Resources in a Computer SystemIdentifying basic resources and management systems

Primary Storage

A quick access data storage, often referred to as Random Access Memory and Read-Only Memory. It holds the data for the CPU during processing. It is volatile, hence, when it switched off, the data is lost.

Secondary Storage (Auxiliary Storage, External Storage)

A non-volatile back up storage for the primary storage. It is not under direct control of CPU, thus it does not interact directly with applications. Holds the operating system, files and other applications.

Examples: Hard drive disk, USB key, CD, Cloud backups

Processor Speed (CPU clock speed)

Managed by the operating system and is dependant on the multi-tasking of multiple programs. Measured in hertz, the number of clock cycles in one second, and, is general accepted that the faster the speed the more processing, but directly comparing processor speed does not give a true reflection of performance.

Bandwidth (Data Transfer Rate)

1. The amount of data (bits) that can be transferred between two points in a second

2. The difference between frequency signal components

Screen Resolution

The clarity of text and images on the screen. A larger resolution allows for a sharper image and more items to be displayed at the same time.Managed through graphics processing.

Disk Storage

Considered a secondary storage, using circular disk, such as compact disk (CD) and digitcal versatile disk (DVD). Data is written via a laser within the grooves.

Sound Processor

Hardware: Physical sound card that allows for recording and playing sounds through peripheral devices connected through ports. Can be integrated into the processor, or, could be dedicated.

Software: Audio drivers that dictates how a dedicated sound cards will function.

Graphics Processor

Hardware: Physical graphics card allows the computer system to process enhances graphics. Can be integrated into the processor, or, could be dedicated.

Software: Graphics drivers that dictates how a dedicated graphics card will function.

Cache

1. High speed partition of either primary or secondary storage2. Memory cache is part of the Static RAM, which provides data that is

accessed repeatedly in a quick manner3. Disk cache is a part of conventional primary storage4. Browser cache is the storage of files from websites that, if not

altered, are loaded from the disk instead of obtaining through the internet for a faster access

Network Connectivity

The connection to other nodes via the different types of networks. The manner in which the nodes are connected is referred to as network topology.

Resources in a Computer SystemEvaluating the availbility and mangement of resources

Primary Storage

Secondary Storage

Processor Speed

Bandwidth Screen Resolution

Disk Storage Sound Processor

Graphics Processor

Cache Network Connectivity

Mainframe - RAM/RAID- 256-4000 RAIM

- Magneto - 10 to 80 central processors (CP) within the central processing complex (CPC)

- 10 to 80 cores- 3.8 to 5.3 gigahertz

(GHz)

- N/A - 640 x 480 to 1280 x 1024

- 12.1 inch monitor

- HDD- floppy disk drive

- sound performance mainly updated by software

- graphical interface and performance mainly updated by software

- 64 KB L1 Instruction Cache

- 3 MB L2 cache, 24 MB L3 Cache, 128 Data Cache

- accessible to many users- e.g. accessing an ATM is

accessing a bank’s mainframe

Server - 1 to 2 GB of RAM for file sharing for up to 25 users

- 16 GB or more for video storage, database serving, data-intensive Web, conferencing, enterprise-grade messaging

- multiple hard drives → increases efficiency and data capacity

- 500 GB to 1000 GB of RAID storage for up to 25 users

- cloud storage- e.g. One Drive,

Google Drive

- many multi-core processors

- ability to update both hardware and software without restarting

- N/A - N/A - HDD - Does not have sound capabilities, so little to no sound processing is needed

- Does not have a Graphical User Interface, so little to no graphics processing is needed

- SDD Caching

- specialized network cards- regular and frequent online back-

ups of critical data- transparent data transfer between

devices/mediums- cloud computing: - large remote servers- centralized data storage- online access to

services/resources- public, private, or hybrid clouds

Personal Computer

- 4 GB of RAM or more

- 320 GB to 1000 GB of hard drive at 7200 RPMs/SSD/Hybrid

- 4th gen Intel(R) Core(™) i5-4200M to Core i7-5930

- 2.5 to 3.5 GHz- 4-6 cores, 4-12

threads

- 10 Mbit/s (standard ethernet) to 100 Mbit/s (fast ethernet)

- 1366x768 or better- Aspect Ratio: 16:9- 24 to 32 inches

- HDD- CD/DVD ROM Drive

- high signal to noise ratio

- low frequency response and distortion levels

- e.g. Asus Xonar Essense STX

- NVIDIA/AMD/Intel Graphics Card

- 1 GB GDDR5 RAM

- L3: 3 to 8 MB

- L2: 4x256 to 6x256 KB

- 10-1000 Mbps Ethernet (network card)

- 802.11agn/802.11ac (wireless network card)

Netbook (sub-laptop)

Small RAM, no more than two gigabytes, in order to save physical space

Small hard drive storage space to ration space

Low power and slow speed processor to minimize physical space, and, maximize battery life

Low bandwidth due to limited resources

Small screen, usually less than twelve inches, to maintain a small body

N/A Integrated sound processor

Integrated graphics processor

N/A WLAN through wi-fi, bluetooth

Smartphone (Personal Digital Device)

Newer generation smartphones contain at least two gigabytes of RAM

Internal memory ranges from eight gigabyte and up, also external, expandable micro-SD can increase internal storage

Newer generation have quad-core processor, higher performance to size ratio, but over heating problems could arise in the small space

Newest networks support HSPA/4G/LTE network speeds up to 50 mbps.Physical ports use microUSB 2.0

Small screens, less than six inches, but come with high definition display (1080 pixels)

N/A Basic audio features, vibration, playback, recording

Integrated graphics processor

Minimal browser cache

WLAN through wi-fi, bluetooth, also various network bands across different generations

Personal Digital Device (PDA)

Small RAM/Flash memory mixed with ROM for permanent software

Minimal secondary storage for personal information

Slow processor speed, only meant to perform basic, pre-loaded tasks

Possible USB port, mostly outdated technology, slowly replaced with smartphones

Small screens, medium quality display

N/A Basic audio features, vibration, playback, recording

Integrated graphics processor, minimal graphics

N/A WLAN through wifi, bluetooth, possibly without connectivity

Digitical Camera

Built-in internal storage of varaible size, with expandable micro-SD card slot

Basic processor, capable of performing needed task

Standard USB port Small screen resolution with medium quality display

N/A Basic audio features, vibration, playback, recording

Integrated or dedicated graphics processor, depending on graphics

N/A WLAN through wifi, bluetooth, possibly without connectivity

Limitations of Resources in Various Computer Systems and Problems that Arise - Kyle

Computer Systems - General Limitations to Resources

Resources available to a computer system are related to the size of system and environment in which the system operates, and the use of the system.

Supercomputer•Due to the extensive space dedicated to the system, it allows many resources to be available. (Room size or greater)•Often used to handle high intensity scientific computations

Mainframe computer•There is a lower space requirement compared to supercomputers. (Cabinet size)•Used for data and statistic processing of corporations and governments•Can support the processing requirements of up to thousands of user

Minicomputer•Space requirements are similar to that of mainframe computers.•Supports up to 50 users.

Microcomputer•The least space-consuming type of computer system. There are further divisions in size, ranging from a briefcase to a milk carton.

OS Resource Management TechniquesHow Scheduling, Interrupts, and Policies are used to allow maximum

utilisation of a computer’s resources.

SchedulingWhat happens to a process after it has been started has already been shown, but how does a process get started and how does the processor run multiple processes at the same time?

The answer to both of these questions is a scheduler. Because there are multiple programs in main memory all trying to run at the same time there needs to be a program that keeps track of what needs to run on the processor at any given time.

There are three types of schedulers working on any computer;- Long term, this scheduler takes programs from secondary memory and decides if they should be placed in primary memory to await execution. This

scheduler has the job of deciding how many applications are running at any given time and has to split computational time between CPU and I/O processes.

- Medium term, takes processes that have not been active for a period of time and places back in secondary memory, and if required taking a program/process from secondary memory and placing it in primary memory. (this is known as swapping)

- Short term, decides the order in which processes currently in primary memory should be executed within the CPU.

InteruptsHow processes are started and executed has already been discussed, but throughout this doesn’t explain the interrupt label in the process execution diagram. This reference to interrupting is how changing priorities can cause processes to be stopped or how the operating system can respond to input from peripheral devices.

Almost all computers today are interrupt-driven meaning that, they start going down the list of computer instructions in one program (such as a word processor) and keep running the instructions until either (A) they can't go any further or (B) an interrupt signal is sensed. After the interrupt signal is sensed, the computer either resumes running the program it was running or begins running another program.

The Operating System can be visualised as the software layer of the computer that sits on top of the computer’s hardware. While computers are becoming more and more powerful, there still need to be ways that the operating system can make resources available to the user.

To understand how the operating system makes additional resources available the programs running on the computer and therefore the user the different stages that the processes (an instance of a computer program that is being executed) that are running go through.

4. A basic Diagram of the states a process goes through.

Diagram of what happens during an interrupt.

PoliciesThese days computers do not operate in isolation they are connected to numerous others around the world, that is why we need policies to allow the different computers to communicate with the other computers. a course or principle of action adopted or proposed by a government, party, business, or individual.As a result operating systems need be able to process the inputs and outputs to and from the physical computer and becasue computers cannot adapt all of the inputs have to be standard.

Waiting

Ready Running

New Terminated

Input/output or event completion

Interrupted

Dispatch

ExitAdmitted

Input/output or event wait

Hardware Processor Software

Exception/Trap sent from

processor to processor

Software Interrupt instruction loaded

by processor

Processor halts thread execution

Processor saves thread state

Processor executes interrupt

handler

Processor resumes thread

execution

Interrupt Request sent from device

to processor

MultitaskingAs has already been seen in the Scheduling section the processor is designed to be working with multiple programs at once by switching between multiple processes each containing an instanced copy of the program. The switched occur so frequently the user can interact with multiple processes at the same time.

There are two types of multitasking1) Cooperative Multitasking- A type of multitasking in which the process currently controlling the CPU must

offer control to other processes. It is called “cooperative” because all programs must cooperate for it to work.

1) Preemptive Multitasking- Allows the computer system to guarantee more reliably each process a regular

"slice" of operating time. It also allows the system to deal rapidly with important external events like incoming data, which might require the immediate attention of one or another process.

Word

Email

Web Browser

OS CPU

Diagram of the layers of communication of processes.

OS Resource Management TechniquesResource management through polling, virtual memory, and paging

Virtual MemoryVirtual memory is a feature used by OS to manage memory resources and compensate for shortages in primary memory

● Seperates logical memory from physcial memory● Requires both software and hardware implementation

○ Combines temporary hard disk space with RAM● Transfer of data between physical and virtual memory is usually done

with same-sized blocks known as pages

Figure 2: a physical representation of the hardware aspect of virtual memory. Swapping from the disk to the physical memory creates an additional virtual memory.

PagingPaging is the technique through which virtual memory is implemented● Removes many limitations:

○ Allows physical address spaces to be non-contiguous○ Processes that require more resources than available can be run○ Files that are larger than available memory can be manipulated

Paging is optimally carried out by follows:

● Loads as many of the required pages as possible into the main memory

● Required pages are generally marked in a valid-invalid bit pattern (where a bit represeents whether or not the page is loaded into memory)○ Allows a reduction of the amount of memory needed to execute

process

Algorithm Premise

First in First out: replace oldest page

The oldest page would likely have already been used

Optimal algorithm: replace the page that will not be used for the longest time period

Theoretically pages that will no longer be needed will be replaced

Replace least recently used page

The least recently used page may have already been used

Replace least frequently used page

This page may not be needed

Replace most frequently used page

The taks involving this page may be complete

Polling, virtual memory and subsequent paging are techniques through which the operating system of a device can allocate and expand resources for process and devices.

PollingPolling is a technique used by the OS to manage resources for peripheral devices, ensuring that the devices get the necessary resources:

● Each peripheral device needs to run certain processes that will access certain resources

● Peripheral devices have different registers, including input and output

The technique runs as follows:

○ Registers and sensors are periodically checked to determine if processes are requested

○ Readiness to transmit or receive data is therefore determined○ Required process can then be initiated using interrupt or placed in

queue

The process is efficient because of orderly check of devices.

Figure 1: diagram representing the systematic polling of peripheral devices: Each device will be polled until a service is requested.

Device 1 Ready?

Device 2 Ready?

Device 3 Ready?

Service 1

Service 2

Service 3

Interrupt

● If a page that is marked invalid is needed a page-fault trap is initiated:

1. Terminate process2. Find a free memory frame3. Schedule operation to read page into found frame4. Modify the bit scheme to show that the page is loaded into

memory

● When a page that is not loaded is needed and there are not free frames, it is swapped with a currently loaded page

Table 1: the potential algoithims that can be used and the premise for the use of each of these algorithms:

The efficiency of the algorithm is significant to the overall efficiency of paging:

● Accessing and transferring pages from the hard disk is a resource consuming process

● The optimization of the algorithm essentially decides the amount of swaps that will have to be carried out during the execution of the program

These techniques are used in conjunction with others inorder to manage the resources in general and allow for optimal usability.

Hiding Hardware Complexity with Operating Systems

What does the Operating System do? The purpose of the operating system is to hide the complexity of the hardware in the computer. For example, when using the compu8ter, the majoritry of users are not familiar with the complexity of primary and secondary storage, the CPU or the complex electrical inner workings that is a computer.

How does the Operating System do this?● User interface● Input and output devices● File management services● Drive letters● Virtual Memory● Java Virtual Machine

User Interfaces-Users do not see the hardware inside in the computer, interacting with the system only through a series of simplified buttons and commands-Allows users to manage applications more easily-Provides a simple graphical layout for user to issue commands and view information

Input and Output Devices-Input devices such as mice, keyboards, tablets, and trackpads allow for the user to send information to the computer. -These often are read as electrical signals and interrupts are often used in order to send the data to be process. -The user however, doesn’t see all the processing that the system does and the electrical systems behind data entry, thus hiding complexity-Output devices such as speakers, monitors, printers and projectors are what show the processed information to the user.-Usually uses a LCD/CRT fluorescent screen to display images for monitors-CRT screens display information by electrons being shot onto phosphorus which is then excited, emitting light and creating pixels as a result. -LCD displays use polarized light and electric currents to power the screen, changing the polarization for the display when it needs to be changed

File Management Services-File management allows for the user to archive their information and store it in meaningful ways and allows for easy access to them when needed-Allows for them to be sorted in a directory structure, it is a system either built into the operating system or can be acquired separately-Hides the actual sorting/physical memory locations of the information, rather presenting them in a sipmle manner

Drive Letters-A drive letter is a letter assigned to any drive by the operating system. -The name of the drive is unimportant and can be named ad per the user’s preferences but the drive letter must be unique. e.g cannot have two F drives-Default drive letter for first drive is always C://-Allows for the system to search between different drives easily while causing at most minor inconveniences to the user

Virtual Memory-Virtual memory is imaginary memory that isn’t actually present in the system. However, some Operating Systens do not allow its use.-A set of alternate memory addresses used by programs to store data until program is executed-When program is executed, the data from the virtual memory is copied into the real memory and executed as per usual-Virtual memory can store much more data than the main memory and allows it to be flexible-Paging used for virtual memory often to execute large programs-All this is hidden from the user, with the user only seeing the interface being presented

Java Virtual Machine-Another example is that when a programmer creates code, the java virtual machine that reads the compiled source code, takes the compiled byte code and translates it into machine language.-The machine language is then read and run as actions in the system

Localization and Compatibility Problems-When using an operating system, there is often software that needs to be run on a specific system locale to work. For example, many Japanese games require the system to be on Japanese locale despite having english subtitles-Often this is to compensate for the regional and linguistic differences-Compatability of certain operating system will also not allow certain software and programs to run. For example, Mac OS and Linux are not able to run many of the programs that Windows is able to as some software is designed specifically for Windows.

Advantages of Producing a Dedicated Operating System

What is an OS?

The operating system (OS) is the central and most important program

that runs on every computer. It is a given that every computer must have

an operating system to be able to run other programs. For a PC, this OS

is Windows, for a Mac it’s an OSX, for an iPhone an iOS and for a lot of

other general purpose phone it’s an Android. Operating systems have the

ability to perform basic tasks, such as:

- recognize input from the keyboard

- interpret and send output to the display screen

- keep track of files and directories on the disk

- control peripheral devices such as disk drives and printers

For large systems, the operating system becomes stronger with even

greater responsibilities and powers. In essence, it is like an air traffic

organizer, a job which makes sure that the running of different programs

and users do not interfere with one another to allow for the smooth utility

of the system. The operating system has a great responsibility of security,

it cannot allow the access of unauthorized users into the system.

Why produce a dedicated OS

for a device?

A high level of security is ensured in the creation of a dedicated operating

system. A dedicated operating system would be required for banks to

prevent cyber attacks on financial transactions. Efficiency is maximized

as dedicated operating systems are customized to do a specific function.

If building off of an existing operating system, it is easy to reduce the size

of the OS be eliminating certain aspects of the OS not needed for the

function of this hardware. This in return is able to decrease the amount of

secondary memory and RAM being used at one time. Because there

exists a custom OS, the priorities of the system can be analysed to make

the execution of other programs easier.

Lower CostsFor the most part, dedicated operating systems offer value in specific

applications by enabling the requisite hardware capabilities to perform the

desired function. As a result, the proprietary operating systems typically

don’t require licensing fees as the OS is what enables the function of the

device, without it, the device would be meaningless. This is not the case

when software companies are developing several operating systems to fit

the use of the user and not the hardware. Dedicated operating systems

should be developed to enable the required capabilities of the hardware

platform.

Generic operating systems, let’s say for mobiles, can be used for a wide

array of activities and thus customers pay for more functionality even if

they don’t need or use it.

When considering the lifetime of the operating system, limits are

frequently expressed by the inability to address current business needs

by the old platform. The lost opportunity of savings or advantages of

providing current and relevant solutions to business needs is often of

more value than the cost savings available by keeping the current

solution.

StabilityMost operating systems, especially in mobile phones are not developed

for a specific device but generally for a class of devices with a common

functionality (for example the Android OS). To still allow for a a graceful

experience, if without a dedicated operating system, drivers need to be

added to gracefully coexist in an environment not specifically designed

for such a change. This, typically creates an environment which is not

comparable to a dedicated operating system as it is less stable.

Using general operating systems also means a difficulty in updating the

software. This is due to the loss of compatibility with older drivers, etc.

These unpredictable results negatively impact business operations by the

lost data or corrupted files.

A dedicated operating system is a whole different story. Because of the

fact that the manufacturers design the OS specifically for their hardware

platform, the OS works in unison with the hardware. These systems can

be counted on to operate as they are designed and offer security and

predictability in the business use of the intended application.

High Level of SecurityA common worry of the user is the security from cyber attack or the

introduction of a virus into the user’s environment. At a consumer’s level

this loss is personal but at a commercial level the loss could be of real

dollar values for time and hiring highly skilled individuals to “fix” the

system. For a cyber hacker it is their duty to cause the most harm to the

greatest audience and thus they are more likely to attack an operating

system which is in the most use, whose general code and structure is in

the public domain. For this reason a custom OS is beneficial as it is not

readily found in the public domain and the software is owned by the

company of production.

Data processing

What is data processing?Data processing occurs when raw data is fed into a computer, and is analyzed and changed into useful information which can be output and used.

Examples of data processing: ● sorting, searching, querying, converting (ex. numbers to graph), etc.

Types of data processing:

Batch processing:aka: sequential, serial, offline, stacked/queued processing

1. A number of similar jobs or tasks are collected together (batched) as a stack/queue.

2. When the batch is complete, the batch is sent to be processed in an order according to the stack/queue of tasks.

Notes:● Useful where time delay does not affect usefulness of results.

Applications of batch processing: ● household bills, payroll, marking multiple choice exams

Online processing:aka: direct access processing, random access processing

1. User communicates directly with the computer system.2. When the user makes a change to the data or a new task is assigned by

the user, the system immediately processes the task.Notes:● Random and rapid input, immediate and direct access to record contents.

Applications of online processing:● online booking/reservation/shopping, ATM transactions

Real time processing:1. Equipment must have online capability (see above: online processing).2. Often uses sensors rather than user input to obtain data.3. Processing is carried out in real time – computer responds to inputs

without any delays, and receiving and processing of tasks is performed simultaneously.

Applications of real time processing:● control systems (ex. aircraft warning system, guided missiles), alarm

systems (ex. burglar, hazardous materials, flood warning)

A diagram of the stimulus-response process used in real time processing:

Multiprocessing:aka: parallel processing

1. Two or more CPU’s within a mainframe sharing common memory and communicating with each other to execute more than one program/process at a time.

Notes:● Impractical for all but the most repetitive tasks.

Applications of multiprocessing:● supercomputer scientific applications (apply the same formula to a large

amount of data), bank and corporation mainframes

Diagram of a multi-processor, shared memory system architecture:

Multiprogramming:1. segments of each program are loaded into different partitions of main

memory2. a priority queue is set, and each program segment is accessed by the

CPU and worked on for a set time, after which a new program segment is accessed and executed

Notes:● Two limitations of normal batch processing are underutilization of memory

and long CPU idle times● Multiprogramming solves both of these problems by the (seemingly)

simultaneous execution of two or more programs on the same computer

Applications of multiprogramming:● multitasking in modern operating systems when numbers of processing

centres

TimesharingA specific type of multiprogramming, where the CPU switches its time between multiple users’ tasks.

Applications of timesharing:● most mainframes and minicomputers implement timesharing

History:● introduced in 1960s, became a prominent model of computing in 1970s● single user of a computer (before timesharing) enter bursts of information

followed by long pauses (like batch processing)● a group of users using the same computer can make use of the CPU

pause times between other users’ tasks

Advantages and disadvantages:See multiprogramming, above.

● batch● online● real time

● multiprocessing● multiprogramming● time sharing

Advantages:● flexible: tasks processed with no

human present (therefore allows for overnight processing, etc.)

● economic: processing a large volume of data over time results in lower processing costs than if each task is processed as it occurs

Disadvantages:● slow: time is given for the batch

of tasks to accumulate (up to days), and processing large amounts of data requires more time

● arbitrary: control of priority of tasks is determined only by the order in which tasks enter the stack/queue

Disadvantages:● vulnerable: needs virus/hacker

security, especially for online booking systems

Advantages:● ability of computer: carries out

jobs that humans cannot do (ex. continuously monitor radiation levels)

● quick: stimulus-response process is very fast, almost instant

Disadvantages:● expensive: very expensive

hardware and software is needed, in comparison to batch processing

● high-risk: system failure can cost lives (ex. faulty airplane warning system)

Types, examples, and advantages/disadvantages of each type.

Advantages:● fast: increase throughput (rate of

production/processing) by distributing processing load among various processing units

● failsafe: if one CPU breaks down, the process can be completed by another CPU

Disadvantages:● relies on CPU: if a CPU fails, the

speed of the system is severely affected

● expensive: multiprocessor systems are usually specialized and large, requiring expensive hardware and complex software

Advantages:● multitask: two or more programs

can be executed concurrently (in the sense that all the programs are executed in segments)

● CPU not idle: since I/O is slower than CPU operation, CPU can be dedicated to other tasks while I/O of results of previous task are being performed

Disadvantages:● complexity: more complex

operating system and CPU scheduling/time-slicing techniques are required

Advantages:● up-to-date: the immediate

processing of tasks ensures that a system always contains up-to-date information

Computer History and Evolution

World War II(1939-1945) Present

Digital computers were first electromechanical, where

electrical switches were used to perform operations.

Examples include German engineer Konrad Zuse’s Z2

and Z3 built in 1939 and 1942.

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990

Purely electric computers were soon introduced. During

the second World War, to crack the Lorenz SZ40/42 German encryption machine used for Army communications, Max Newman and his associates built the Colossus, the first

electronic digital programmable computer to be

built and functional. It made use of a large number of

vacumn tubes to increase the speed of the calculations.

Purely electric computers were soon introduced. During the

second World War, to crack the Lorenz SZ40/42 German

encryption machine used for Army communications, Max Newman and his associates built the Colossus, the first

electronic digital programmable computer to be built and

functional. It made use of a large number of vacumn tubes

to increase the speed of the calculations.

In 1947, the bipolar transistor was invented. Transistors are semiconductors that amplify, switch electric signals and

current. They were deemed better since transistors

compared to vacuum tubes occupy less space, and use

less power, therefore giving off less heat. This invention gave rise to the “second generation”

of computers.

First computer built using transistors in 1953 and operational led by Tom

Kilburn at the University of Manchester.

The idea of the integrated circuit was presented on May 7,

1952 by Geoffrey Dummer. Integrated

circuits are bunches of circuits on a chip of a

semiconductor material. To improve the speed of

machines, more and more transistors have

been integrated over the years. Integrated circuits have lower costs as chips

were relatively cheap compared to making 1

transistor at a time, they also use less power and

occupy little space.

The first supercomputer was Atlas, officially

introduced in 1962 and was the most powerful computer

in the world, designed by Ferranti (a UK electrical engineering firm) and

Manchester University to run at a speed of 1 000 000

instructions per second

In 1964, the CDC 6600 (Control Data Corporation) was released. Designed by

Seymour Cray, it then became the fastest computer, but also

innovated and promoted the use of silicon vs germanium transistors and introduced

refrigeration to combat overheating.

1980’s supercomputers use few processors

1990’s machines with thousands of processors on shelves. Reaching

speeds of 1.7 gigaFLOPS per processor (The Numerical Wind Tunnel

supercomputer)

Mainframe manufacturing began from the late 1950’s to

1970’s by mainly “IBM and the Severn Dwarfs”

companies.

Dominated by IBM, they have evolved their

mainframe computers from the 700/7000 series to the

360 series in 1964. The 360 is versatile, covering a range from household to commercial and scientific

applications.

Mini’s along with mainframes were smaller

and cheaper than mainframe computers and developed in mid 1960s. Minis originally cost less than $25 000

USD, had ~4000 words of memory and has the

ability to run higher level languages such as

FORTRAN.

PDP – 8 was built by Digital Equipment

Corporation, and used transistors in 1965. Later

versions of the PDP-8 used small integrated

circuits.

In the late 60’s minicomputers began to

use integrated circuits with transistor to transistor logic, as the circuit is capable of functioning as a logic gate and amplifies power like a

transistor.

In the early 80’s minicomputers began to use VLSI circuits which integrate

thousands or tens of thousands of transistors to a single chip. At this time mini computers were 16 bit and

have the ability to multitask.

Microcomputers (or personal computers) were popularized in the 70s and the 80s due to the

evolution of more powerful microprocessors, they became much more inexpensive compared to the

bigger mainframe or super computers, due to cheaper chips, metals and switches.

Minicomputers eventually led to micro computers.

1968, HP built calculators, considered micro-

computers with programmability using

transistor to transistor logic without microprocessors

(TTL). This is having circuits made from bipolar transistors and resistors.

The transistors act as logic gates and amplify electrical

signals.

The first titled microcomputer is the Datapoint 2200 manufactured in 1970 by CTC. It was the

basis for the Intel 8008 microprocessor as it had similar instruction sets.

The Micral N, contained the 8 bit Intel 8008 microprocessor. It was manufactured by a French

team and patented in 1972.

Microcomputers of this time were crates that essentially had switches and lights.

1975, the SOL-20 was created, which included all the required parts of a computer on 1 board

and therefore, switches and lights were not needed anymore.

In 1974, the MITS Altair 8880 was designed with the Intel 8080 CPU, although it used switches and lights, it gained significant interest and led to the

development of hardware and founding of software companies today such as Apple and

Microsoft

BASIC language is now a standard feature in minicomputers

1977 the beginning of the second generation of micro-computers, now called home computers,

allowed for a monitor or TV screen for digital display

Operating system in 1950’s were basic and performed

sets of single tasks, for example a resident monitor

would load, read and execute punch cards with input.

1950’s. Features introduced such as batch processing, input/output

interrupt, buffering, runtime libraries, sorting records and multitasking

In 1960’s IBM released an operating system that

would work for their entire mainframe product line

named the OS/360 ISCOPE operating system

developed for batch processing in 1960s.

First OS for microcomputers were disk

operating systems

CP/M (control program for microcomputers is a mass

market OS released for processors with Intel

8080/85)

Microsoft OS (MS-DOS) was released in 1981 and resulted in IBM demanding

an operating system for their computers.

1984, Apple released the Apple Macintosh with the Mac OS computer with

innovated GUI

THE EVOLUTION OF MOBILE DEVICESNETWORKS

- Introduction of pocket sized devices, the early ones in 2000’s along with tablets in following years.

- These devices have their own operating system which allows them to run different types of application software (apps).

- Motorola introduced the first mobile phone in 1971

- Earlier Mobile telephones available but very bulky and costly.

- AT&T introduced the new Mobile Telephone Service in 1949

- AT&T commercialized the Improved Telephone Service in 1965, adding radio channels and allowing for more calls over the network.

- Motorola produced the first handheld mobile phone, previous phones were installed in cars, and vehicles.

- 3G networks were introduced in 2001 that allowed for internet access

- 4G networks introduced in 2009

The IBM zSeries mainframes were a family of mainframe systems named in

2000 and still used today.

2012, the average chip is between the size of 1-450mm2 and contains up to 9

000 000 transistors per millimetre squared.

CDC 6600

IBM 360 Mainframe

Micral N Microcomputer

LEGENDBlue - Computer (General)Orange - Operating SystemGreen - Mainframe ComputerPink - SupercomputerPurple - MicrocomputersDark Turquoise - Mobile

VLSI circuit

Apple Macintosh

The Numerican Wind Tunnel Suprcomputer by Fujitsu

BibliographyPoster 1:Resources needed within a computer system

Poster 2:Evaluation of resources in different computer systems

Poster 3 Poster 4Operating system resource management techniques

Poster 5Operating System Resource Management Techniques

Poster 6Operating Systems Hiding complexity

Poster 7dedicated operating system

Poster 8data processing

Poster 9History of Computers and its evolution

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