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8/13/2019 Research Methods Lecture 2013sgsgsdgsdfesfd
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RESEARCH METHODS
LECTURE 2
2013 MGJL
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A key concept relevant to a discussion of research
methodology is that of validity.
When an individual asks, "Is this study valid?",
they are questioning the validity of at least one
aspect of the study.
VALIDITY
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There are four types of validity that can be
discussed in relation to research and
statistics.
Thus, when discussing the validity of a
study, one must be specific as to which type
of validity is under discussion.
A study may be valid in relation to one type
of validity but invalid in relation to anothertype of validity.
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1. Statistical Conclusion Validity:
Unfortunately, without a background in basic statistics, this type
of validity is difficult to understand.
According to Cook and Campbell (1979), "statistical conclusion
validity refers to inferences about whether it is reasonable to
presume co variation given a specified alpha level and theobtained variances (p. 41)."
Essentially, the question that is being asked is - "Are the variables
under study related?" or "Is variable A correlated (does it co-
vary) with Variable B?".
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If a study has good statistical conclusion validity, we should be
relatively certain that the answer to these questions is "yes".
Examples of issues or problems that would threaten statistical
conclusion validity would be random heterogeneityof the
research subjects (the subjects represent a diverse group - this
increases statistical error) and small sample size (more difficult
to find meaningful relationships with a small number of
subjects).
1. Statistical Conclusion Validity:
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Once it has been determined that the two variables (A & B) are
related, the next issue to be determined is one of causality.Does A cause B? If a study is lacking internal validity, one can not
make cause and effect statements based on the research; the
study would be descriptive but not causal.
There are many potential threats to internal validity. For
example, if a study has a pretest, an experimental treatment,
and a follow-up posttest, history is a threat to internal validity. If
a difference is found between the pretest and posttest, it might
be due to the experimental treatment but it might also be dueto any other event that subjects experienced between the two
times of testing (for example, a historical event, a change in
weather, etc.)
2. Internal Validity:
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One is examining the issue of construct validity when one is asking the
questions "Am I really measuring the construct that I want to study?" or "Ismy study confounded (Am I confusing constructs)?". For example, if I want to
know a particular drug (Variable A) will be effective for treating depression
(Variable B) , I will need at least one measure of depression. If that measure
does not truly reflect depression levels but rather anxiety levels
(Confounding Variable X), than my study will be lacking construct validity.
Thus, good construct validity means the we will be relatively
sure that Construct A is related to Construct B and that this is
possibly a causal relationship. Examples of other threats to
construct validity include subjects apprehension about beingevaluated, hypothesis guessing on the part of subjects, and
bias introduced in a study by expectancies on the part of the
experimenter
3. Construct Validity:
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External validity addresses the issue of being able to generalize the
results of your study to other times, places, and persons. For
example, if you conduct a study looking at heart disease in men, can
these results be generalized to women? Therefore, one needs to ask
the following questions to determine if a threat to the external
validity exists: "Would I find these same results with a differencesample?", "Would I get these same results if I conducted my study in
a different setting?", and "Would I get these same results if I had
conducted this study in the past or if I redo this study in the future?"
If I can not answer "yes" to each of these questions, then theexternal validity of my study is threatened.
4. External Validity:
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As stated above, a sample consists of a subset of the population. Any
member of the defined population can be included in a sample. A
theoretical list (an actual list may not exist) of individuals or elements
who make up a population is called a sampling frame. There are five
major sampling procedures.
1. The first sampling procedure is convenience. Volunteers, members
of a class, individuals in the hospital with the specific diagnosis beingstudied are examples of often used convenience samples. This is by
far the most often used sample procedure. It is also by far the most
biased sampling procedure as it is not random (not everyone in the
population has an equal chance of being selected to participate inthe study). Thus, individuals who volunteer to participate in an
exercise study may be different that individuals who do not
volunteer.
Types of Sampling Procedures
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2. Another form of sampling is the simple random sample. In this
method, all subject or elements have an equal probability of beingselected. There are two major ways of conducting a random sample.
The first is to consult a random number table, and the second is to have
the computer select a random sample.
3. A systematic sampleis conducted by randomly selecting a first case
on a list of the population and then proceeding every Nth case until
your sample is selected. This is particularly useful if your list of the
population is long. For example, if your list was the phone book, it wouldbe easiest to start at perhaps the 17th person, and then select every
50th person from that point on.
Types of Sampling Procedures
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While the parameters of these research approaches vary,
there are some common characteristics among them:
* Source: the Initiative for Architectural ResearchAIA, ACSA and ARCC
1. Architectural research efforts are those that haveclearly identifiable goals at the outset of the research,
where the project is directed to respond to a question
2. In pursuing that question, one follows a credible,
systematic method or mode of inquiry, relevant and
acceptable to the research paradigm under which one is
operating
3. This process results in significant results (and in a
thorough, documented manner which reflects a solution or
enhances understanding/knowledge within the researchdomain)
It should be noted that design can be a form of research
inquiry if it incorporated the three characteristics listed
above.
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The following components need to appear in
your thesis:
1. Title page
2. Abstract/summary
3. Table of contents4. Acknowledgements
5. Main text
6. Bibliography or references7. Appendices
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Title pageYou should include:
title of your thesis in full
your names and degrees
statement of presentation in the form:"This thesis is presented for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy/Master of [insert
name of degree] of The University of
Western Australia"
schooldiscipline (where applicable)
year of submission.
If you are enrolled in a degree which has
examinable components other than a
thesis, you should state: "This thesis is
presented in partial fulfilment of the
requirements for the [insert name of
degree]".
THE STUDY OF A DISASTER RESILIENT
HOME
JUAN T. DELA CRUZ
2010654321
This thesis is presented inpartial fulfilment of the requirements
for the degree of
Bachelor of Science in Architecture of
The Mapua Institute of Technology
Muralla, Intramuros, Manila
2014
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THE STUDY OF A DISASTER RESILIENT HOME
JUAN T. DELA CRUZ
2010654321
This thesis is presented inpartial fulfilment of the requirements
for the degree of
Bachelor of Science in Architecture of
The Mapua Institute of Technology
Muralla, Intramuros, Manila
2014
Confirm actual format with your thesis adviser
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List of Figures
List page numbers of all figures.
The list should include a short title for each figure but not the whole
caption.
List of Figures Page No.
Figure 1: Vicinity Map ............................ 3
Figure 2: Location Plan .......................... 8
List of Tables
List page numbers of all tables.
The list should include a short title for each table but not the wholecaption.
List of Table
Table 1: Result of Survey .................... 4
Table 2: List of Areas of Study ............ 10
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1 What else belongs in the introductory section(s) of your paper? A statement of the
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1.What else belongs in the introductory section(s) of your paper? A statement of the
goal of the paper: why the study was undertaken, or why the paper was written. Do not
repeat the abstract.
2.Sufficient background information to allow the reader to understand the context and
significance of the question you are trying to address.
3.Proper acknowledgement of the previous work on which you are building. Sufficientreferences such that a reader could, by going to the library, achieve a sophisticated
understanding of the context and significance of the question.
4.The introduction should be focused on the thesis question(s). All cited work should
be directly relevent to the goals of the thesis. This is not a place to summarizeeverything you have ever read on a subject.
5.Explain the scope of your work, what will and will not be included.
6.A verbal "road map" or verbal "table of contents" guiding the reader to what lies
ahead.7.Is it obvious where introductory material ("old stuff") ends and your contribution
("new stuff") begins?
Remember that this is not a review paper. We are looking for original work and
interpretation/analysis by you. Break up the introduction section into logical segments
by using subheads.
O O OG
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Methods1.What belongs in the "methods" section of a scientific
paper?Information to allow the reader to assess the believability of your
results.
2.Information needed by another researcher to replicate yourexperiment.
3.Description of your materials, procedure, theory.
4.Calculations, technique, procedure, equipment, and calibration plots.
5.Limitations, assumptions, and range of validity.
6.Desciption of your analystical methods, including reference to any
specialized statistical software.
METHODOLOGY
METHODOLOGY
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The methods section should answering the following questions and caveats:
1. Could one accurately replicate the study (for example, all of the optional and
adjustable parameters on any sensors or instruments that were used to acquire
the data)?
2. Could another researcher accurately find and reoccupy the sampling stations or
track lines?
3. Is there enough information provided about any instruments used so that a
functionally equivalent instrument could be used to repeat the experiment?
4. If the data are in the public domain, could another researcher lay his or her
hands on the identical data set?
5. Could one replicate any laboratory analyses that were used?
6. Could one replicate any statistical analyses?
7. Could another researcher approximately replicate the key algorithms of any
computer software?
8. Citations in this section should be limited to data sources and references of
where to find more complete descriptions of procedures.
Do not include descriptions of results.
METHODOLOGY
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
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Results
The results are actual statements of observations, includingstatistics, tables and graphs.
Indicate information on range of variation.
Mention negative results as well as positive. Do not interpret
results - save that for the discussion.
Lay out the case as for a jury. Present sufficient details so that others can draw their own
inferences and construct their own explanations.
Use S.I. units (m, s, kg, W, etc.) throughout the thesis.
Break up your results into logical segments by using subheadings
Key results should be stated in clear sentences at the beginning of paragraphs. It is farbetter to say "X had significant positive relationship with Y (linear regression p
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RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Note: Results vs. Discussion Sections
Quarantine your observations from your interpretations. The
writer must make it crystal clear to the reader which statementsare observation and which are interpretation. In most
circumstances, this is best accomplished by physically separating
statements about new observations from statements about the
meaning or significance of those observations. Alternatively, thisgoal can be accomplished by careful use of phrases such as "I
infer ..." vast bodies of geological literature became obsolete with
the advent of plate tectonics; the papers that survived are those
in which observations were presented in stand-alone fashion,
unmuddied by whatever ideas the author might have had about
the processes that caused the observed phenomena.
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Discussion
Start with a few sentences that summarize the most important results. The discussion
section should be a brief essay in itself, answering the following questions and
caveats: What are the major patterns in the observations? (Refer to spatial andtemporal variations.)
What are the relationships, trends and generalizations among the results?
What are the exceptions to these patterns or generalizations?
What are the likely causes (mechanisms) underlying these patterns resulting
predictions?
Is there agreement or disagreement with previous work?
Interpret results in terms of background laid out in the introduction - what is the
relationship of the present results to the original question?
What is the implication of the present results for other unanswered questions in earth
sciences, ecology, environmental policy, etc....?
Multiple hypotheses: There are usually several possible explanations for results. Becareful to consider all of these rather than simply pushing your favorite one. If you can
eliminate all but one, that is great, but often that is not possible with the data in hand.
In that case you should give even treatment to the remaining possibilities, and try to
indicate ways in which future work may lead to their discrimination.
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CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
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CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
Conclusions
What is the strongest and most important statement that you can make from
your observations?If you met the reader at a meeting six months from now, what do you want
them to remember about your paper?
Refer back to problem posed, and describe the conclusions that you reached
from carrying out this investigation, summarize new observations, new
interpretations, and new insights that have resulted from the present work.
Include the broader implications of your results.Do not repeat word for word the abstract, introduction or discussion.
Recommendations
Include when appropriate (most of the time)
Remedial action to solve the problem.
Further research to fill in gaps in our understanding.
Directions for future investigations on this or related topics.
Title Page
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Title Page
Acknowledgement
Table of Contents
List of Figures
List of TablesAbstract
I. Introduction
A. Background of Study
B. Statement of the Problem
C. ObjectiveD. Review of Related Literature
II. Methodology
A. Hypotheses
B. Scope and Limitations
C. Conceptual FrameworkD. Results & Discussion
III. Conclusion & Recommendation
Appendices
References
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http://www.postgraduate.uwa.edu.au/students
/thesis/style
http://www.ldeo.columbia.edu/~martins/sen_
sem/thesis_org.html
http://www.postgraduate.uwa.edu.au/students/thesis/stylehttp://www.postgraduate.uwa.edu.au/students/thesis/stylehttp://www.ldeo.columbia.edu/~martins/sen_sem/thesis_org.htmlhttp://www.ldeo.columbia.edu/~martins/sen_sem/thesis_org.htmlhttp://www.ldeo.columbia.edu/~martins/sen_sem/thesis_org.htmlhttp://www.ldeo.columbia.edu/~martins/sen_sem/thesis_org.htmlhttp://www.postgraduate.uwa.edu.au/students/thesis/stylehttp://www.postgraduate.uwa.edu.au/students/thesis/style