NAME: _____________________

Reseda High School

AP Chemistry

2016 – 2017 Reference Book

AP Chemistry Test Basics ¨ When is the test?

o Monday, May 1, 2017 @ 8:00 am

¨ Exam Overview o The exam assesses students' understanding of the core scientific principles,

theories, and processes governing chemical systems. There may be questions on the use of modeling to explain chemistry principles, the use of mathematical processes to explain concepts, making predictions and justifying phenomena, experimental design, and manipulation and interpretation of data.

o Students have a periodic table of the elements and formulas and constants chart to use on the entire exam. In addition, students may use a scientific or graphing calculator on the free-response section.

¨ Exam Outline

Section I Multiple Choice — 60 Questions | 1 Hour, 30 Minutes | 50% of Exam Score

• Questions are either discrete questions or question sets, in which students are provided with a stimulus or a set of data and a series of related questions.

• A calculator is not permitted on Section I. Section II Free Response — 7 Questions | 1 Hour, 45 Minutes | 50% of Exam Score

• There are three long- and four short-answer questions. • The questions assess the following skills: experimental design;

quantitative/qualitative translation; analysis of authentic lab data and observations to identify patterns or explain phenomena; creating or analyzing atomic and molecular views to explain observations; and following a logical/analytical pathway to solve a problem.

• A scientific or graphing calculator is permitted on Section II. ¨ Resources for Students

o College Board Access: https://apstudent.collegeboard.org/apcourse/ap-chemistry

o Interactive Periodic Table: http://ptable.com o Video Reviews by Topic: http://www.bozemanscience.com/ap-chemistry/

¨ Review Resources o Barron’s AP Chemistry Review Book o Varsity Tutors (Free AP Chemistry Multiple Choice Questions) o College Board has 2014/2015/2016 Exam Questions

AP Chemistry Big Ideas Big Idea #1: Atoms, Elements, and the Building Blocks of Matter

1. Atoms, Elements, and the Building Blocks of Matter

2. The periodic table 3. Moles, molecules, grams, gases,

solutions, and percent composition

4. Empirical and Molecular formulas

5. Electron Configuration, Aufbau Principle, Pauli Exclusion Principle, and Hund’s Rule

6. Coulomb’s Law 7. Quantum Theory 8. The Bohr Model 9. Photoelectron Spectroscopy 10. Electron configuration and PES 11. Dalton, Thomson, Milikan,

Rutherford, and Heisenberg Uncertainty

12. Periodic Trends – atomic radius (cations & anions), ionization energy,, and electronegativity

Big Idea #3: Chemical Reactions, Energy Changes, and Redox Reactions

1. Types of reactions: synthesis, decomposition, acid-base, redox, and precipitation

2. Balancing chemical equations 3. Chemical equations and

calculations (stoichiometry) 4. Enthalpy change, ΔH (E is

released when bonds form and E is absorbed when bonds break)

5. Energy diagrams: endothermic vs exothermic, catalysts

6. Oxidation states 7. Redox reactions 8. Reduction potentials 9. Galvanic, electrolytic, and

electroplating

Big Idea #2: Bonding and Phases 1. Ionic, metallic, and covalent

bonds 2. Polarity and dipole moment 3. Intermolecular forces (IMF):

Network (covalent) bonds, hydrogen bonds, dipole-dipole forces, and London dispersion forces

4. Lewis dot structures 5. Resonance forms 6. Incomplete octets 7. Expanded octets 8. Formal charge 9. Molecular geometry (VSEPR) –

tetrahedral, trigonal pyramidal, bent, trigonal bypyramidal, seesaw, t-shaped, and linear

10. Bonding and phases 11. Kinetic molecular theory 12. The ideal gas equation 13. Dalton’s Law 14. Deviations from the ideal

behavior 15. Density 16. Solutions: molarity and mole

fraction Big Idea #4: Chemical Reactions and their Rates

1. Rate law using initial concentrations

2. Rate law using concentration and time, first-order rate laws, second-order rate law, zero-order rate law, and half-life

3. Collision theory 4. Beer’s Law 5. Reaction mechanisms 6. Catalysts

Big Idea #5: Laws of Thermodynamics and Changes in Matter

1. Energy vs temperature 2. Energy transfer 3. First and second laws of

thermodynamics 4. State functions 5. Standard state conditions 6. Heat of formation 7. Bond energy 8. Hess’s law 9. Naming phase changes 10. Heat of fusion and heat of

vaporization 11. Phase diagram for water 12. Calorimetry 13. Entropy 14. Gibbs free energy 15. ΔG, ΔH, and ΔS 16. Voltage and spontaneity

Other Topics of Concern:

¨ Laboratory Practices ¨ Organic Chemistry

Nomenclature AP Chemistry Science Practices

1. Science Practice 1: The student can use representations and models to communicate scientific phenomena and solve scientific problems.

2. Science Practice 2: The student can use mathematics appropriately.

3. Science Practice 3: The student can engage in scientific questioning to extend thinking or to guide investigations within the context of the AP course.

Big Idea #6: Equilibrium, Acids and Bases, Titrations, and Solubility

1. The equilibrium constant Keq 2. Le Chatelier’s Law:

Concentration, volume, temperature, and pressure

3. The reaction quotient, Q 4. Keq and multistep processes 5. Solubility – Ksp, and the common

ion effect 6. Standard free energy change

and the equilibrium constant 7. Acid and base definition:

Arrhenius, Bronsted-Lowry, and Lewis

8. pH 9. Weak and strong acids 10. KW 11. Neutralization reactions 12. Henderson-Hasselbach equation 13. Buffers 14. Polyprotic acids and amphoteric

substances 15. Titration

4. Science Practice 4: The student can plan and implement data collection strategies in relation to a particular scientific question.

5. Science Practice 5: The student can perform data analysis and evaluation of evidence.

6. Science Practice 6: The student can work with scientific explanations and theories.

7. Science Practice 7: The student is able to connect and relate knowledge across various scales, concepts, and representations in and across domains.

AP Chemistry Laboratory Notebooks: A Writing Guide YOUR LABORATORY NOTEBOOK Maintaining a well-kept and accurate lab notebook is the most important component of a good laboratory performance. The effort invested in developing good habits of notebook use now will be repaid many times over student pursuing a career in the sciences. Furthermore, some universities now require submission of your AP Chemistry notebook before they will grant AP credit in chemistry even if you score a “5” on the AP Chemistry exam. LAB NOTEBOOK BASICS

§ All writing must be entered legibly in permanent ink. If an error is made, it should be marked through with a single line so as not to obscure the original entity. DO NOT use white out.

§ Your name should be written on the front cover. § Reserve the first few pages of the notebook for a table of contents that

follows the following format: Title of Lab Page Numbers Date Completed

§ Number all pages in advance at the bottom right corner and never remove pages

§ All graphs must be properly labeled and permanently glued into your notebook or they will not be graded

THE FORMAT OF YOUR LAB REPORT For each lab we complete in AP chemistry you will need to write a formal lab report in your lab notebook. The lab report is a formal document, so use proper grammar and punctuation. Every lab report should include the following section numbers and headings:

*Items 1-5 (+empty data tables) are required before every experiment* *1. Title: Placed at the top of the first page, this should include the title of the experiment, the name(s) of the person(s) performing the experiment, and the date preformed. *2. Objective/Purpose: This is a statement of the purpose of the lab explained in 1 or 2 sentences. What are the main reasons you are preforming this experiment? Be specific à don't just restate the title or copy the generic objective from the lab handout. *3. Equipment & Materials: A bulleted list of all the equipment and chemicals you will use in this experiment.

*4. Procedure: Summarize the sequence of steps you will follow as you perform the experiment. Try to be brief, but include enough detail so you can follow this in the lab. Illustrations or flow diagrams are helpful and can be used to show the procedure. You do NOT need to copy every step of the procedure from the lab handout to your notebook. *5. Data/Observations: This is where you record all the measurements and observations you made during the lab (NOT on notebook paper transferred later). All data should be organized into labeled data tables with correct significant figures and labeled units.

Please SPACE things out – don’t try to cram everything onto one page! You have plenty of room in your notebook. Graphs and charts maybe computer generated and must include titles, axes labels, and units where applicable.

6. Calculations: You must show at least one sample calculation for each piece of data in your table that was not simply a measured value. For example, if you record the number of moles of NaCl, but you obtained that from measuring the mass of NaCl, you must show in the calculations section how you got the number of moles from the mass. If you did this step in five trials, only one calculation must be shown. 7. **Data & Error Analysis: In this section you will discuss your data. Remember – if It is not in evidence (data) you cannot discuss it, and this includes observations. 7a. Post lab questions 7b. Calculate percent error 7c. Three sources of error 8. Conclusion: State the main results in 2-5 sentences.

AP Chemistry – Lab Report Grading Rubric *Label all 8 sections of your lab report with a number and the section heading

Title 4 3 2 1 Format of pre-lab (Parts 1-4 + Data Tables) Pre-lab questions

Title, purpose, materials, procedure, and data table are prepared before coming to lab All pre-lab questions are answered

At least one of the required components is not complete before lab, but all are included in the final write-up Some pre-lab questions are missing

One of the required components is not complete before lab and is missing from the final write-up Pre-lab questions are missing

More than one of the required components is not complete before the lab and is missing from the final write-up

Data and Observations

Data and observations are entered in table(s) during class time. Graphs and tables are labeled and titled.

Data and observations are written on separate paper and entered into tables later. Graphs and tables are labeled and titled.

Accurate representation of the data in written form but not in table(s). Graphs and tables are not labeled or titled.

Data are scattered at random throughout the lab notebook. Graphs and tables are not labeled or titled.

Data & Error Analysis

The data represented is in a logical order. There is discussion of how the data was obtained. Analysis of the data is presented. No opinions are offered regarding the data. Error is

The data represented is in a logical order. There is discussion of how the data was obtained. Analysis of the data is presented. Opinions are used to describe the data. Error is

Analysis section is a narrative description of work performed in lab but lacks detailed discussion of the data, how it was obtained, and analysis of data. Error

Analysis section is a narrative description of work performed in lab with little discussion of data. Error

Post-lab questions

calculated and discussed. All post-lab questions are answered.

calculated but not discussed. Some post-lab questions are answered.

calculation is incorrect. Post-lab questions are missing.

calculation is missing.

Conclusion Conclusion is a 2-5-sentence summary of results, and is a separate section of the report.

Conclusion is a 2-5-sentence summary of results, and is not in a separate section of the report.

Conclusion is a 1-2 sentence summary of results, and is a separate section of the report.

Conclusion doesn't follow logical path based on student data.

Overall Formatting and Grammar

Lab report is neatly written with little to no grammatical errors.

Lab report is neatly written with a few grammatical errors.

Lab report is not neatly written and has a few grammatical errors.

Lab report is not neatly written and has many grammatical errors.

ADDITIONAL TIPS FOR WRITING LAB REPORTS

Data Analysis Section: DO

§ Present the data you collected § Discuss how you obtained your

data and explain the complex calculations

§ Refer to data tables, charts, and graphs by their title

§ Analyze how your data supports or rejects your hypothesis or objective

§ Focus on facts you can support with your data and/or observations

DON’T § Give opinion that your data was

“good” or “bad” § Describe details of the

procedure again or explain every explain every addition or subtraction step in words

§ Use the phrase, “our graph shows…”

§ Assume the reader will understand the data without an explanation

§ Describe what you think or what you think should have happened

Conclusion Section:

DO § Briefly restate the objective § State whether or not you met

the objective and provide simple data to support this statement

DON'T § List procedural steps § Write “We met the objective”

and fail to support this statement with proof

Error Analysis DO

§ Compare your results to known or expected values by calculating percent error, difference, standard deviation, etc

§ List/explain any significant errors and how they influenced the data

§ Make suggestions for improving the procedure, process and/or outcome of this experiment if you were to repeat it

DON'T § Write “human error messed up

our lab” or unjustly blame the equipment

§ Criticize the procedure or equipment without the offering an idea for fixing problems

Table of Strong Acids Completely Ionized in Water to Give One (or more) Protons per Acid

Molecule

HI H+ (aq) + I- (aq) HBr H+ (aq) + Br- (aq)

HClO4 H+ (aq) + ClO4- (aq)

HCl H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) HClO3 H+ (aq) + ClO3

- (aq) H2SO4 H+ (aq) + HSO4

- (aq) [HSO4- is a weak

acid that contributes additional protons

HNO3 H+ (aq) + NO3- (aq)

Table of Strong Bases

Completely Ionized in Water to Give One (or More) Hydroxides per Base Molecule

NaOH Na+ (aq) + OH- (aq) KOH K+ (aq) + OH- (aq) LiOH Li+ (aq) + OH- (aq) RbOH Rb+ (aq) + OH- (aq) CsOH Cs+ (aq) + OH- (aq)

Ca(OH)2 Ca2+ (aq) + 2OH- (aq) [but not very soluble]

Ba(OH)2 Ba2+ (aq) + 2OH- (aq) [but not very soluble]

Sr(OH)2 Sr2+ (aq) + 2OH- (aq) [but not very soluble]

Solubility For the AP Chemistry exam you need to have memorized the following:

§ Six Strong Acids = SA o The 6 SA are soluble, meaning the weak acids = WA may not be 100%

soluble. § Strong Bases = SB

o The SB are soluble while the weak bases = WB may not be 100% soluble. § Soluble Substances (dissolve in aqueous solution) § Insoluble Substances (will not dissolve in aqueous solutions or will form

precipitates) § The weird substances that do not follow regular rules, but are soluble.

Strong Acids or the BIG 6: Acronym P.I.N. C.B.S.

1. P = perchloric acid = HClO4 2. I = hydroiodic acid = HI 3. N = nitric acid = HNO3

4. C = hydrochloric acid = HCl 5. B = hydrobromic acid = HBr 6. S = sulfuric acid = H2SO4

Strong Bases: Note these are Group 1 (Li to Cs) & Group 2 (Ca to Ba) metals. All other bases are WEAK.

1. LiOH 2. NaOH 3. KOH 4. RbOH

5. CsOH 6. Ca(OH)2

7. Sr(OH)2

8. Ba(OH)2 Always Soluble: 1. All metals in Group 1 (unless with O2

-) 2. NH4

+ (no exceptions) 3. NO3

- (no exceptions)

4. C2H3O2- (sometimes written as

CH3COO-)

Insoluble or Not Aqueous: Halogens/Halides are soluble with all elements/polyatomics unless they get “SLaMmed” into a precipitate.

1. S = silver = Ag. Example AgCl = solid/insoluble/ppt. 2. L = lead = Pb. Example PbCl2 = solid/insoluble/ppt. 3. M = mercury = Hg. Example HgCl2 = solid/insoluble/ppt.

Sulfates are soluble unless they get “CaBaSr SLaMmed” into a precipitate. 1. Ca = CaSO4 = solid/insoluble/ppt. 2. Ba = BaSO4 = solid/insoluble/ppt. 3. Sr = SrSO4 = solid/insoluble/ppt.

Phosphate (PO43-) & Carbonates (CO3

2-) are INSOLUBLE except with group 1 & NH4+. Sulfides (S2-) are INSOLUBLE except with group 1, 2, & NH4

+ Weirdo’s: These substances do not follow regular rules, but they are soluble and break down accordingly.

1. NH4OH à NH3 + H2O 2. H2CO3 à CO2 + H2O 3. H2SO3 à SO2 + H2O

General Information for Writing Equations 1. Net Ionic Equations –be able to write all equations as net ionic equations.

a. Example of a net ionic equation: i. sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid are mixed 1. NaOH + HCl à NaCl + H2O (full equation) 2. Na+ + OH- + H+ + Cl- à Na+ + Cl- + H2O (equation with soluble ions & insoluble items) 3. OH- + H+ à H2O (Net Ionic equation: spectator ions are crossed out, only substances involved in reaction are remaining.

b. Spectator Ions = the ions that do not participate in the reaction. i. These ions are equal & on opposite sides of the arrow and therefore can be crossed out. ii. See Na+ & Cl- in step 2 of the example above. iii. They do not participate in the reaction, they are like fans on the sidelines, so they are cancelled out.

c. Strong Acids & Strong Bases i. SA & SB completely dissociate, just like something that is soluble. When writing equations do not leave them together as a compound, instead separate them into ions. 1. SA Example: HCl(aq) is really H+ + Cl- 2. Weak Acid Example: H2SO3(aq) à H2SO3 3. SB Example: LiOH à Li+ + OH- 4. Weak Base: Cu(OH)2 à Cu(OH)2

d. Another Example of Net Ionic Equations: i. Sodium Acetate is dissolved in water. Complete the equation in net ionic form. Note that acetic acid is a WA so it does not break up into ions. 1. NaC2H3O2 + H2O à HC2H3O2 + NaOH (starter equation) 2. Na+ + C2H3O2

- + H2O à HC2H3O2 + Na+ + OH- (complete ionic equation) 3. C2H3O2

- + H2O à HC2H3O2 + OH- (NET IONIC EQUATION) Types of Equations to Know

1. Decomposition: AB à A + B 2. Synthesis (combination): A + B à AB 3. Combustion: Hydrocarbon + O2 à CO or CO2 + H2O 4. Single Replacement: A + BC à AC + B 5. Double Replacement – precipitate (also called metathesis): AB + CD à AD + CB 6. Double Replacement – neutralization (acid + base à salt + water) 7. Double Replacement – hydrolysis (water + a salt à) 8. Coordination Compound/Ligand type reaction 9. Redox