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MBA Information Systems 1st Year - Assignment Annamalai University

7: Research Methods For Management

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Question #2: Explain various data collection tools and which one is the best in your view. Why?Answer:-

IntroductionData in computing (or data processing) are often represented by a combination of items organized in rows and multiple variables organized in columns. Data are typically the results of measurements and can be visualized using graphs or images. Data as an abstract concept can be viewed as the lowest level of abstraction from which information and then knowledge are derived.Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring information on variables of interest, in an established systematic fashion that enables one to answer stated research questions, test hypotheses, and evaluate outcomes. Data Collection is an important aspect of any type of research study. Inaccurate data collection can impact the results of a study and ultimately lead to invalid results.

Importance of dataThe data serve as the bases or raw materials for analysis. Without an analysis of factual data, no specific inferences can be drawn on the questions under study. The relevance, adequacy and reliability of data determine the quality of the findings of a study. Data form the basis for testing the hypotheses formulated in a Study. The scientific process of measurement, analysis, testing and inferences depends on the availability of relevant data and their accuracy.

Regardless of the field of study or preference for defining data (quantitative, qualitative), accurate data collection is essential to maintaining the integrity of research. Both the selection of appropriate data collection instruments (existing, modified, or newly developed) and clearly delineated instructions for their correct use reduce the likelihood of errors occurring.Consequences from improperly collected data include inability to answer research questions accurately inability to repeat and validate the study distorted findings resulting in wasted resources misleading other researchers to pursue fruitless avenues of investigation compromising decisions for public policy causing harm to human participants and animal subjects While the degree of impact from faulty data collection may vary by discipline and the nature of investigation, there is the potential to cause disproportionate harm when these research results are used to support public policy recommendations.

Data collection toolsIn data collection, the researcher should be very clear on what type of data is to be used for the research. There are two types of data namely primary data and secondary data.

Primary Data Primary data are generally, information gathered by the researcher for the purpose of the project at hand. When the data are collected for the first time using experiments, surveys which is known as primary data. So, in case of primary data it is always the responsibility of the researcher to decide on further processing of data.There are several methods of data collection each with its advantages and disadvantages.1. Observation2. Interview3. QuestionnaireOther methods used to collect primary data are4. Warranty Cards5. Distributor Audits6. Pantry audits7. Consumer Panels

Secondary Data It is merely a compilation of the available data. It is the researcher who decides to collect secondary data for his research that can be collected through various sources. In the case of secondary data the researcher may not face severe problems that are usually associated with primary data collection.

Before using secondary data following characteristics must be kept in mindReliability of data: finding out such things about the said data can test the reliability Who collected the data? What were the sources of data? Were they collected by using proper method? At what time were they collected? Was there any bias of the complier? What level f accuracy was desired? Was it achieved?Suitability of data: The data that are suitable for one enquiry may not necessarily be found in another enquiry. Hence if the available data are found to be suitable, they should not be used by the researcher .in the context, the researcher must be very carefully scrutinize the definition of various units and terms of collection used at the time of collecting the data from the primary source originally. Similarly the object scope and nature of an original enquiry must also be studied .if the researcher finds differences the data will remain unsuitable for the present enquiry and should be used.Adequacy of the data: if the level of accuracy achieved in data found inadequate for the purpose of the present enquiry, they will be considered as inadequate and should not be used by the researcher. The data will also be considered inadequate, if they are related to an area which may be either narrower or wider than the area of the present enquiry.

Secondary data may either be published or unpublished data. Published data may be available with following sources: Various publications of central, state or local governments Various publications of foreign governments or of international bodies Technical and trade journals Books, magazines, newspapers Reports and publication from various associations connected with industry and business Public records and statistics Historical documents

Functions of data collection toolsThe tools of data collection translate the research objectives into specific questions/ items, the responses to which will provide the data required to achieve the research objectives. Information gathered through the tools provides descriptions of characteristics of individuals, institutions or other phenomena under study. It is useful for measuring the various variables pertaining to the study. The variables and their interrelationships are analyzed for testing the hypothesis or for exploring the content areas set by the research objectives. The tools of data collection translate the research objectives into specific questions/ items, the responses to which will provide the data required to achieve the research objectives. In order to achieve this pur-pose, each question/item must convey to the respondent the idea or group of ideas required by the research objectives, and each item must obtain a response which can be analysed for fulfilling the research objectives. Information gathered through the tools provides descriptions of char-acteristics of individuals, institutions or other phenomena under study. It is useful for measuring the various variables pertaining to the study. The variables and their interrelationships are analysed for testing the hypothesis or for exploring the content areas set by the research objec-tives.

A brief description of the various tools of data collection is given below.

1. Observation Observation schedule is a form on which observations of an object or a phenomenon are recorded. The items to be observed are determined with reference to the nature and objectives of the study. They are grouped into appropriate categories and listed in the schedule in the order in which the observer would observe them. The schedule must be devised as to provide the required verifiable and quantifiable data and to avoid selective bias and misinterpretation of observed items. The units of observation must be simple, and meticulously worded so as to facilitate precise and uniform recording. This is a form on which observations of an object or a phenomenon are recorded. The items to be observed are determined with reference to the nature and objectives of the study. They are grouped into appropriate categories and listed in the schedule in the order in which the observer would observe them. The schedule must be so devised as to provide the required verifiable and quantifiable data and to avoid selective bias and misinterpretation of observed items. The units of observation must be simple, and meticulously worded so as to facilitate precise and uniform recording.

2. InterviewInterview guide is used for non-directive and depth interviews. It does not contain a complete list of items on which information has to be elicited from a respondent: it just contains only the broad topics or areas to be covered in the interview. Interview guide serves as a suggestive reference or prompter during interview. It aids in focusing attention on salient points relating to the study and in securing comparable data in different interviews by the same or different interviewers. Interview schedule and mailed Questionnaire, these tools are widely used in surveys. Both are complete lists of questions on which information is elicited from the respondents. While the interviewer fills out a schedule, the respondent completes a questionnaire. This is a form on which observations of an object or a phenomenon are recorded. The items to be observed are determined with reference to the nature and objectives of the study. They are grouped into appropriate categories and listed in the schedule in the order in which the observer would observe them. The schedule must be so devised as to provide the required verifiable and quantifiable data and to avoid selective bias and misinterpretation of observed items. The units of observation must be simple, and meticulously worded so as to facilitate precise and uniform recording.

3. QuestionnaireSchedules and questionnaires are the most common instruments of data collection. These two types of tools have much in common. Both of them contain a set of questions logically related to a problem under study; both aim at eliciting responses from the respondents; in both cases the content, response structure, the wordings of questions, question sequence, etc. are the same for all respondents. While a schedule is used as a tool for interviewing, a questionnaire is used for mailing. This difference in usage gives rise to a subtle difference between these two recording forms. That is, the interviewer in a face-to-face interviewing fills a schedule, whereas the respondent himself fills in a questionnaire. The tool is referred to as a schedule when it is used for interviewing; and it is called a questionnaire when it is sent to a respondent for completion and return. Questionnaire is more effective as the respondent completes the questionnaire and gives the correct information after dually crosschecking. The method of collecting data by mailing the questionaires to respondents is most extensively employed in various economic an business survey.

The Process of Questionnaire Construction

The process of construction of a questionnaire is a rational process involving much time, effort and thought. It consists of the following major steps: 1. Data need determination: As a mailed questionnaire is an instrument for gathering data for a specific study, its construction should flow logically from the data required for the given study. 2. Preparation of Dummy tables: The best way to ensure the requirements of information is to develop dummy tables in which to display the data to be gathered. 3. Determination of the respondents level: Who are our respondents? Are they persons with specialized knowledge relating to the problem under study? Or are they lay people? What is their level of knowledge and understanding? The choice of words and concepts depends upon the level of the respondents' knowledge. 4. Data gathering method decision: Which communication mode is most appropriate - mailing? The choice of question structure depends largely on the communication mode chosen. 5. Questionnaire drafting: After determining the data required for the study, a broad outline of the questionnaire may be drafted, listing the various broad categories of data. The sequence of these groupings must be decided. The questions to be asked under each group heading must be listed. All conceivable items relevant to the 'data need' should be compiled. 6. Evaluation of the draft Questionnaire: In consultation with other qualified persons, the researcher must rigorously examine each question in the draft questionnaire. 7. Pre-testing: The revised draft must be pre-tested in order to identify the weaknesses of the questionnaire and to make the required further revisions to rectify them. 8. Specification of procedures: After the questionnaire is finalized after pre-tests, the procedures, relating to its use must be specified. 9. Designing the format: The format should be suited to the needs of the research. The instrument should be divided into different sections relating to the different aspects of the problem.10. Question formulation and wording : With regard to this aspect of questionnaire, the researcher should note that each question must be very clear for any sort of misunderstanding can do irreparable harm to a survey, Question should also be impartial in order not to give a biased picture of the true state of affairs.Question Construction A survey questionnaire is useful for collecting various types of information, viz. Factual information - facts about the respondents: sex, age, marital status, education, religion, caste or social class, income and occupation; and facts about events and circumstances. Psychological information such as attitudes, opinions, beliefs, and expectations, and Behavioral information, like social participation, and so on. Research objectives and frame of reference should be defined beforehand, including the questionnaire's context of time, budget, manpower, intrusion and privacy. How (randomly or not) and from where (your sampling frame) you select the respondents will determine whether you will be able to generalize your findings to the larger population. The nature of the expected responses should be defined and retained for interpretation of the responses, be it preferences (of products or services), facts, beliefs, feelings, descriptions of past behavior, or standards of action. Unneeded questions are an expense to the researcher and an unwelcome imposition on the respondents. All questions should contribute to the objective(s) of the research. If you "research backwards" and determine what you want to say in the report (i.e., Package A is more/less preferred by X% of the sample vs. Package B, and y% compared to Package C) then even though you don't know the exact answers yet, you will be certain to ask all the questions you need - and only the ones you need - in such a way (metrics) to write your report. The topics should fit the respondents frame of reference. Their background may affect their interpretation of the questions. Respondents should have enough information or expertise to answer the questions truthfully. The type of scale, index, or typology to be used shall be determined. The level of measurement you use will determine what you can do with and conclude from the data. If the response option is yes/no then you will only know how many or what percent of your sample answered yes/no. You cannot, however, conclude what the average respondent answered. The types of questions (closed, multiple-choice, open) should fit the statistical data analysis techniques available and your goals. Questions and prepared responses to choose from should be neutral as to intended outcome. A biased question or questionnaire encourages respondents to answer one way rather than another.[2] Even questions without bias may leave respondents with expectations. The order or natural grouping of questions is often relevant. Prior previous questions may bias later questions. The wording should be kept simple: no technical or specialized words. The meaning should be clear. Ambiguous words, equivocal sentence structures and negatives may cause misunderstanding, possibly invalidating questionnaire results. Double negatives should be reworded as positives. If a survey question actually contains more than one issue, the researcher will not know which one the respondent is answering. Care should be taken to ask one question at a time. The list of possible responses should be collectively exhaustive. Respondents should not find themselves with no category that fits their situation. One solution is to use a final category for other ________. The possible responses should also be mutually exclusive. Categories should not overlap. Respondents should not find themselves in more than one category, for example in both the married category and the single category - there may be need for separate questions on marital status and living situation. Writing style should be conversational, yet concise and accurate and appropriate to the target audience. Many people will not answer personal or intimate questions. For this reason, questions about age, income, marital status, etc. are generally placed at the end of the survey. This way, even if the respondent refuses to answer these "personal" questions, he/she will have already answered the research questionsOnce the information need is determined, we can begin question construction. This involves four major decision areas, are: Question relevance and content, Question wording, Response form, and Question order or sequence.

Question order or Sequence The order in which questions are arranged in a schedule/questionnaire is as important as question wording. It has two major implications. First, an appropriate sequence can ease the respondent's task in answering. Second, the sequence can either create or avoid biases due to context effects, i.e., the effects of preceding questions on the response to later questions. Questionare tries to ask scenario question in order to test the complexity mind of the intverviewer and behavourial response.

Measurement Scales and Indices Scales are devised for measuring variables in social science research. During the past few decades thousands of scales have been designed by researchers in sociology, psychology, education, psychiatry, ethics, behavioral science, economics, administration and other fields.

Indices and scales are often used interchangeably to refer to all sorts of measures, absolute or relative, single or composite, simple or elaborate. Scaling refers to the procedure by which numbers or scores assigned to the various degrees of opinions, attitude and other concepts.

Pilot Studies and Pre-Tests

Pilot Study It is difficult to plan a major study or project without adequate knowledge of its subject matter, the population it is to cover, their level of knowledge and understanding and the like. What are the issues involved? What are the concepts associated with the subject matter? How can they be operationalised? What method of study is appropriate? How long the study will take? How much money it will cost? These and other related questions call for a good deal of knowledge of the subject matter of the study and its dimensions. In order to gain such pre-knowledge of the subject matter of an extensive study, a preliminary investigation is conducted.

Pre-test While a pilot study is a full-fledged miniature study of a problem, pre-test is a trial test of a specific aspect of the study such as method of data collection or data collection instrument - interview schedule, mailed questionnaire or measurement scale. A questionnaire of data collection is designed with reference to the data requirements of the study. Pre-testing of a draft questionnaire is indispensable. Pre-testing means trial administration of the instrument to a sample of respondents before finalizing it. Pre-testing has several purposes: To test whether the questionnaire would elicit responses required to achieve the research objectives, To test whether the content of the instrument is relevant and adequate, To test whether wording of questions is clear and suited to the understanding of the respondents, To test the other qualitative aspects of the instrument like question structure and question sequence, and To develop appropriate procedure for administering the instrument with reference to field conditions.

4. Warranty CardsWarranty cards are usually postal sized cards which are used by dealers of consumer durables to collect information regarding their products. The information sought is printed in the form of questions on the warranty cards which is placed inside the package along with the product with a request to the consumer to fill in the card and post it back to the dealer. 5. Distributor AuditsDistributor or store audits are performed by distributors as well as manufacturers through their salesmen at regular intervals. Distributors get the retail stores audited through salesmen and use such information to estimate market size, market share, and seasonal purchasing pattern and so on. The data are obtained in such audits not by questioning but by observation.

6. Pantry auditsPantry audit technique is used to estimate consumption of the basket of goods at the consumer level. In this type of audit, the investigator collects an inventory of types, quantities and prices of commodities consumed. Thus in pantry audit data are recorded from the examination of the consumers pantry. The usual objective in the pantry audit is to find out what types of consumers but certain products and certain brands, the assumption being that the contents of the pantry accurately portray consumers preferences.

7. Consumer PanelsAn extension of the pantry audit approach on a regular basis is known as consumer panel, where a set of consumers are arranged to come to an understanding to maintain detailed daily records of their consumption and the same is made available to investigator on demands. In other words, a consumer panel is essentially a sample of consumers who are interviewed repeatedly over a period of time.

Conclusion

The intent of adopting data collection method in research is to gather data. Selection of appropriate methods for data collection can be based on following factors:

Nature scope and object of enquiry: this constitutes the most important factor affecting the choice of a particular method .the method selected should be such that it suits the type of enquiry that is to be conducted in the researcher, this factor is also important in deciding whether the data already available are to be used not yet available are to be collected.Availability of funds: availability of funds for the research project determines to a large extent the method to be used for the collection of data. When the funds at the disposal of the researcher are very limited, he will have to select a comparatively cheaper method. Finance in fact is big constraint in practice and the researcher has to act within this limitationTime factor: availability of time has also to be taken into account in deciding particular method of data collection. Some methods take relatively more time whereas with others the data can be collected in a comparatively shorter duration. The time at the disposal of the researcher thus affects the selection of the method by which the data is collected.Precision required: precision required is yet another important factor to be considered at the time of selecting the method of collection of data.

I consider Questionnaire to be the best data collection method based on the following factors.

Versatility: Probably the greatest advantage of the questionnaire method is its versatility. Almost every problem of marketing research can be approached from the questionnaire standpoint. Every marketing problem involves people. Therefore, ideas relative to the problem and its solution can be obtained by asking these people about the problem. Many problems can be studied only by questionnaire. Knowledge, opinions, motivations, and intentions are usually not open to observation. Except where records have been maintained, past events such as purchases of specific products can be studied only trough the questionnaire method. Similarly, it is normally feasible to observe personal activities, such as brushing teeth. All this does not mean that the questionnaire method can be used satisfactorily to solve all marketing problems. It can be used, however, to get some data relative to most problems.

Speed and cost: Questioning is usually faster and cheaper than observing. Interviewers have more control over their data gathering activities than do observers. As a result, less time is typically wasted in a questionnaire study. For example, in a research study to find whether consumers prefer coke in bottles or cans, one could either ask people their preference or wait in package stores to observe which containers customers ask for when they come in to buy coke. The alter method would require observers to wait until customers came into the store to buy coke. Interviewers however, could proceed from one interviewee to another with no wait in between. Thus, the lost time would be less with the questionnaire method. Some events that take place over a time period, such as the number of trips to the supermarket in a week, would require lengthy observation, but a question on this behavior can be answered in a few seconds. In many cases, however, this advantage of the questionnaire may be negligible

Question 4:a) Descriptive method Describe.b) Write a note on report writing

Answer (a):

Descriptive MethodsThe term descriptive research refers to the type of research question, design, and data analysis that will be applied to a given topic. It is used to obtain information concerning the current status of the phenomena to describe what exists with respect to variables or conditions in a situation. The methods involved range from the survey which describes the status quo, the correlation study which investigates the relationship between variables, to developmental studies which seek to determine changes over time. Descriptive research does not fit neatly into the definition of either quantitative or qualitative research methodologies, but instead it can utilize elements of both, often within the same study. The term descriptive research refers to the type of research question, design, and data analysis that will be applied to a given topic. Descriptive statistics tell what is, while inferential statistics try to determine cause and effect.

Descriptive research is undertaken when the researcher desires to know the characteristics of certain groups such as age, sex, occupation, income or education. The objective of descriptive research is to answer the "who, what, when, where and how" of the subject under study/ investigation. Descriptive studies are normally factual and simple. However, such studies can be complex, demanding scientific skill on the part of researcher.

The Nature of Descriptive ResearchThe descriptive function of research is heavily dependent on instrumentation for measurement and observation (Borg & Gall, 1989). Researchers may work for many years to perfect such instrumentation so that the resulting measurement will be accurate, reliable, and generalizable. Instruments such as the electron microscope, standardized tests for various purposes, the United States census, Michael Simonson's questionnaires about computer usage, and scores of thoroughly validated questionnaires are examples of some instruments that yield valuable descriptive data. Once the instruments are developed, they can be used to describe phenomena of interest to the researchers.The intent of some descriptive research is to produce statistical information about aspects of education that interests policy makers and educators. The National Center for Education Statistics specializes in this kind of research

1. The descriptive function of research is dependent on instrumentation for measurement and observation. Once instruments are developed, they can be used to describe phenomena of interest to the researchers.2. Descriptive research can be either quantitative or qualitative. It involves gathering data that describe events and then organizes, tabulates, depicts, and describes the data collection.3. Descriptive research is unique in the number of variables employed. Like other types of research, descriptive research can include multiple variables for analysis, yet unlike other methods, it requires only one variable.4. Three main purposes of research are to describe, explain, and validate findings. Description emerges this creative exploration, and serves to organize the findings in order to fit them with explanations, and then test or validate those explanations.5. Descriptive studies report summary data such as measures of central tendency including the mean, median, mode, deviance from the mean, variation, percentage, and correlation between variables

Descriptive Research MethodsFollowing methods are used for data collection in descriptive research:1. Case Studies2. Observational Research3. Survey Research4. Interviews5. Mailed Questionnaires

1. Case StudiesCase study is detailed analysis of a single (or limited number) of people or events. Case studies are usually interesting because of the unusualness of the case. The major problem with case studies is the problem of objectivity. The person who is presenting the case usually has some theoretical orientation. It is acceptable for a theoretical orientation to affect ones interpretation of events.It is not surprising that case studies often seem to provide very compelling evidence for a theory. Case studies can therefore assist psychology by illustrating how a theory could be applied to a person or events and by assisting with the development of hypotheses for more systematic testing. Case study research involves an in-depth study of an individual or group of indviduals. Case studies often lead to testable hypotheses and allow us to study rare phenomena. Case studies should not be used to determine cause and effect, and they have limited use for making accurate predictions. There are two serious problems with case studies expectancy effects and atypical individuals. Expectancy effects include the experimenters underlying biases that might affect the actions taken while conducting research. These biases can lead to misrepresenting participants descriptions. Describing atypical individuals may lead to poor generalizations and detract from external validity.

2. Observational ResearchObservational research has a long tradition across a large number of disciplines. Observational methods are concerned with naturally occurring behaviours observed in natural contexts or in contexts that are contrived to be realistic. Unless the observation is unobtrusive, there may be some subject reactivity to being observed. This often decreases with time, a process called habituation.Observers cannot usually observe all behaviours all of the time.They may use a behavioural checklist and may also use time sampling or event sampling procedures. It is important to assess observer bias by the use of inter-observer reliability.With the observational method (sometimes referred to as field observation) animal and human behavior is closely observed. There are two main categories of the observational method naturalistic observation and laboratory observation. The biggest advantage of the naturalistic method of research is that researchers view participants in their natural environments. This leads to greater ecological validity than laboratory observation, proponents say. Ecological validity refers to the extent to which research can be used in real-life situations. Proponents of laboratory observation often suggest that due to more control in the laboratory, the results found when using laboratory observation are more meaningful than those obtained with naturalistic observation. Laboratory observations are usually less time-consuming and cheaper than naturalistic observations. Of course, both naturalistic and laboratory observation are important in regard to the advancement of scientific knowledge.Observational research may also pose ethical problems.These can arise when the behaviours being observed are not public behaviours and when the observer joins a group in order to observe the members behaviour participant observation. Thick, rich descriptions of phenomena can also emerge from qualitative studies, case studies, observational studies, interviews, and portfolio assessments.

3. Survey ResearchStructured questions to assess peoples beliefs, attitudes, and self-reports of behavior. If the researcher wishes to generalize the responses to a population, it is important to have a representative sample.Surveys that rely on self-selection produce non-generalizable results.Surveys also provide information for co relational research. One can correlate responses to some questions with responses to other questions. survey method research, participants answer questions administered through interviews or questionnaires. After participants answer the questions, researchers describe the responses given. In order for the survey to be both reliable and valid it is important that the questions are constructed properly. Questions should be written so they are clear and easy to comprehend.Another consideration when designing questions is whether to include open-ended, closed-ended, partially open-ended, or rating-scale questions

Survey question must be clear and unambiguous. Even if the questions are unambiguous and non-leading, people may display a social desirability bias and give positive or socially acceptable and desirable answers. Survey methods include: The interview or face-to-face method which is generally viewed as the best method for obtaining a high rate of responses but is also very costly. Phone surveys, which are less expensive but have a higher non-response rate. Written or mail surveys, which are least expensive but have a very high non-response rate. Follow-up messages can help increase the response rate.

4. InterviewsFace-to-face interviews and telephone interviews provide an opportunity to follow a line of questioning to obtain more in-depth information. To increase the reliability of data collected by interviews, it is important to follow certain guidelines and to train all interviewers to use the same techniques. Personal-interview procedures Have a number of advantageous e.g., Promote the highest response rate, allows researcher to probe for adequate answers, offer opportunity to use multiple methods of data collection such as observations and visual cues but it require more staff time and travel, more expense than telephone interviews and mailed questionnaires, certain populations are more difficult to reach due to physical factors.Telephone interview less time consuming, less expensive, can also employ random dialling to access a truly randomized sample but sampling limitation due to restrictions imposed by access to telephones, lack of ability to provide visual information, and lack of ability for the researcher to observe the participant. Many organizations will conduct interviews by telephone to narrow a field of candidates. Telephone interviews may also be used as a preliminary interview for candidates who live far away from the jobsite.It is important to treat this interview as you would a face-to-face connection. Arrange for a quiet space and time to schedule the conversation. Clear a work surface to minimize distractions.

5. Mailed QuestionnairesGood questionnaires provide a script for the entire process that the researchers are to follow. Provide definitions for any terminology that might be confusing- use complete sentences, and offer a limited set of answers. Major advantages of one can reach large numbers of people from wide geographic areas, respondents have time to reflect on their answers or check information prior to responding, and relatively low cost of administration but through mail lower response rate and the need to take special care with designing questions that will be self-administered. Simple formats that allow users simply to check responses on the questionnaire work the best. Letter of transmittal on letterhead, content of letter, and its presentation will have an influence on the response rate. Within the body of the letter, it is important to state the purpose of the research, the importance of study, the importance of respondents, a reasonable but specific time limit, an assurance of confidentiality, an offer to share results, and a thank you. Concise wording should make it possible to keep this letter to one page.Uses of Descriptive Researcha. The major objective of descriptive research is to describe something - usually market characteristics or functions b. As a result, descriptive research is preplanned and structured. It is typically based on large representative samples.

Descriptive research is conducted for the following reasons To describe the characteristics of relevant groups, such as consumers, salespeople, or organizations, or market areas. To estimate the percentage of units in a specified population exhibiting a certain behavior. To determine the perceptions of product characteristics. To determine the degree to which marketing variables are associated. To make specific predictions. E.g. what will be retail sales of Shoppers stop for fashion in the Mumbai area. To collect demographic information of consumers/users of a product under study. For finding out views and attitudes of customers, e.g. how many customers prefer branded goods or ISI marked goods? Make predictions about future marketing trends, consumer needs or expectations or possible sales after n years. To discover the relationship between certain variables, e.g. sale among rural population and urban population or rate of savings among low, middle and higher income groups.

Impact and Future Role of Descriptive ResearchAlthough descriptive studies are important, most research studies involve questions about causes, because it is not always possible to isolate the variables that will explain those causes, descriptive research can play an important role in providing information from another perspective.By gathering descriptions of "what is," and comparing them to what we would like," researcher can see the area that needs to be addressed.Descriptive statistics can provide information that can help: Isolate the variables that will eventually be used to measure cause and effect Provide surrounding information that will aid logical interpretations of research questions within the context of a specific situationDescriptive research has gained acceptance as a valid form of research, and in recent years the number of descriptive studies published in research journals and conference proceedings has increased because Researchers have realized that trying to mimic scientific research does not work, so researchers need to address the questions at hand and be willing to use a variety of methodologies to ensure the most appropriate and accurate investigation. Rapidly changing technologies make it likely to be observing students using media in new ways and for new purposes.

Answer (b):

Report WritingResearch report is considered a major component of the research study for the research task remains incomplete till the report has been presented and/or written. A research report can be defined as the presentation of the research findings directed to a specific purpose. Research report is considered a major component of the research study fir the research task remain incomplete till the report has been presented and /or written.

Importance of ReportThe research report is important for the following reasons. 1. The result of research can be effectively communicated to management2. The report is the only aspect of the study, which executives are exposed to and their consecutive evaluation of the project rests with the effectiveness of the written and oral presentation.3. The report presentations are typically the responsibility of the project worthiness. So the communication effectiveness and usefulness of the information provided plays a crucial role in determining whether that project will be continued in future.

Guidelines to prepare a reportThe general guidelines that should be followed for any report are as follows:

1. Consider the audience: the information resulting from research is ultimately important to the management, who will use the results to make decisions. Decision makers are interested in a clear, concise, accurate and interesting report, which directly focuses on their information needs with the minimum of technological jargons.2. Be concise but precise: the report must be concise and must focus on the crucial elements of the project. It should not include unimportant issues. Researchers should know how much emphasis has to given to each area.3. Be objective yet effective: the research report must be of an objective presentation of the research findings. The researcher violates the standard of the objectivity if the findings are presented in a distorted or slanted manner. The writing style of the report should be interesting, with the sentence structure short and to the point.4. Understand the results and draw conclusions: the managers who read the report are expecting to see interpretive conclusions in the report. The researcher should understand the results and be able to interpret it effectively to management.

Report FormatFollowing outline is generally accepted as the basis format for the more research projects.

1. Title Page: this should contain a title which conveys the essence of the study, the date, the name of the organization submitting the report, and the organization for whom it is prepared. If the research report is confidential, the name of those individuals to receive the report should be specified on the title page.2. Table of Contents: this lists the essence of topics covered in the report, along with page references. Its purpose is to aid readers in finding a particular section in the report. If there are many tables, charts or other exhibits, they should also be listed after the table of contents in a separate table of illustrations.3. Executive Summary: can serve two purposes It may be a report in miniature covering all the aspects in the body of the report, but in the abbreviated form. It may be concise summary of major finding and conclusions including recommendations.Expect the summary to contain a high density of significant terms since it is repeating the highlights of the report. A good summary should help the decision maker and it is designed to be action oriented.4. Introduction: prepares the reader for the report by describing the parts of the project: the problem statement, research objectives and background material. The introduction must clearly explain the nature of decision problem. It should review the previous research done on the problem.5. Problem statement: contains the need for the research project. The problem is usually represented by a management question. It is followed by a more detailed set of objectives.6. Research Objectives: this addresses the purpose of the project. These may be research question(s) and associated investigative questions. 7. Background: may be of two types It may be the preliminary results of exploration from an experience survey, focus group, or another source. Alternately it could be secondary data from the literature review.Background material may be placed before the problem statement or after the research objectives. It contains information pertinent to the management problem or the situation that lead to the study.8. Methodology: purpose of this section is to describe the nature of the research design, sampling plan, data collection and analysis procedure. Enough details must be conveyed so that the reader can appreciate the nature of methodology used, yet the presentation must not be boring and overpowering. The use of technical jargons must be avoided.9. Research design: the coverage of the design must be adapted to the purpose. The type of research adapted and the reason for adapting that particular type should be explained.10. Sampling design: it has to explain the sampling frame, sampling method adapted and sample size. Explanation of the sampling method, uniqueness of the chosen parameters or other relevant points that need explanation should be covered with brevity. Calculation of sample size can be placed either in this part or can be placed in an appendix.11. Data Collection: this part of report describes the specifics of gathering the data. Its content depends on the selected design. The data collection instruments (Questionnaire or interview scheduled) field instructions can be placed in the appendix.12. Data Analysis: this section summarizes the methods used to analyze the data. Describes data handling, preliminary analysis, statistical test, company programs and other technical information. The rational for the choice of analysis approaches should be clear. A brief commentary on assumptions and appropriateness of use should be presented.13. Limitations: Every project has weakness, which need to be communicated in a clear and concise manner. In this process the researcher should avoid belabouring minor study weakness. Purpose of this section is not to disparage the quality of research project but rather to enable the reader to judge the validity of the study results. Generally the limitations will occur in sampling, no response in adequacies and methodological weakness. It is the researchers professional responsibility to clearly inform the reader of these limitations.14. Findings: the objective of this part is to explain the data rather than draw conclusions. When the quantitative data can be presented, this should be done as simply as possible with charts, graphics and tables.15. Summary and Conclusions: summary is a brief statement of essential findings. The conclusion should clearly link the research findings with the information needs, and based on this linkage recommendation for action can be formulated. In some research works the conclusions were presented in a tabular form for easy reading and reference.16. Recommendations: the researchers recommendations may be weighed more heavily in favour of the research findings. There are few ideas about corrective actions. The recommendations are given for managerial actions rather than research action.17. Appendices: purpose of this is to provide a place for material, which is not absolutely essential to the body of the report. It is designed to serve the needs of the technically oriented reader. It contains copy of data collection forms, details of sampling plan, estimates of statistical errors, interviewers instructions and detailed statistical tables associated with the data analysis process.18. Bibliography: the use of secondary data required a bibliography. Proper citation, style and formats are unique to the purpose of the report. The instructor, program, institution, or client often specifies style requirements. It will be given as footnote or endnote format. The author name, title, publication, year, page number are the important elements to bibliography.

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