniques. A

brief discussion of the important sample designs is as follows:


51

6.3.1.1 Deliberate Sampling

Deliberate sampling is also known as purposive or non-probability sampling. This

sampling method involves purposive or deliberate selection of particular units of the

universe for constituting a sample which represents the universe. Deliberate sampling can

be of two types and below we state when each is used;

First, when population elements are selected for inclusion in the sample based on the ease

of access, it can be called convenience sampling. If a researcher wishes to secure data

from, say, gasoline buyers, he may select a fixed number of petrol stations and may

conduct interviews at these stations. This would be an example of convenience sample of

gasoline buyers. At times such a procedure may give very biased results particularly

when the population is not homogeneous.

The second type is judgment sampling in which the researchers judgment is used for

selecting items which he considers as representative of the population. For example, a

judgment sample of college students might be taken to secure reactions to a new method

of teaching. Judgment sampling is used quite frequently in qualitative research where the

desire happens to be to develop hypotheses rather than to generalize to larger populations.

6.3.1.2 Simple Random Sampling

This type of sampling is also known as chance sampling or probability sampling where

each and every item in the population has an equal chance of inclusion in the sample and

each one of the possible samples, in case

Documents

Research Methodology