The Greek War of IndependenceThis time with the support of Russia, Britain andFrance, the Greeks were successful. Russian

influence in the region was blocked by theintervention of Britain and France.

Belgian Independence

For religious and political reasons, Belgiumdeclared it's independence from the Netherlands.This move was supported by Britain and Franceand resulted in an agreement by the nations ofEurope to respect the "perpetual neutrality" of

Belgium. This perpetual neutrality will be violatedby Germany in 1914.

Louis Phillipe

A compromise king of France who seemedacceptable to all. Endorsed by Lafayette, he

soon proved to be as conservative as Charles X.His primary concern was to protect the rich and

upper middle class.

French Revolution of 1830

The successor to Louis XVIII was his brother, the ultra conservative CharlesX. He revoked the constitutional charter and tried to re-establish an absolute

monarchy. His policies led to the erection of barricades and revolution.Charles immediately fled into exile into Britain. The revolution proved to bevery moderate and demanded only a Constitutional Monarchy. The Duke ofOrleans was endorsed by the ageing Lafayette and was selected to be the

next king. He ruled as Louis Phillipe.

French National Elections, 1848

Elections to the National Assembly led tochanges that were not apporoved by Louis

Phillipe. He changed election laws to favor hispolicies and held new elections. The result was

the revolt of the people of Paris.

The French Revolution of 1848

The revolt led to the abdication of Louis Phillipe and his flight to England. A provisional government wasforemd and universal male suffrage was adopted. Capitalists and Socialists split the government and Louis

Blanc's "National Workshops" were instituted as a compromise attempt to provide jobs. The workshopsfailed because they were never given significant work to do. Poor people converged on Paris in hope of

finding work in the workshops. Workers invaded the Constituent Assembly but were removed by theNational Guard of Paris. The Assembly closed down the workshops and provoked another round of violencecalled the "Bloody June Days." Barricades were erected throughout Paris and thousands died. The National

Guard was again victorious but France was again ready for a strong personal leader to restore law andorder. New elections were called.

National Workshops

Promoted by Louis Blanc, a socialist leader, theworkshops were intended to end unemploymentby providing meaningful work, sponsored by thegovernement. In practice, they were a failure due

to the government's refusal to provodemeaningful work. Workshops turned into

temporary relief agencies.

Louis Napolean Boneparte

Nephew to Napoleon I NLB fulfilled the need for a strong,popular leader to restore law and order. He was elected onthe basis of name recognition and the fact that he was inEngland during the "Bloody June Days,' and couldn't be

blamed by either side for the violence. He also ran for officeduring a period of romantic remembrance of his uncle's

empire and the publicity boosted his popularity.

Revolution in Austria, 1848

New of Revolution in France inspired the working and middle classes tomake demands on the government of Austria. Barricades went up in Vienna

and Metternich fled to England. The Italians drove the Austrians out ofNorthern Italy. Even the Pope sent troops in support. Hungarians revolted asdid Czechs and Slovaks. Critical to the defeat of the revolutionaries was the

refusal of the Emperor to flee, and the refusal of the army to join therevolutionaries. With the various revolutionary groups in disagreement, thearmy restored order. The Hungarians were defeated with the assistance of

Russia.

Pan-Slavic Conference, 1848

Held in Prague to determine future relations with Austria.The question concerned whether or not to seek

independence for the various Slavic states. It was decidedthat the safest course of action would be the support

"Austro-slavism", which called for the slavs to continue toaccept membership in the Empire. The conference broke up

with the advance of troops loyal to the emperor.

Big Germans vs Little Germans

A major point of contention within the Assembly was the definition of the NewGermany. Many supported the idea of a huge Germany (Big Germany) that

extended wherever German culture could be traced. This description ofGermany would then include large non-German minorities. Questions of

leadership of a "big" Germany caused the Austrians to withdraw theirsupport, which ruined the idea of a "big Germany." Those who supported theidea of a compact but pure Germany state were the "little" Germans. Once

again, Austria withdrew their support because it would disintegrate theirempire. With Austria gone, the only design for a new Germany had to be in

favor of "little Germany."

Frederick William IV

When offered the crown as king of the newunited Germany, F. W. IV was tempted but at the

urgine of his Junkers, especially his chiefminister, Bismarck, the Prussian king refused to

"accept a crown offered from the gutter." Thelack of support from Prussia marked the failure ofthe Frankfurt Assembly and German liberalism.

The "isms"

Around the turn of the 18th to 19th centuries, thesuffix "ism" came into common use to indicate

subscription to a "doctrine, theory, or belief." Thisis an indication that thoughts and ideas were

becoming systematized.

ConservatismCentered on resistance to change. In politics, itsupported monarchy, church, bureaucracy, and

aristocracy.

Liberalism

Favored parliaments, constitutions, toleration ofall religions, Adam Smith economics such as free

trade, capitalism, laissez faire, and supply anddemand. Drew mostly from the professional andbusiness classes. (Bourgeoisie). Did not favor

democracy.

RadicalismCalled for universal male suffrage and reform of

parliament. Chartists were considered to beradicals. On the continent, the most radical idea

was republicanism.

RepublicanismCalled for republican or representative forms of

government. Opposed monarchies andorganized religion. Driven underground by

measures to outlaw it in France.

NationalismAlso considered a radical idea. Evolved from

cultural unity. Seeks to draw political boundariesaround the cultural nation and defend it.

German NationalismOriginally an anti-French reaction. Promoted bynationalist philosophers liker Herder, Fichte, and

Hegel.

J.G. Herder Promoted the idea of Volksgiest or national spirit.

J.G. Fichte Suggested that the spirit of the German peoplewas superior to all others.

Hegelian Dialectic

A formula explaining how change in history occurres. It starts with a THESIS.Which is the current state of affairs. At the same time, there exists the exactopposite the ANTITHESIS. The struggle between these two opposites is theSYNTHESIS, which becomes the new thesis. Thus change is constant and

evolutionary. Applied to German Politics, the dialectic suggests that thecondition of German disunity would struggle with the idea of German unity

and would result in the synthesis: German unification.

Frederick ListFounded the Zollverein. A tariff union that saw

the removal of internal tariffs between theGerman states and formed strong protective

tariffs along national frontiers.

Socialism

Economic radicalism. Believed that existingeconomic theories and practices were unjust and

corrupt. Opposed the private ownership of themeans of production. Supported democracy.Opposed laissez faire and free trade. Sought

government involvement and protection ofworkers.

Saint Simon

Believed that economic planning would benefit the poor.Promoted the idea of great public works projects should beundertaken to insure full employment. Predicted that "GreatCaptains of Industry" would step forward as the managers.

Would later proclaim Napoleon III as their great socialistemperor because of his public works projects like theredesign of Paris and the digging of the Suez canal.

President Louis Napoleon Bonaparte

Himself a liberal, LNB had to deal with a conservativemonarchist National Assembly. Fortunately the monarchists

were divided in their support between Charles X or LouisPhillipe. This gave the narrow margin to the republicans in

the Assembly. When LNB had been putting his most trustedfriends and advisers in high government positions, including

those responsible for the army and the police.

Emperor Napoleon III

In 1851, LNB seized power and a coup d' etate.He dismissed the National Assembly and

selected a new one with limited powers. Theseactions were approved by the voters. It could be

said that Napoleon III was the first moderndictator.

The Second French Empire

Napoleon III was responsible for several successesincluding: new investment banks, the Paris Stock

Exchange, Massive railroad construction, sponsored theredesign and rebuilding of Paris, the digging of the Suez

Canal and the Corinth Canal, allowed unions and the rightto strike. His greatest failures included an ill-fated attempt to

colonize Mexico and picking a fight with Prussia.

Barron Haussmann French architect from Alsace who redesignedParis.

Pre-1860 ItalyDivided and largely under the control of the Popeand the Austrians. After 1815, the idea of unity

began to gain favor.

Joseph Mazzini Italian nationalist who formed youth groups andpromoted the idea of national unity.

SardiniaLocated on the border with France, Sardinia wasthe most modern and strong of the Italian states.

If any of the Italian states could possibly leadItaly towards unification, it would be Sardinia.

Camillo de Cavour

The liberal and modern minister to the king of Sardinia. Amoderate who sought only the unification of the northern

and possibly central part of Italy. He was a personal friendof Napoleon III and persuaded France to join in driving the

Austrians out of northern Italy. French participation wasbrief because the war was never popular in France and thepope was opposed to the unification of the North. Sardinia

succeeded in liberating the northern part of Italy.

Giuseppi GarabaldiAn adventurer and romantic revolutionary, he

launched an invasion of Southern Italy. He wasextremely popular and gained thousands of

followers.

The "red shirts"Also known as Garabaldi's Thousand, these

were the revolutionary army of Garabaldi.Successful in "liberating" the South, they swept

towards Rome.

The Unification of Italy

Concerned with the rapid advance of Garabaldi from theSouth, Cavour launched his own liberating drive towardsRome. He was worried that Garabaldi would confront the

French troops that had recently been sent to Rome toprotect the pope. Cavour and Garabaldi met outside Rome

and agreed to the unification of Italy under King VictorEmmanual, King of Sardinia. By 1860, Italy was united

except for Rome and Venice.