Rethinking language education and linguistic diversity in

Rethinking language education and linguistic diversity in schools

EUROPEAN COMMISSION

Directorate-General for Education Youth Sport and Culture

Directorate B - Youth Education and Erasmus+

Unit B2 - Schools and multilingualism

Contact Kristina Cunningham

E-mail KristinaCunninghameceuropaeu

European Commission B-1049 Brussels

Rethinking language education and linguistic

diversity in schools

Thematic report from a programme of expert

workshops and peer learning activities (2016-17)

Prepared by Anja Meierkord and Laurie Day (Ecorys UK)

EUROPEAN COMMISSION

2017 EN

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contained therein

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Luxembourg Publications Office of the European Union 2017

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Table of Contents

Table of Contents 0 Introduction 1 Context 2

Increasing diversity in European classrooms 2 A progressively interconnected world 3 Advancing language technologies 3

Language education and linguistic diversity in Europe 4 Learners with different home languages 4 Foreign language learning in European schools 5

Rethinking language teaching 7 Making the case for change 7 Rethinking key-concepts of language learning 9

New ways of teaching languages in schools 10 Taking an approach focused on the needs of the individual learner 10 Supporting language learning throughout the education system 11 Preparing teachers for teaching in multilingual settings 11 Developing inclusive and innovative pedagogies 12 Finding innovative ways of testing and assessment 13 Implementing comprehensive approaches to create supportive environments for linguistic diversity 13

Conclusions 14

Introduction In 2006 the European Parliament and the Council adopted the Recommendations on Key

Competences for Lifelong Learning1 The framework sets out eight competences which

citizens need for lsquopersonal fulfilment and development active citizenship social inclusion

and employmentrsquo Language competences play a prominent role in the framework with

two key competences being defined as lsquocommunication in the mother tonguersquo and

lsquocommunication in foreign languagesrsquo

A decade later the European Commission (EC) is reviewing the Key Competence

Framework in the context of the New Skills Agenda for Europe2 With literacy and

mastery of the language of schooling providing the foundation for any further learning

the recommendations of the key competence framework warrant updating to reflect

todayrsquos realities They must address challenges and opportunities for language learning in

a progressively interdependent world technological change increased mobility and

diversity of populations

In this context the EC organised four Thematic Workshops on the subject of lsquorethinking

literacies and language learningrsquo3 These workshops brought together academics

European and national experts in the areas of multilingualism key competences and the

integration of migrants and representatives of the policy networks ELINET SIRIUS and

KeyCoNet4

This report summarises the results of these workshops and provides insights from the

wider research literature on language learning in Europe and beyond It encourages

policy makers and other stakeholders to lsquothink differentlyrsquo when it comes to language

education in schools and provides inspiration for how language teaching and assessment

could be designed in the future

The report is structured as follows

Chapter one provides an introduction to the report

Chapter two sets out the context for language learning in Europe including the

increasing linguistic diversity of the European school population globalisation and

technological change

Chapter three summarises key data on linguistic diversity and language education

in European schools today

Chapter four discusses ways to rethink language learning and challenges

traditional concepts such as literacy multilingualism and mother tongue

Chapter five provides an overview of practical new ways in which languages can

be taught in schools

1 Recommendation of the European Parliament and of the Council on key competences for lifelong learning

18122016 (2006962EC)

2 EC (2016) A new skills agenda for Europe Working together to strengthen human capital employability and

competitiveness COM (2016) 381 final

3 The workshops were complemented with two Peer Learning Activities (PLAs) which took place in Stockholm

and Dresden and explored topics relating to migrant education in further depth More information available on

the European Commissions page on school education for migrants

httpeceuropaeueducationpolicymigrationschools_en

4 The European Literacy Policy Network (ELINET) the Policy Network on Migrant Education (SIRIUS) and the

Key Competence Network on School Education (KeyCoNet)

Chapter six summarises and draws conclusions

Context The European Union (EU) has long promoted language learning and linguistic diversity

across Europe with the view to increase mutual understanding and provide access to

other countries and cultures5 It sees the ability to communicate in a range of languages

as key to economic progress and social cohesion6 Following the Presidency Conclusions

from the European Councils meeting in Barcelona 2002 the EU has supported the

principle that every citizen should have the opportunity to learn at least two foreign

languages from a very early age This guideline is sometimes referred to as the simplified

concept mother tongue plus two which is also reflected in the 2006 European key

competence framework with the separation between mother tongue and foreign

languages7 Later policy papers have stressed the need to ensure that learners do not

lose touch with their language of origin8

Fifteen years on it is necessary to question if these definitions and recommendations are

still appropriate in the context of societal changes such as new migration globalisation

and economic and technological change

Increasing diversity in European classrooms

On 1 January 2016 351 million people who were born outside the EU lived in an EU

Member State An additional 207 million EU citizens lived in a Member State different to

their country of birth9 This diversity is increasing it is estimated that in 2015 24

million citizens of non-member countries moved to the EU while 14 million EU citizens

moved to a Member State different to the country where they hold citizenship10 This is

higher than the number of people emigrating from the EU in the same year More than

one in ten 15-year old learners in European schools are now first or second-generation

migrants11 As the population structure in Europe is becoming more diverse an

increasing number of young people in European school systems speak a different

language at home than in the classroom

Individuals have different reasons for migrating including work study and family

reasons In recent years in-flows to European Member States have also included large

numbers of asylum seekers In 2015 and 2016 alone more than 25 million people

applied for asylum in European Member States of which close to 550000 were children

under the age of 1412 These recent arrivals have more diverse countries of origins and

linguistic backgrounds than migrants from previous waves of migration Refugee

children for example have often stayed in several countries before arriving in their host

5 httpseceuropaeueducationpolicymultilingualism_en (accessed 20062017)

6 EC (2017) Education and Training Monitor 2016 Luxembourg Publication Office of the European Union p

18122016 (2006962EC)

8 See eg EC (2008) Multilingualism an asset for Europe and a shared commitment COM(2008)566 final

9 Eurostat indicator migr_pop3ctb (accessed 20062017) Luxembourg (452) Cyprus (204) Austria

(182) Sweden (17) and Ireland (169) display the largest shares of lsquoforeign bornrsquo of their overall

population

10 httpeceuropaeueurostatstatistics-explainedindexphpMigration_and_migrant_population_statistics

(accessed 20062017)

11 EC (2016) Pisa 2015 EU performance and initial conclusions regarding education policies in Europe

December 2016

12 Eurostat indicator migr_asyappctza (accessed 20062017)

country and will have acquired a diverse repertoire of linguistic competences on their

way while some will have been born on route and hold a different language of origin to

their parents13

In the context of these developments we must ask how relevant is the lsquomother tongue

plus tworsquo recommendation for those young people whose mother tongue is different from

the language of schooling

A progressively interconnected world

People have long exchanged ideas goods and capital across borders but accelerated

technological change has transformed the speed and nature of globalisation Today

economies societies and cultures around the world interconnect more than ever through

trade communication immigration and transportation Supply chains for goods and

services for example span across the globe and around half of the worldrsquos gross

domestic product (GDP) relates to trade In the 1970s this was only the case for 20 of

the GDP14

Information and data flows between countries have also increased exponentially Cross-

border bandwidth is now 45 times larger than in 2005 and digital platforms transform the

way business works across borders15 The increased interconnectedness implies that

many environmental health economic migration and security challenges are now

transnational by nature16 The countries and cultures we are connected with today go far

beyond our immediate neighbour countries

Faced with globalisation and the rise of new economic and political powers we must ask

if the purpose of language learning is to lsquoincrease mutual understanding and provide

access to different countries and culturesrsquo as well as to lsquocontribute to economic progress

and social cohesionrsquo And indeed if this is the case then which languages should be

taught in schools to best equip our children to thrive now and in their adult lives

Advancing language technologies

Traditionally not being able to read speak and understand a language often posed a

barrier to accessing other countries and cultures A wide range of knowledge information

and data was only available in the national language(s) Advances in language

technologies including speech recognition machine translation content analytics and

text to speech analysis now allow more people to understand and interact in languages

where they hold lower levels of proficiency Language technology has exponentially

improved access to both structured (eg text) and unstructured data (eg human

speech)17

We must ask what is the value of learning several languages when English is widely

spoken and translation becomes increasingly automated

13 Le Pichon E (2016) New patterns of migrant and society New needs for language teaching input paper

for thematic panel on rethinking literacies and language learning Brussels 11072016

14 EC (2017) Reflection paper on harnessing globalisation Com(2017) 240 of 10 May 2017

15 McKinsey Global Institute (2016) Digital Globalisation The new era of global flows March 2016

17 See eg httpseceuropaeudigital-single-marketenprogramme-and-projectslanguage-technologies-

project-information and httpswwwgala-globalorglanguage-industrylanguage-technology (accessed

20062017)

Language education and linguistic diversity in Europe The linguistic landscape in Europe has always been diverse and complex Several

Member States have more than one official language or large populations of speakers of

minority languages while a number of Member States have large migrant populations

who speak a home language different from the official language(s) In this context the

terms lsquomother tonguersquo and lsquoforeign languagesrsquo become relative concepts and mean

different things for different people

This makes it difficult to map the state of language learning and competences across the

EU using traditional methods and concepts At a general level we can gain an overview

of the number of pupils with a home language different from the language of schooling

using data from the OECDrsquos Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA)

2015 and data on foreign language learning using Eurostat data

Learners with different home languages

According to data from the OECDrsquos Programme for International Student Assessment

(PISA) 2015 an average of around one in ten (9) of 15-year old learners speak a

different language at home than the language of schooling across EU Member States18

There are large differences between Member States with very low shares of less than two

in one hundred in Hungary (18) and Poland (09)

Table 1 ndash Share of 15-year old learners who speak another language at home () 2015

Total Non- migrants

Migrants Total Non- migrants

Migrants

MT 866 844 22 DK 76 22 54

LU 846 449 398 SI 74 17 57

CY 200 140 60 IE 71 na 71

AT 187 36 151 NL 69 17 51

ES 184 127 57 FI 59 28 31

IT 164 117 47 EL 56 18 38

BE 163 69 94 EE 56 44 12

SE 154 36 118 LT 50 48 03

DE 116 24 92 CZ 46 24 22

LV 97 88 08 HR 27 21 06

UK 87 14 74 RO 27 27 na

FR 84 29 55 PT 24 09 16

BG 79 79 00 HU 18 18 na

SK 77 77 00 PL 09 09 na Source Own calculations based on PISA 2015 data PISA 2015 Results (Volume I) Excellence and Equity in

Education Annex B17

18 ECEACEAEurydice (2017) Key data on Teaching Languages at School in Europe 2017 Edition Eurydice

Report Luxembourg Publications Office of the European Union p 22

PISA records home language(s) different from the test language rather than language of schooling

In some countries this linguistic diversity is primarily due to first or second

generation migrant learners Countries with significant shares of migrants with

different home languages include Austria (151) and Sweden (118) Other countries

display large shares of native learners with different home languages This includes Malta

(844) Cyprus (14) Spain (127) and Italy (117) These countries are all

characterised by having two or more official languages or specific regions with distinct

minority languages Luxemburg is a special case with three official state languages and a

very high proportion of first and second generation migrant children

Across EU Member States the languages spoken at home if different from the language

of schooling is most often Spanish Turkish or Russian The strong prevalence of Spanish

can partly be explained by the fact that large shares of Spanish speaking learners are

taught in schools where the main language of schooling is a regional language

(Valencian Galician or Basque) Learners who speak Turkish at home are primarily found

in schools where the language of schooling is Danish Dutch German Finnish or French

while most learners who speak Russian at home can be found in schools where the

language of schooling is Czech Estonian Finnish German Latvia Lithuanian or Polish19

Schools face the challenge of great language heterogeneity in the classroom Across the

EU 97 of learners are taught in schools where more than 25 of learners speak a

home language different from the language of schooling Highest shares of learners in

linguistically diverse schools exist in Austria Belgium Cyprus Germany Luxembourg

Malta Spain and Sweden20 While diversity increases there is also some evidence that

the segregation of natives and migrants into specific schools has increased in some

Member States21

Foreign language learning in European schools

In contemporary European schools learners start learning a first foreign language22 at an

earlier age than 10 years ago Overall 838 of primary school children learned at least

one foreign language in 2014 (figure 1) compared to only 673 in 200523 In most

countries compulsory foreign language learning starts between the age of 6 and 8

All or close to all primary school children study at least one foreign language in Austria

Croatia Cyprus France Italy Luxembourg Malta Poland and Spain This implies that

foreign language learning is introduced in the primary school curriculum at the entry-

level grade At the other end of the spectrum are Belgium (Flemish and French

community) Slovenia and Portugal where less than half of all primary school children

study foreign languages In most cases this implies that foreign language learning is

introduced into the curriculum in the higher primary school grades and at lower

secondary level In the case of the Flemish community in Belgium for example a first

19 All data ECEACEAEurydice (2017) Key data on Teaching Languages at School in Europe 2017 Edition

Eurydice Report Luxembourg Publications Office of the European Union p 22

20 ibid p 27

21 Brunello G De Paola M (2017) School Segregation of Immigrants and its effects on Educational

Outcomes in Europe EENEE Analytical Report No 30

22 lsquoForeign languagesrsquo are a relative concept which are defined differently across Member States and can

include modern foreign languages second and third languages and classical languages in some Member States

While this report uses the definition applied by each respective responsible education authority existing data

only provides an incomplete picture of the extent of language learning across the EU There is little comparative

evidence on actual linguistic competency of learners across Member States

foreign language is compulsory from the age of 10 only so that only the small group of

(older) children study languages at the primary level

Figure 1 ndash Share of primary school pupils studying at least one foreign language 2014

Source Eurostat educ_oec_lang02 no data for IE and UK

The vast majority of learners continue with foreign language learning throughout

compulsory education 988 study at least one foreign language at lower secondary

level and 597 study two foreign languages or more Not all learners maintain these

levels of language learning at upper secondary level with 858 of learners studying at

least one language at that level There are vast differences between Member States in

the extent to which language learning takes place at upper secondary level While all or

close to all learners at upper secondary level study at least one foreign language in

France Luxembourg Malta Romania Slovakia and Sweden less than half of learners do

so in the United Kingdom (figure 2)

Differences also exist between vocational and general educational tracks While

908 of learners in general upper secondary education study at least one foreign

language only 79 of learners in vocational tracks do24

Figure 2 - Share of secondary school pupils studying at least one foreign language 2014

Source Eurostat educ_oec_lang02 incomplete data for IE and UK

24 Eurostat educ_oec_lang02 (accessed 20062017)

EU LU MT

AT IT HR ES FR PL

SE SK RO

BG EL EE LV LT CZ FI DE

FR SI PT

EU LU MT SE RO SK FR AT

FL CY FI IT BG LV HR PL SI CZ

HU LT EE EL NL

lower secondary upper secondary

As the share of language learners has expanded overall there is a strong dominance of

English as the first ndash and often only - foreign language Studying two foreign

languages is compulsory for all learners in many Member States but not in all The

Member States where only one foreign language is compulsory for all learners include

Croatia Germany Ireland Belgium (French community) Hungary Spain Sweden and

the United Kingdom25 However in some of these countries learners are entitled to learn

two foreign languages if they so wish

In most countries English is the most studied foreign language followed by French and

German In Ireland and the United Kingdom French is most widely taught In

Luxembourg the two official State languages German and French are more widely taught

than English as are the different community languages in Belgium26

These statistics indicate a positive overall trend in access to languages from an early age

although the level of ambition for linguistic competency across Europe nonetheless falls

short of the Barcelona objective of two foreign languages

Rethinking language teaching Addressing todayrsquos societal economic and technological challenges requires re-thinking

the traditional way of teaching and learning languages both for monolingual and

multilingual learners There are a variety of good reasons for school systems and

practices to adapt to the increased diversity of European classrooms and effectively work

with multilingual learners Key concepts such lsquoliteracyrsquo lsquomultilingualismrsquo and lsquomother

tonguersquo will have to be reconceptualised to meet the new realities in European schools

Making the case for change

Young peoplersquos migration and linguistic backgrounds continue to be strong determinants

of their educational success OECD PISA data shows that there are vast achievement

gaps between the reading mathematics and science competences of learners with a

home language different from the language of schooling and those who speak the

language of schooling at home In some countries this achievement gap is equivalent to

15-2 years of schooling27 Low competence in literacy is especially problematic as it is a

foundation skill and pre-requisite for progress in other subject areas28

From an educational equity and inclusion perspective it is therefore essential to

ensure that all learners especially those with less competence in the language of

schooling are supported to develop literacy skills and provided with equal opportunities

to thrive alongside their peers This includes children with a migrant background

bilingual and multilingual learners but also monolingual lsquonativersquo learners with low levels

of literacy skills Effective multilingual teaching and learning has the potential to close the

achievement gap of migrant students compared to lsquonativersquo learners while enhancing the

cultural and civic education of all learners

26 ibid p 71

27 Own calculations based on PISA 2015 data PISA 2015 Results (Volume I) Excellence and Equity in

Education Paris OECD Publishing Annex B17

28 Council of Europe Language Policy Unit (2015) The Language dimension in all Subjects ndash A Handbook for

Curriculum Development and Teacher Training Council of Europe 2015

In addition to educational disadvantage it is not uncommon that migrant and

multilingual learners are discriminated against by pupils teachers or the school more

widely for not speaking the language of schooling correctly or using their home language

(the lsquowrong languagersquo) in the school context These learners are often encouraged to

supress a large part of their linguistic repertoire Educational practices can convey that

learnerrsquos home languages are low value29 and migrant and multilingual learners may face

closer scrutiny than their lsquonativersquo counterparts even when they master the language of

schooling30 From a human rights perspective the discrimination of learners based on

their language violates article 2 of United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child

which specifies non-discrimination grounds including a childrsquos language31 These issues

must be addressed starting by the recognition that different languages form part of the

identity of multilingual learners and by enabling them to develop and maintain their

linguistic repertoire

Encouraging learners to make use of and develop their full linguistic repertoire ie their

home language(s) language of schooling and any other language(s) they might speak

may have benefits beyond communication alone Several clinical studies have shown

positive effects of bi- and multilingualism including on metalinguistic awareness

cognitive control of behaviour attentional control and social cognition32 These health

benefits of language learning exist not only for bilinguals from birth but also for

people who became bilingual later in life33 Evidence has also shown that positive effects

are sustained over the life-course34 and have been found to play a role in delaying the

onset of dementia35 It is important to note however that research on the cognitive

benefits of bilingualism is not conclusive and results seem to be context dependent36

The above issues show that there is a wide range of benefits of language learning As

regards the competence in languages the issue should not be lsquohow many languagesrsquo

one should learn but which language competences best correspond to each learnerrsquos

needs circumstances and interests An expanding language repertoire may spread from

the original nucleus of the language(s) spoken at home and the immediate social

environment to the language of schooling and the more academic languages with the

required levels of competence not necessarily being the same in every context This

requires a re-valuation of partial competence in multiple languages (or lsquoplurilingualismrsquo)

as a potential asset forming part of the individual learnersrsquo social cultural and linguistic

capital The challenge in this respect is perhaps one of assessment and validation in the

29 Mehmedbegovic D (2016) What every educator needs to know about cognitive benefits of bilingualism

Moving towards lsquolanguage hierarchy freersquo policy and practice Discussion Paper for the Thematic Panel on

languages and literacy Enhancing communicative competences in school 26-27 September 2016

30 Kambel E-R (2016) The cost of doing nothing Educating language-minoritized students Discussion Paper

for Thematic Panel on languages and literacy Enhancing communicative competences in school 26-27

September 2016

31 httpwwwohchrorgenprofessionalinterestpagescrcaspx For a link to the full document refer to UN

General Assembly (1989)

32 See eg Kovacs AM Mehler J (2009) Cognition gains in 7-month-old bilingual infants Proceedings of the

National Academy of Sciences 106 (16)6556-6560 Bialystock E (1999) Cognitive complexity and attentional

control in the bilingual mind Child Development 70(3) 636-644

33 Vega-Mendoza M West H Sorace A Bak TH (2015) The impact of late non-balanced bilingualism

on cognitive performance Cognition 137 40-46

34 Kave G et al (2008) Multilingualism and cognitive state in the oldest old Psychology and Ageing 23(1)

35 Alladi S Bak T et al (2013) Bilingualism delays age at onset of dementia independent of education and

immigration status American Journal of Neurology 81 (22) 1938-44

36 Bak T (2016) Cooking pasta in La Paz Bilingualism bias and the replication crisis in Rothman J

Unsworth S (eds) Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism 65 John Benjamins Publishing Company p 655-717

context of school settings where such competences may not always translate easily to

formal accreditation frameworks and where languages are often separated within the

timetable and understood exclusively in the context of subject learning

Rethinking key-concepts of language learning

Literacy is the most basic of foundation skills and a prerequisite for cognitive progress

across the curriculum Traditionally we often think that learners can reach different

levels of competence of literacy with a critical threshold being functional literacy ie the

ability to participate fully in society through reading and writing With an increasing

number of multilingual learners who hold uneven set of competences across multiple

languages however we may want to lsquore-thinkrsquo literacy as a continuum Young people

may hold a repertoire of languages styles registers and genres all at different levels of

competence

Traditionally many schools and teachers held the views that the learning of different

languages stand in competition to each other and mixing languages in teaching and

learning was to be discouraged Examples for bilingual learners include the fact that

teaching is typically organised using the lsquoone teacher one languagersquo or lsquoone subject one

language approachrsquo Recent evidence has shown that there is no scientific evidence to

support the concerns about missing languages in the classroom37

Similarly learners with low academic performance are often given less access to

language learning based on the assumption that learning a new language competes for

their academic attention and they should focus on the core curriculum subjects38 School

systems need to challenge those outdated assumptions For multilingual learners this

implies that teachers must take the linguistic repertoire and diversity of all learners into

account to avoid exclusion For monolingual learners there must be a focus on gaining

functional literacy and on highlighting the importance of language learning for reasons

relevant to their own context

Increasingly multilingual and hypermobile populations have blurred the distinction

between mother tongue language of schooling and foreign languages Further mother

tongue is a gendered concept which imposes certain normative views and values relating

to family and identity We may want to lsquore-thinkrsquo the lsquomother-tongue plus tworsquo

recommendation as an entitlement for each learner to be supported in the acquisition of

the language of schooling to have any existing language competence recognised and

encouraged and to learn additional languages Respect for childrenrsquos identities and own

linguistic repertories are essential for their development

37 See eg Antoacuten E et al (2016) Testing bilingual educational methods A plea to end the language-mixing

taboo Language Learning 66(2) 29-50

38 Tinsley T (2017) The cost of linguistic exclusion language skills as a key competence for all Discussion

paper for the ECrsquos Thematic Panel on languages and literacy Brussels 23-24 January 2017

New ways of teaching languages in schools Schools teaching staff parents and the wider society can create culturally and

linguistically inclusive environments for all learners in many ways Evidence from

research and practice has shown that there are a number of common success factors for

effective language teaching in contemporary schools These include the following

Taking an approach focused on the needs of the individual learner

A growing body of research

evidence shows that putting the

needs circumstances and interests

of the individual learner at the

heart of (language) learning

improves learning and supports the

achievement of learning

outcomes39 Student-centred

approaches consult learners not

only what they want to study but

also explore why this is relevant

and how it can best be studied40

Learners may benefit from

education systems which provide

them with the opportunity to

expand their language repertoire starting from the languages(s) spoken at home the

immediate social environment and the language of schooling through languages of

international communication of fellow European citizens across the border and of

international commercial partners and of domestic and foreign academic and popular

literatures41

On way to implement student-centred learning is through the tool of a lsquoprocessrsquo or

lsquonegotiated syllabusrsquo42 In its extreme form learner and teacher negotiate the

content of learning the methods used and materials employed in language

learning Aspects of the negotiated syllabus method can be incorporated into

everyday language teaching for example through asking learners to find learning

materials and suggest activities which would help them in their learning43

Effective participation processes must be in place to involve multilingual learners beyond

their own learning Schools should put structures and processes in place that allow the

voices of multilingual learners to be heard as to increase the understanding of their

39 Lathika K (2016) Student Centred Learning International Journal of Current Research and Modern

Education Volume I Issue I 677-680

40 Rogers C (1983) As a teacher can I be myself In Freedom to learn for the 80s Ohio Charles E Merrill

Publishing Company Hannafin MJHannafin KM (2010) Cognition and student-centered web-based

learning Issues and implications for research and theory learning and instruction in the digital age Springer

41 EC (2017) Background paper Meeting of the EU School Policy Networks on the review of the key

competence framework 04-05042017

42 Clarke D F (1991) The negotiated syllabus What is it and how is it likely to work Applied Linguist

12(1) 13-28 and Bloor M Bloor T (1988) Syllabus negotiation The basis of learner autonomy In A

Brookes and P Grundy (eds) Individualization and autonomy in language learning ELT documents 131

London Modern English Publications and The British Council

43 Maley A Peachey N (2010) Creativity in the English Language Classroom British Council P 99

Language learner

educational experience and the impact of culture ethnicity language and other

characteristics on these

Supporting language learning throughout the education system

The whole education system must support language learning and foster multilingual

awareness starting in early childhood education and care (ECEC) There is ample

research evidence that participation in ECEC is key to support childrenrsquos language

development and support their readiness for schooling In the context of growing

diversity in European classrooms initial teacher training and continuous professional

development can ensure that teaching staff in ECEC have the skills to teach children who

donrsquot speak the language of schooling and may be multilingual44 Activities at this level

can be particularly beneficial when they combine supporting the development of

childrenrsquos home language and the language of schooling and are linked to the promotion

of intercultural awareness of parents children and teaching staff

lsquoSamenspelrsquo in the Netherlands is a long-standing programme established in 1989

which prepares children for pre-school by supporting competence development in

their home language and language of schooling The low-threshold activity

addresses children aged 2-25 years and their parents Parents and children with

minority language background meet in weekly playgroups where two ECEC

teachers provides support one who speaks the language of schooling and one

who speaks the minority language Language acquisition is supported in a playful

Preparing teachers for teaching in multilingual settings

Research shows that teaching staff in European schools lack experience with teaching in

multilingual and diverse classes46 Initial and continuous teacher training are vital ways

to prepare teachers for teaching in multilingual setting including through imparting

methodological competences

pedagogical content knowledge and

experience47 Linguistic awareness

linguistic responsive teaching

combining language with content

teaching and supporting learners in

multilingual settings is important

learning content of teacher

education Using latest research

evidence to inform the design of

teacher training is important to

ensure that teaching is effective

Teacher educators have a key role

to play in equipping teachers with

44 EC (2016) Language teaching and learning in multilingual classrooms Luxembourg Publication Office of

the European Union p 33

45 Kieneker N Maas J (1997) Samenspel ndash Mothers Speaking A study on the experience of mothers with

Samenspel Working Papers in Early Childhood Development 21 Fundacion Bernard Van Leer September 1997

46 ECPPMI (2017) Preparing Teachers for Diversity The Role of Initial Teacher Education Luxembourg

Publication Office of the European Union

47 ibid

Teacher and multilingual learners

the right skills and should be encouraged to base their teaching on up-to-date research

evidence

The EU-funded Edina project currently develops a virtual training module on

enhancing the quality of teaching and learning in a diversified classroom with a

specific focus on newly arrived migrants The module will be based on evidence

from research and practice and will be piloted in partner schools48

Developing inclusive and innovative pedagogies

A growing body of research supports the identification of inclusive and efficient teaching

practices both for multilingual learners and foreign language teaching Innovative

language teaching practices include translanguaging (the use of different languages for

communication and learning)49 content and language integrated learning the use of ICT

technologies and the use of creative subjects for language learning

Research evidence suggests that Content and Language Integrated Teaching

(CLIL) is an effective way to support language and subject learning with benefits

for education and other outcomes50 The basic principle of CLIL is that ldquoall

teachers are language teachersrdquo In multilingual classrooms this implies that non-

language school subjects are used for both subject and language learning The

subject matter determines which aspects of a language are being learnt51 A CLIL

science lesson on ecosystems for example will convey knowledge on the subject

matter but also check any previous knowledge students hold in the subject

practice the relevant language and vocabulary before consolidating and applying

this new knowledge in class Practical tools for teachers to implement CLIL include

i) the adjustment of speech and language to ensure understanding of all learners

ii) the use of group work and interactive elements to support language use iii)

scaffolding of instruction to aid comprehension52

Multilingual pedagogies give room to the language and cultural background of learners

from different languages and valorises their linguistic identity

Translanguaging encourages learners to use their full linguistic repertoire in the

school context53 An example for how this can be implemented in practice is a

project in Canada where teachers in a highly diverse inner city school

implemented an identity project with their students Students developed show-

cases of their identity in written visual spoken music dramatic or multi-modal

using both English French and their home language(s) The project aimed to

increase literacy engagement to affirm the identity of young learners and to

connect with learnersrsquo lives outside the classroom Learnersrsquo languages were

legitimised in the classroom54

48 httpsedinaplatformeuthe-project (accessed 20062017)

49 Garcia O Wei L (2014) Translanguaging Language Bilingualism and Education Palgrave Macmillan

50 Scott D Beadle S (2014) Improving the effectiveness of language learning CLIL and computer assisted

language learning EC report 25042014

51 httpswwwteachingenglishorgukarticleclil-a-lesson-framework

52 EC (2015) Language teaching and learning in multilingual classrooms Luxembourg Publications Office of

the European Union

53 Otheguy R O Garciacutea W Reid (2015) Clarifying translanguaging and deconstructing named languages A

perspective from linguistics Applied Linguistics Review 6(3) 281ndash307 54 Ntelioglou B Y et al (2014) A multilingual and multimodal approach to literacy teaching and learning in

urban education a collaborative inquiry project in inner city elementary school Frontiers in Psychology 5 533

Finding innovative ways of testing and assessment

Testing and assessment exerts a

strong influence over the value

assigned to language teaching and

learning This is problematic where

such assessments are monolingual

and in the language of schooling

New ways of assessment should be

considered including assessments

that take place in different modes of

observation and appraisal

Assessment of multilingual learners

may consider allowing learners to

use their full linguistic repertoire in

assessments (in contrast to only the

language of schooling) Schools may

also consider to assess subject

specific and language competence separately avoiding mistaking language errors for

lack of subject knowledge55 Systemic and learning-oriented approachesrsquo such as the

Learning Oriented Assessment developed by Cambridge English learning assessment aim

to promote informal and formal assessments to comprehensively understand learnersrsquo

progress56

The Spanish lsquoLiteracy Squaredrsquo project has developed an assessment of bilingual

writing skills which combines qualitative and quantitative elements The proposed

assessment tool assesses writing skills in English and Spanish side-by-side

analysing the content structure and spelling in each of the two languages It

additionally assesses bilingual strategies and identifies patterns of language use

across language Recognising language approximations and cross-language

transfers are seen as strengths57

Implementing comprehensive approaches to create supportive

environments

Many schools in Europe are yet to open up to the linguistic diversity brought by their

learners This includes the recognition of both the language and culture of their learners

as these are deeply intertwined Multilingualism can be embraced where the school

becomes a place where languages are not only reflected in the curriculum and teaching

practices but are also lsquoheard and seenrsquo supported and valorised Schools can create

physical and symbolic spaces for different languages

55 De Korne H Duron BD (2011) Guidelines for context-embedded assessment of Mother tongue-based

Multilingual Education programs Save the Children 2011 56 httpwwwcambridgeenglishorgresearch-and-validationfitness-for-purposeloa (accessed 20062017) 57 httpliteracysquaredorg and Gorter D Cenoz J (2016) Language policy and multilingual assessment

Language and Education 31 231-248

Multilingual learners

First steps towards acknowledging the linguistic diversity of schools can include

the incorporation of learnerrsquos home languages in the school environment for

example through display of signs and notices in the home languages of learners58

Last but not least changing the public perception of language learning and

multilingualism is a major challenge Parents of multilingual children will benefit from

reassurance that maintaining childrenrsquos home languages is important and possible while

parents of monolingual children will find it useful to be informed about the benefits of

language learning Whole schools and communities can be trained in supporting

multilinguals The Swedish National Centre for Swedish as a Second Language for

example builds bridges between school practice and the scientific community by

providing analysis and training on the integration of newly arrived migrants to whole

municipalities59

Conclusions

The Presidency Conclusions from the 2002 European Council meeting in Barcelona still

resonate strongly with the situation for language education in schools across Europe

today Aspiring to improve the mastery of basic skills in particular by teaching at least

two foreign languages from a very early age sends a message that language

competences have a value in education work and life and should be a universal

entitlement rather than a preserve of the few

Some fifteen years later we have seen positive trends in access to language education

with more children learning foreign languages from an early age and the persistence of

language learning throughout the compulsory educational phase At the same time

however the level of aspiration for language learning has arguably stalled when

compared with the ambition for other areas of educational policy ndash including for

example digital skills and investment in science subjects If there is an aspiration for

40 of Europeans to participate in tertiary level education then it seems to fair to ask

the question why there should not be a corresponding level of ambition for higher-level

language competences60

Despite the well-documented cognitive social and educational benefits for children from

learning multiple languages the take-up of a second foreign language is still remarkably

low across Europe ndash a trend that has gone relatively unchallenged within educational

policy Moreover steps to strengthen teaching and learning of English as the first foreign

language while important have obscured the fact that it is other languages that will

provide learners with the linguistic profile that is best suited to their individual interests

and needs ndash both during their time at school and as a foundation for lifelong learning

58 Blackledge A (1998) Unit 4 Literacy and Bilingual Learners Introduction to Bilingualism in Education

University of Birmingham Educational Materials 59 httpwwwandraspraksuseenglish (accessed 20062017) 60 Higher-level language competences could for example be conceptualised as reaching level 4 or above in the

PISA reading proficiency levels (it should be noted however that PISA assesses reading in the language of

schooling) or a certain level in the Common European Framework of References for Languages See eg OECD

(2009) PISA 2009 Results What Students Know and Can Do Paris OECD Publishing p 47 COE (2011)

Common European Framework of Reference for Languages Learning teaching and assessment

httpsrmcoeint1680459f97

The European Commissionrsquos intention to update the Key Competences Framework sends

an important message that we must challenge orthodoxy including in language teaching

and learning Moreover it signals a recognition that the time has come to update and re-

assess concepts such as lsquomother tonguersquo which provide a blunt instrument for

conceptualising language development in an increasingly hyper-diverse and hyper-mobile

world and of the need to strike a more effective balance between literacy linguistic

diversity and fit-to-purpose multiple language competences

Meeting the needs of children and young people in classrooms across Europe requires an

ambitious and creative approach to teaching pedagogies valuing linguistic and cultural

complexity and difference and supporting all learners to develop multilingual

competences To do so requires not only a change in mind-set but also concrete

guidelines for adopting multilingual language teaching and assessment These guidelines

must be implemented both from the top-down ndash implying the need for adjustment within

national funding and accountability regimes curricula and teacher professional

development and from the bottom-up - by inspiring teachers and other educationalists

to adopt evidence-based multilingual practices and resources such as CLIL and

translanguaging

This report has provided a number of suggestions and shone a light on known examples

of effective and inclusive educational practices in the field of multilingual teaching and

learning More work is needed however to strengthen this evidence base and to develop

frameworks and materials that are applicable within diverse school contexts and national

educational systems across Europe The task is a challenging one but the rewards for

learners schools and for wider society are potentially far-reaching

In summary the key recommendations emerging from the programme of work

supporting this report include the following

1 To continue to invest in literacy development and in the mastery of the

main language of schooling from an early age recognising that this forms the

bedrock for childrenrsquos social and cognitive development and for their further

learning

2 To strengthen foreign language education and to harness its value as a means

of opening up schools and learners to other cultures and to promote the continued

learning of two foreign languages throughout the compulsory educational phase

3 To challenge language hierarchies through education and awareness-

raising and to advocate a child-centred approach - valuing and respecting the

linguistic repertoire of the child as something that every teacher should consider

natural and enriching

4 To adopt lsquowhole systemrsquo and lsquowhole schoolrsquo approaches to transforming

language education - considering the implications of a multilingual society for

schoolsrsquo funding curricula and accreditation frameworks and for teacher

professional development

5 To equip school leaders and teachers with practical tools and guidance for

turning multilingual teaching and learning from theory into practice within

classrooms across Europe - widening access to evidence-based practices such as

CLIL and translanguaging and providing schools with support for their

implementation

6 To prioritise the development of more holistic forms of learner assessment

which facilitate an understanding of learnersrsquo linguistic repertoire and to provide

teachers with a basis for appropriate individual target setting and review These

linguistic skills must also be valued and recognised within formal measures of learner

progress

Further information

An overview of the European Commissions School policy

httpeceuropaeueducationpolicyschool_en

Strategy on quality education for all presented in May 2017

httpseceuropaeueducationnews20170530-youth-initiative-school-higher-education_en

More abouthellip

Key Data on teaching languages at school in Europe 2017 edition

httpseceuropaeueducationnews20170601-eurydice-teaching-languages-school_en

The Key Competence Framework

httpeceuropaeueducationpolicyschoolcompetences_en

Multilingual classrooms

httpeceuropaeueducationpolicymultilingualismmultilingual-classrooms_en

School education for migrants and Peer Learning Activities about integration of migrant children

For further information on the programme events supported by the European

Commission on the theme of multilingualism and the integration of migrants please

direct inquiries to the Directorate General for Education and Culture

Kristina Cunningham

Unit B2 ndash Schools and multilingualism

KristinaCunninghameceuropaeu

Ana-Maria Stan

Ana-MariaStaneceuropaeu

HOW TO OBTAIN EU PUBLICATIONS

Free publications

bull one copy via EU Bookshop (httpbookshopeuropaeu)

bull more than one copy or postersmaps from the European Unionrsquos representations (httpeceuropaeurepresent_enhtm)

from the delegations in non-EU countries

(httpeeaseuropaeudelegationsindex_enhtm) by contacting the Europe Direct service (httpeuropaeueuropedirectindex_enhtm)

or calling 00 800 6 7 8 9 10 11 (freephone number from anywhere in the EU) ()

() The information given is free as are most calls (though some operators phone boxes or hotels may

charge you)

Priced publications

bull via EU Bookshop (httpbookshopeuropaeu)

doi 102766584023

ISBN 978-92-79-79241-0

Table of Contents

Introduction

Context




Language education and linguistic diversity in Europe



Rethinking language teaching



New ways of teaching languages in schools






Testing and assessment exerts a strong influence over the value assigned to language teaching and learning This is problematic where such assessments are monolingual and in the language of schooling New ways of assessment should be considered includ

Implementing comprehensive approaches to create supportive environments

Conclusions

EUROPEAN COMMISSION

Directorate B - Youth Education and Erasmus+

Unit B2 - Schools and multilingualism

Contact Kristina Cunningham

E-mail KristinaCunninghameceuropaeu

European Commission B-1049 Brussels

EUROPEAN COMMISSION

2017 EN

LEGAL NOTICE

contained therein

Table of Contents

Conclusions 14

KeyCoNet4

18122016 (2006962EC)

population

(accessed 20062017)

December 2016

their parents13

the GDP14

speech)17

20062017)

Total Non- migrants

Migrants

MT 866 844 22 DK 76 22 54

LU 846 449 398 SI 74 17 57

CY 200 140 60 IE 71 na 71

AT 187 36 151 NL 69 17 51

ES 184 127 57 FI 59 28 31

IT 164 117 47 EL 56 18 38

BE 163 69 94 EE 56 44 12

SE 154 36 118 LT 50 48 03

DE 116 24 92 CZ 46 24 22

LV 97 88 08 HR 27 21 06

UK 87 14 74 RO 27 27 na

FR 84 29 55 PT 24 09 16

BG 79 79 00 HU 18 18 na

Education Annex B17

Member States21

20 ibid p 27

EU LU MT

AT IT HR ES FR PL

SE SK RO

FR SI PT

HU LT EE EL NL

26 ibid p 71

September 2016

competence

literatures41

Language learner

47 ibid

evidence

the European Union

progress56

environments

municipalities59

Conclusions

translanguaging

learning

implementation

progress

Further information

More abouthellip

Kristina Cunningham

Ana-Maria Stan

Free publications

charge you)

Priced publications

doi 102766584023

ISBN 978-92-79-79241-0

Table of Contents

Introduction

Context


















Conclusions

EUROPEAN COMMISSION

2017 EN

LEGAL NOTICE

contained therein

Table of Contents

Conclusions 14

KeyCoNet4

18122016 (2006962EC)

population

(accessed 20062017)

December 2016

their parents13

the GDP14

speech)17

20062017)

Total Non- migrants

Migrants

MT 866 844 22 DK 76 22 54

LU 846 449 398 SI 74 17 57

CY 200 140 60 IE 71 na 71

AT 187 36 151 NL 69 17 51

ES 184 127 57 FI 59 28 31

IT 164 117 47 EL 56 18 38

BE 163 69 94 EE 56 44 12

SE 154 36 118 LT 50 48 03

DE 116 24 92 CZ 46 24 22

LV 97 88 08 HR 27 21 06

UK 87 14 74 RO 27 27 na

FR 84 29 55 PT 24 09 16

BG 79 79 00 HU 18 18 na

Education Annex B17

Member States21

20 ibid p 27

EU LU MT

AT IT HR ES FR PL

SE SK RO

FR SI PT

HU LT EE EL NL

26 ibid p 71

September 2016

competence

literatures41

Language learner

47 ibid

evidence

the European Union

progress56

environments

municipalities59

Conclusions

translanguaging

learning

implementation

progress

Further information

More abouthellip

Kristina Cunningham

Ana-Maria Stan

Free publications

charge you)

Priced publications

doi 102766584023

ISBN 978-92-79-79241-0

Table of Contents

Introduction

Context


















Conclusions

LEGAL NOTICE

contained therein

Table of Contents

Conclusions 14

KeyCoNet4

18122016 (2006962EC)

population

(accessed 20062017)

December 2016

their parents13

the GDP14

speech)17

20062017)

Total Non- migrants

Migrants

MT 866 844 22 DK 76 22 54

LU 846 449 398 SI 74 17 57

CY 200 140 60 IE 71 na 71

AT 187 36 151 NL 69 17 51

ES 184 127 57 FI 59 28 31

IT 164 117 47 EL 56 18 38

BE 163 69 94 EE 56 44 12

SE 154 36 118 LT 50 48 03

DE 116 24 92 CZ 46 24 22

LV 97 88 08 HR 27 21 06

UK 87 14 74 RO 27 27 na

FR 84 29 55 PT 24 09 16

BG 79 79 00 HU 18 18 na

Education Annex B17

Member States21

20 ibid p 27

EU LU MT

AT IT HR ES FR PL

SE SK RO

FR SI PT

HU LT EE EL NL

26 ibid p 71

September 2016

competence

literatures41

Language learner

47 ibid

evidence

the European Union

progress56

environments

municipalities59

Conclusions

translanguaging

learning

implementation

progress

Further information

More abouthellip

Kristina Cunningham

Ana-Maria Stan

Free publications

charge you)

Priced publications

doi 102766584023

ISBN 978-92-79-79241-0

Table of Contents

Introduction

Context


















Conclusions

Table of Contents

Conclusions 14

KeyCoNet4

18122016 (2006962EC)

population

(accessed 20062017)

December 2016

their parents13

the GDP14

speech)17

20062017)

Total Non- migrants

Migrants

MT 866 844 22 DK 76 22 54

LU 846 449 398 SI 74 17 57

CY 200 140 60 IE 71 na 71

AT 187 36 151 NL 69 17 51

ES 184 127 57 FI 59 28 31

IT 164 117 47 EL 56 18 38

BE 163 69 94 EE 56 44 12

SE 154 36 118 LT 50 48 03

DE 116 24 92 CZ 46 24 22

LV 97 88 08 HR 27 21 06

UK 87 14 74 RO 27 27 na

FR 84 29 55 PT 24 09 16

BG 79 79 00 HU 18 18 na

Education Annex B17

Member States21

20 ibid p 27

EU LU MT

AT IT HR ES FR PL

SE SK RO

FR SI PT

HU LT EE EL NL

26 ibid p 71

September 2016

competence

literatures41

Language learner

47 ibid

evidence

the European Union

progress56

environments

municipalities59

Conclusions

translanguaging

learning

implementation

progress

Further information

More abouthellip

Kristina Cunningham

Ana-Maria Stan

Free publications

charge you)

Priced publications

doi 102766584023

ISBN 978-92-79-79241-0

Table of Contents

Introduction

Context


















Conclusions

KeyCoNet4

18122016 (2006962EC)

population

(accessed 20062017)

December 2016

their parents13

the GDP14

speech)17

20062017)

Total Non- migrants

Migrants

MT 866 844 22 DK 76 22 54

LU 846 449 398 SI 74 17 57

CY 200 140 60 IE 71 na 71

AT 187 36 151 NL 69 17 51

ES 184 127 57 FI 59 28 31

IT 164 117 47 EL 56 18 38

BE 163 69 94 EE 56 44 12

SE 154 36 118 LT 50 48 03

DE 116 24 92 CZ 46 24 22

LV 97 88 08 HR 27 21 06

UK 87 14 74 RO 27 27 na

FR 84 29 55 PT 24 09 16

BG 79 79 00 HU 18 18 na

Education Annex B17

Member States21

20 ibid p 27

EU LU MT

AT IT HR ES FR PL

SE SK RO

FR SI PT

HU LT EE EL NL

26 ibid p 71

September 2016

competence

literatures41

Language learner

47 ibid

evidence

the European Union

progress56

environments

municipalities59

Conclusions

translanguaging

learning

implementation

progress

Further information

More abouthellip

Kristina Cunningham

Ana-Maria Stan

Free publications

charge you)

Priced publications

doi 102766584023

ISBN 978-92-79-79241-0

Table of Contents

Introduction

Context


















Conclusions

18122016 (2006962EC)

population

(accessed 20062017)

December 2016

their parents13

the GDP14

speech)17

20062017)

Total Non- migrants

Migrants

MT 866 844 22 DK 76 22 54

LU 846 449 398 SI 74 17 57

CY 200 140 60 IE 71 na 71

AT 187 36 151 NL 69 17 51

ES 184 127 57 FI 59 28 31

IT 164 117 47 EL 56 18 38

BE 163 69 94 EE 56 44 12

SE 154 36 118 LT 50 48 03

DE 116 24 92 CZ 46 24 22

LV 97 88 08 HR 27 21 06

UK 87 14 74 RO 27 27 na

FR 84 29 55 PT 24 09 16

BG 79 79 00 HU 18 18 na

Education Annex B17

Member States21

20 ibid p 27

EU LU MT

AT IT HR ES FR PL

SE SK RO

FR SI PT

HU LT EE EL NL

26 ibid p 71

September 2016

competence

literatures41

Language learner

47 ibid

evidence

the European Union

progress56

environments

municipalities59

Conclusions

translanguaging

learning

implementation

progress

Further information

More abouthellip

Kristina Cunningham

Ana-Maria Stan

Free publications

charge you)

Priced publications

doi 102766584023

ISBN 978-92-79-79241-0

Table of Contents

Introduction

Context


















Conclusions

their parents13

the GDP14

speech)17

20062017)

Total Non- migrants

Migrants

MT 866 844 22 DK 76 22 54

LU 846 449 398 SI 74 17 57

CY 200 140 60 IE 71 na 71

AT 187 36 151 NL 69 17 51

ES 184 127 57 FI 59 28 31

IT 164 117 47 EL 56 18 38

BE 163 69 94 EE 56 44 12

SE 154 36 118 LT 50 48 03

DE 116 24 92 CZ 46 24 22

LV 97 88 08 HR 27 21 06

UK 87 14 74 RO 27 27 na

FR 84 29 55 PT 24 09 16

BG 79 79 00 HU 18 18 na

Education Annex B17

Member States21

20 ibid p 27

EU LU MT

AT IT HR ES FR PL

SE SK RO

FR SI PT

HU LT EE EL NL

26 ibid p 71

September 2016

competence

literatures41

Language learner

47 ibid

evidence

the European Union

progress56

environments

municipalities59

Conclusions

translanguaging

learning

implementation

progress

Further information

More abouthellip

Kristina Cunningham

Ana-Maria Stan

Free publications

charge you)

Priced publications

doi 102766584023

ISBN 978-92-79-79241-0

Table of Contents

Introduction

Context


















Conclusions

Total Non- migrants

Migrants

MT 866 844 22 DK 76 22 54

LU 846 449 398 SI 74 17 57

CY 200 140 60 IE 71 na 71

AT 187 36 151 NL 69 17 51

ES 184 127 57 FI 59 28 31

IT 164 117 47 EL 56 18 38

BE 163 69 94 EE 56 44 12

SE 154 36 118 LT 50 48 03

DE 116 24 92 CZ 46 24 22

LV 97 88 08 HR 27 21 06

UK 87 14 74 RO 27 27 na

FR 84 29 55 PT 24 09 16

BG 79 79 00 HU 18 18 na

Education Annex B17

Member States21

20 ibid p 27

EU LU MT

AT IT HR ES FR PL

SE SK RO

FR SI PT

HU LT EE EL NL

26 ibid p 71

September 2016

competence

literatures41

Language learner

47 ibid

evidence

the European Union

progress56

environments

municipalities59

Conclusions

translanguaging

learning

implementation

progress

Further information

More abouthellip

Kristina Cunningham

Ana-Maria Stan

Free publications

charge you)

Priced publications

doi 102766584023

ISBN 978-92-79-79241-0

Table of Contents

Introduction

Context


















Conclusions

Member States21

20 ibid p 27

EU LU MT

AT IT HR ES FR PL

SE SK RO

FR SI PT

HU LT EE EL NL

26 ibid p 71

September 2016

competence

literatures41

Language learner

47 ibid

evidence

the European Union

progress56

environments

municipalities59

Conclusions

translanguaging

learning

implementation

progress

Further information

More abouthellip

Kristina Cunningham

Ana-Maria Stan

Free publications

charge you)

Priced publications

doi 102766584023

ISBN 978-92-79-79241-0

Table of Contents

Introduction

Context


















Conclusions

EU LU MT

AT IT HR ES FR PL

SE SK RO

FR SI PT

HU LT EE EL NL

26 ibid p 71

September 2016

competence

literatures41

Language learner

47 ibid

evidence

the European Union

progress56

environments

municipalities59

Conclusions

translanguaging

learning

implementation

progress

Further information

More abouthellip

Kristina Cunningham

Ana-Maria Stan

Free publications

charge you)

Priced publications

doi 102766584023

ISBN 978-92-79-79241-0

Table of Contents

Introduction

Context


















Conclusions

26 ibid p 71

September 2016

competence

literatures41

Language learner

47 ibid

evidence

the European Union

progress56

environments

municipalities59

Conclusions

translanguaging

learning

implementation

progress

Further information

More abouthellip

Kristina Cunningham

Ana-Maria Stan

Free publications

charge you)

Priced publications

doi 102766584023

ISBN 978-92-79-79241-0

Table of Contents

Introduction

Context


















Conclusions

September 2016

competence

literatures41

Language learner

47 ibid

evidence

the European Union

progress56

environments

municipalities59

Conclusions

translanguaging

learning

implementation

progress

Further information

More abouthellip

Kristina Cunningham

Ana-Maria Stan

Free publications

charge you)

Priced publications

doi 102766584023

ISBN 978-92-79-79241-0

Table of Contents

Introduction

Context


















Conclusions

competence

literatures41

Language learner

47 ibid

evidence

the European Union

progress56

environments

municipalities59

Conclusions

translanguaging

learning

implementation

progress

Further information

More abouthellip

Kristina Cunningham

Ana-Maria Stan

Free publications

charge you)

Priced publications

doi 102766584023

ISBN 978-92-79-79241-0

Table of Contents

Introduction

Context


















Conclusions

literatures41

Language learner

47 ibid

evidence

the European Union

progress56

environments

municipalities59

Conclusions

translanguaging

learning

implementation

progress

Further information

More abouthellip

Kristina Cunningham

Ana-Maria Stan

Free publications

charge you)

Priced publications

doi 102766584023

ISBN 978-92-79-79241-0

Table of Contents

Introduction

Context


















Conclusions

47 ibid

evidence

the European Union

progress56

environments

municipalities59

Conclusions

translanguaging

learning

implementation

progress

Further information

More abouthellip

Kristina Cunningham

Ana-Maria Stan

Free publications

charge you)

Priced publications

doi 102766584023

ISBN 978-92-79-79241-0

Table of Contents

Introduction

Context


















Conclusions

evidence

the European Union

progress56

environments

municipalities59

Conclusions

translanguaging

learning

implementation

progress

Further information

More abouthellip

Kristina Cunningham

Ana-Maria Stan

Free publications

charge you)

Priced publications

doi 102766584023

ISBN 978-92-79-79241-0

Table of Contents

Introduction

Context


















Conclusions

progress56

environments

municipalities59

Conclusions

translanguaging

learning

implementation

progress

Further information

More abouthellip

Kristina Cunningham

Ana-Maria Stan

Free publications

charge you)

Priced publications

doi 102766584023

ISBN 978-92-79-79241-0

Table of Contents

Introduction

Context


















Conclusions

municipalities59

Conclusions

translanguaging

learning

implementation

progress

Further information

More abouthellip

Kristina Cunningham

Ana-Maria Stan

Free publications

charge you)

Priced publications

doi 102766584023

ISBN 978-92-79-79241-0

Table of Contents

Introduction

Context


















Conclusions

translanguaging

learning

implementation

progress

Further information

More abouthellip

Kristina Cunningham

Ana-Maria Stan

Free publications

charge you)

Priced publications

doi 102766584023

ISBN 978-92-79-79241-0

Table of Contents

Introduction

Context


















Conclusions

implementation

progress

Further information

More abouthellip

Kristina Cunningham

Ana-Maria Stan

Free publications

charge you)

Priced publications

doi 102766584023

ISBN 978-92-79-79241-0

Table of Contents

Introduction

Context


















Conclusions

Free publications

charge you)

Priced publications

doi 102766584023

ISBN 978-92-79-79241-0

Table of Contents

Introduction

Context


















Conclusions

doi 102766584023

ISBN 978-92-79-79241-0

Table of Contents

Introduction

Context


















Conclusions

Documents

Rethinking language education and linguistic diversity in