Research Methodology Ch 2 by Umme sekran

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Ch-2

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The Dimensions of Research

RESEARCH

Theories

Propositions

Concepts

Hypotheses

Empiricism

Deductive Reasoning

Inductive Reasoning

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Concepts (or constructs) are the basic building blocks of

theory development. A concept (or construct) is a generalized

idea about a class of objects, attributes, occurrences, or

processes that have been given a name. A concept (or

construct) may vary in terms of the level of abstraction

Examples: Productivity, Leadership, Morale, Assets, Inflation

• A concept is a bundle of meanings or characteristics associated with certain events, objects, conditions, situations, and behaviors

• Concepts have been developed over time through shared usage.

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A proposition is a statement concerned with the relationship

between concepts. It asserts a universal connection and logical

linkage between concepts. Propositions are at a higher level of

abstraction than concepts

Example: Smoking is injurious to health

Hypotheses are propositions which are empirically testable.

They are usually concerned with the relationships between

variables

Example: Increasing salary by 10% will double the production.

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Zikmund (p. 41) has defined a theory as “a coherent set of

general propositions, used as principles of explanation of the

amount of the apparent relationships of certain observed

phenomena”.

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The Abstraction Ladder

Observations

Concepts / Constructs

Propositions

Theory

Levels ofAbstraction

Empirical Level

Abstract Level

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Qualities of a Good Theory (1)

“A theory is a good theory if it satisfies two requirements.

It must accurately describe a large class of observations on the basis of a model that contains only a few arbitrary elements.

And it must make definite predictions about the result of future observations”

Stephen Hawking, A Brief History of Time, 1988

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Qualities of a Good Theory (2)Often, competing theories are put forth to explain certain phenomena. One cannot really be 100% certain that a given theory is correct because, no matter on how many occasions the results of experiments agree with the theory, there may come an occasion when some do not agree.

Theories must be:ObjectiveVerifiable (i.e. within the accepted margins of error)Falsifiable / disprovable

Good theories must understand, explain and predict


• Deduction is a form of inference that purports to be conclusive.

• Deduction is the process by which we arrive at a reasoned conclusion by logical generalization of a known fact.

• Example: we know that all high performers are Example: we know that all high performers are highly proficient in their jobs. highly proficient in their jobs.

• If Ali is a high performer, we then conclude that If Ali is a high performer, we then conclude that he is highly proficient in his job.he is highly proficient in his job.

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Deductive Reasoning

Theory

Hypotheses

Collect data and analysis

Confirmation

Using deductive reasoning, onestarts with a given theory as the

basis for which we develop hypotheses and then confirm

these with specificdata acquired using observation

or experimentation

(Is our theory valid or not?)


• Induction draws conclusions from one or more particular facts• Induction is a process where we observe certain phenomena and on this basis arrive at

conclusions.• In other words, in induction we logically establish a general proposition based on observed facts.In other words, in induction we logically establish a general proposition based on observed facts.

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Inductive Reasoning

Observation

Analysis pattern

Tentative Hypothesis

Theory

Using inductive reasoning, One starts with a specific

Observation as the basis for which we develop a general

pattern and tentative hypothesis as the foundation

of a theory

Sound Reasoning …

Inductive Reasoning

• Why didn’t sales increase during our promotional event?– Regional retailers did not have sufficient stock to

fill customer requests during the promotional period?

– A strike by employees prevented stock from arriving in time for promotion to be effective?

– A hurricane closed retail outlets in the region for 10 days during the promotion?

Why Didn’t Sales Increase?

Deduction

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The Hallmarks Scientific Research

• A step by step, logical, organized and rigorous effort to solve problem.

• Scientific Research focusing on solving problems and pursues a step by

step logical, organized and rigorous method to identify the problems,

gather data, analyze them and draw valid conclusions there from.

• The goals of scientific research are, broadly speaking, to understand,

explain and predict.


• Purposive

• Rigor

• Testability

• Replicability

• Precision and Confidence

• Objectivity

• Generalization

• Parsimony


• Purposive

Define aim or purpose of research which should be well identified and well defined.

Example: Increase employee commitment will translate into less turnover, less absenteeism and increased performance levels.


• RigorA good theoretical base and sound methodological design

would add rigor to the purposive study.

Rigor adds carefulness, accuracy and the degree of correctness in research.


• Testability

Develop hypothesis which are testable through certain statistical techniques.


• Replicability

The repeatability of similar results when identical research is conducted at different times and at different setting.

It means that it can be used again if similar circumstances prevails.


• Precision and ConfidencePrecision refers to the closeness of findings to

reality(population) based on sample. (sampling distribution of means).

It reflects the degree of accuracy and exactitude of the results of the sample.


• Precision and Confidence

Confidence refer to the probability that our estimation are correct. (95%)

Confidence level : we can confidently claim that 95% of the time our results would be true and there is only a 5% chance of our being wrong.


• Objectivity

Interpretation of results on the bases of the results of data analysis.

The conclusions and results should be objective and based on the facts of finding derived from actual data.


• Generalization

Refer to the scope of applicability of the research finding in one setting to others.

Findings can be generalized to other setting, situations, organizations.


• ParsimonyEfficient explanation of the variance in the

dependent variable of interest through the use of smaller, rather than a larger number of independent variables.

Simplicity in explaining the phenomenon.

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The Scientific Method

The “scientific method” is basically an overarching perspective on

how scientific investigations should be undertaken. It can, in effect,

be considered as a complete set of principles and methods that help

researchers in all scientific disciplines obtain valid results for their

research studies, and which includes the provision of clear and

universally accepted guidelines for acquiring, evaluating and

communicating information in the context of a research study.

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Elements of the Scientific Method

Empirical Approach Observation Questions Hypotheses Experiments Analysis Conclusion Replication

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Elements of the Scientific Method(Empirical Approach)

Evidence-based approach. The guiding principle behind all research conducted in accordance with the scientific method

Data derived from direct, systematic and careful observation and experimentation

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Elements of the Scientific Method(Observation)

Awareness of the real / physical / social world in which we exist. This, in turn, gives rise to questions as the basis for research studies or investigations

Operational Definitions – Ensures consistency when researchers talk about or are interested in undertaking or replicating research on the same phenomenon. Example: What is “exercise”?

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Elements of the Scientific Method(Questions)

Making an answerable question out of a research idea. The question must be answered using available and established scientific research techniques and procedures. Scientific Analysis should not be attempted on questions which cannot be answered

Example of an answerable question: Can regular exercising reduce an individual’s cholesterol level?

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Elements of the Scientific Method(Hypotheses)

Hypotheses attempt to explain phenomena of interest. A hypothesis is a proposition which is empirically testable. It usually seeks to explain relationships between variables, and predict, and must be falsifiable

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Elements of the Scientific Method(Experiments)

Experiments are basically about measuring phenomena and collecting accurate and reliable data which are used for analysis and evaluation

Accuracy – Correctness of the Measurement

Reliability – Consistency of the Measurement

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Elements of the Scientific Method(Analysis)

Analysis is about the use of qualitative or quantitative tools and techniques to process data

Quantitative tools and techniques are considered more desirable (objective) than qualitative tools and techniques

Statistical analysis is typically used to quantitatively analyze data acquired in research studies

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Elements of the Scientific Method(Conclusions)

Based on the results of the analysis conducted, and used to support or refute a hypothesis

When undertaking research, conclusions should only be based on the available data and not broadened to include statements which are not supported by the data

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Elements of the Scientific Method(Replication)

The purpose of replication is to ensure that if the same research study is conducted with different participants (i.e. researchers, research subjects), then the same results are achieved

Replication establishes the reliability of a research study’s conclusions

Conclusions are often based on the results of one research study which may not be accurate

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Research Methodology Ch 2 by Umme sekran