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Vol. 1 Issue 3, pp: (43-55), July 2016. Available online at: http://www.prudentjournals.org/IRJESS
Review
Implementation of Integrated Coastal Zone Management Approach in the Niger Delta,
Nigeria: A Review
A. S. Ringim1*, I. M. Sulaiman1, and J. V. Lyakurwa2
1Department of Biological Sciences, Federal University Dutse, Jigawa, Nigeria.
2Department of Zoology and Wildlife Conservation, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.
*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]
Received 11 May, 2016; Accepted 22 June, 2016.
ABSTRACT
Coastal areas, a transition between land and sea, are among the most productive ecosystems in the
world. The Niger Delta coastal area is rich in biodiversity and resources which supports over 30
million people living in the region. More importantly, the economy of the country largely depends on
oil and gas exploration from the region. However, over the last decades, inadequate management
have caused severe environmental degradation, loss of aquatic biodiversity, habitat destruction,
shoreline and coastal pollution within the region. In addition, with current projection of global climate
change and sea level rise, the Niger Delta region is extremely under threat. In this paper, we review
existing studies, highlights major threats affecting the Niger Delta, and propose a broader scientific
approach through Integrated Coastal Zone Management for the long-term management and
conservation of the Niger Delta. This process involves engaging with a wide range of stakeholders:
governments, academicians, conservationists and policy- makers, non-governmental organizations,
private investors and local communities in coastal management. The paper concludes that proper
planning, integration and implementation of this process will serve to improve the overall situation of
the Niger Delta communities, environment and biodiversity. Conservation of this ecosystem is in line
with the Convention on Biological Diversity to which Nigeria is a signatory.
Keywords: Coastal area, Conservation, Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM), Niger Delta, Stakeholders, Threats to biodiversity.
INTRODUCTION
Coastal areas are among the most productive
and valued ecosystems in the world (Crain et
al., 2009). For this reason, estimates have
shown that about 3 billion people are found
within 200 km of the coastline, with some 4
billion living 400 km. This figure is projected to
double by the year 2025 (Hinrichsen, 1999).
The reasons for rapid population growth in the
coastal areas include economic; industrial,
International Research Journal of Environmental Sciences and Studies Article Number: PRJA15670421 Copyright ©2016 Author(s) retain the copyright of this article Author(s) agree that this article remain permanently open access under the terms of the Creative Commons
Attribution 4.0 International License.
tourism, fishing and aquaculture, shipping,
mining and energy production, and
exploitation of coastal and marine resources
e.g. mangroves (Hinrichsen, 1999; Akwilapo,
2011). These have attracted more people with
about 60 percent of the world population today
are living along the coast (Vallega, 2013).
Nonetheless, human pressures on the coastal
region and its resources have made them one
of the most degraded and threatened
ecosystem (Crain et al., 2009).
In the Niger Delta, dredging activities, urban
and industrial pollution as well as
overexploitation of natural resources have
immensely continued to degrade the natural
environment, biodiversity, and pose great
health danger to human lives (Adeyemo,
2003; Adekola and Mitcheel, 2011; Eleanya
and Agbeja, 2014). Over the years, the
Federal Government of Nigeria has set up
institutions to checkmate the ecological and
socio-economic problems affecting the delta
coastal areas. Such institutions include the
Niger Delta Development Commission
(NDDC), Niger Delta Basin and Rural
Development Authority, and the Oil and
Mineral Producing Areas Development
Commission (OMPADEC) (Uyigue and Agho,
2007). In spite of this, threats facing the coast
and biodiversity in the Niger Delta still persist.
In recent times, there has been an extensive
research study on environment and
biodiversity in the Niger Delta. Some of these
studies examined the effect of pollution on
turtle diversity (Luiselli and Akani 2002),
dredging activities in the delta region (Ohimain
2004), biodiversity conservation and poverty
alleviation in Niger Delta (Agbogidi and
Ofuoku 2006), impacts of climate change and
environmental degradation (Uyigue and Agho
2007). Some conservation measures for
managing the Niger Delta (Phil-Eze and Okoro
2009), Environmental Impact Assessment for
the Niger Delta (Ingelson and Nwapi 2009), oil
exploitation and conflict (Omofonmwan
and Odia 2009), threats to Niger Delta
ecosystem (Patrick 2009; Adekola and
Mitcheel 2011), impacts of mangrove forest
exploitation on fisheries resources (Oribhabor
and Udo 2011), sustainable fisheries
development in the Niger Delta (Akankali and
Jamabo 2011).
Moreover, impacts of climate change on fish
production in the Niger Delta (Aphunu and
Nwabeze 2013), threats to forest ecosystem in
the Niger Delta (Eleanya and Agbeja 2014),
gas flaring (Giwa et al., 2014), impacts of
wetlands degradation in the Niger Delta
(Loveline 2015). However, previous studies
predominantly focus on threats affecting the
Niger Delta. On the other hand, ICZM process
have shown to benefit local communities
(Gibson, 2003), protection of coastal
ecosystem (Hershman et al., 1999), and
conflict resolution among coastal communities
(McCreary et al., 2001). Therefore, this review
aimed at providing a new paradigm for
management and conservation of the Niger
Delta coastal area, which if properly
addressed will lead to an impressive result.
NIGER DELTA OVERVIEW
Nigeria has a coastline of about 853 km
located in the Atlantic Ocean, terrestrial zone
is about 28, 000 km2, whereas the continental
shelf is approximately 46, 300 km2 (Nwilo and
Badejo, 2006). The southern Niger Delta is
located within (05°19′34″N 06°28′15″E and
5.32611°N 6.47083°E, Figure 1). This
ecosystem extend over 70,000 km² making up
about 55% of Nigeria's freshwater systems,
and is being recognized as the second largest
delta in the world, and has the largest
mangrove forest in Africa (UNDP, 2006;
Uyigue and Agboh, 2007; Mmom and
Arokoyo, 2009; Okonkwo et al., 2015). The
region comprised several lagoons, wetlands,
mangrove swamps, beaches, savannah, salt
marshes, creeks, coastal and tropical
rainforest rich in biodiversity (Phil-Eze and
Okoro, 2009). The region is categorized into
four ecological sub-zones; coastal barrier
Islands, mangrove forest, freshwater swamp
forest, and the lowland rainforest (Mmom and
Arokoyu, 2009). The temperature in the region
44 Int. Res. J. Environ. Sci. Stud.
is between 24°C to 32°C throughout the year,
rainfall ranges from 3000- 4500 mm, with two
distinct seasons: wet season starting from
July- September, and dry season from
December- February (Nwilo and Badejo,
2006; Okonkwo et al., 2015).
There are 119 species of mammal, 201 birds,
30 reptiles, over 850 vulnerable tree species,
and about 338 freshwater fish species in the
Niger Delta region (Phil-Eze and Okoro, 2009;
National Biodiversity and Strategy Action Plan,
2014). The region harbour endemic species of
animals such as Delta Killifish Aphyosemion
deltaense and many endangered species
such as the Home's hinge-back tortoise
Kinixys homeana, and the West African Red
Colubus Procolobus badius (Phil-Eze and
Okoro, 2009; Adekola and Mitchell, 2011;
NBSAP, 2014). Although, being the richest
ecosystem in Nigeria, its vast areas have not
been explored due to political and economic
conflicts in the region.
The people of the Niger Delta largely depend
on coastal resources for food, fish, fibre, fuel,
timber, charcoal, medicinal plants, aesthetic
and tourism (Adekola and Mitchell, 2011;
Malik et al., 2015). For instance, assessment
of timber production in the delta region by the
World Bank is about US$22.8 million, and the
value of wetlands and other ecosystem
services account for about US$14 trillion
annually (World Bank, 1995; Eleanya and
Agbeja, 2014). The Niger Delta comprises
nine states of Abia, Akwa Ibom, Bayelsa,
Cross River, Delta, Edo, Imo, Ondo, and River
States with over 30 million inhabitants
representing about 22% of Nigeria’s
population (Patrick, 2009; Adekola and
Mitchell, 2011). The oil and gas resources
from the Niger Delta are the main source of
financial income for Nigeria, accounting for
about 90% of foreign exchange (NBSAP,
2014). The World Wildlife Fund (WWF)
classified the region as among the 200
critically endangered eco-region, and by the
World Bank as the second most sensitive
environment in Africa (Phil-Eze and Okoro,
2009).
Fig. 1. (a) Position of Nigeria in Africa, (b) Map of Nigeria showing coastal area of the Niger Delta, (c) Niger
Delta States
Ringim et al 45
Socio-economic issues
According to the United Nations Development
Programme (2008), more than 60% of the
Niger Delta communities depend on the
natural environment for their livelihood mainly
in the form of farming and fishing. However,
excessive pollution and contamination of fish
with toxic chemicals, destruction and death of
crops have jeopardized their livelihood. For
instance, since 1980s annual fish catch fell
from 1.88 tons in 1983 to 0.7 tonnes in 1989
(Malam et al., 2004). In addition, most people
among the local population have been
experiencing health problems as a results of
pollution (Patrick, 2009). For example, in June
2001, oil spills occurred in Ogdobo village and
destroyed the community’s only source of
drinking water with more than 150,000 people
reported to have been infected with skin and
eye problems (Patrick, 2009). In Ogoni, a
village called Luawii where oil exploration
ceased for about four years in 1997, results
from samples of water taken to the United
Sates for analysis indicated that the water
contained 18 ppm of hydrocarbons which is
360 times greater than the standard level
approved by the European Union. In another
village called Ikwerre had 34 ppm, which is
680 times far greater than the European Union
standard (Nwilo and Badejo, 2006) were
recorded. Findings by Eleanya and Agbeja
(2014) revealed that pollution of the mangrove
forest, and other freshwater water bodies by
mining and exploration activities have
impacted on the indigenous communities
through degradation of fertile farmlands critical
for agriculture (Adekola and Mitchell, 2011).
Governmental issues
Nigeria is ranked 12th largest producer of
crude oil in the world (Ingelson and Nwapi,
2014). Ownership of crude oil and gas is
bestowed on the Federal Government,
whereas the state and local governments, and
individuals are excluded from owning oil
resources. With these rich resources, millions
of Nigerians are surviving on less than US$ 1
per day (Ingelson and Nwapi, 2014).
Consequently, these has led to many factors
such as lack of social infrastructures (e.g.
electricity) and services (e.g. good
transportation system, health facilities), high
unemployment, extreme poverty, and conflict
among others in the Niger Delta and beyond
(Patrick, 2009). Thus, the Federal government
and private investors particularly firms for
mining and gas exploration have been blamed
for the environmental degradation in the Niger
Delta (Phil-Eze and Okoro, 2009). Not only
that, weak institutions resulting from the lack
of interests on biodiversity conservation and
political will help further devastate the
ecosystem. The Nigerian Government strongly
put more commitments towards oil exploitation
activities than protecting the aesthetic beauty
of the natural environment and biodiversity
(Phil-Eze and Okoro, 2009).
Coastal management in Nigeria
In Nigeria, before the Land Use Act (1978),
ownership of land and in particular coastline
are vested on the state and exclusively
controlled by the Federal Government since
trans-boundary waters are governed by
international law and full power belong to the
sovereign state. Nevertheless, the control of
coastal habitats such as beaches, wetlands,
estuaries, and land within the coast is vested
on the community as communal property
(Awolaja, 2010). Although the Land Use Act
preserves existing interests in land, ownership
of land in the territory of the state, are vested
on the governor of the state except those
lands held by the Federal government, this
often leads to bottlenecks in locating the
appropriate authority to control and manage
coastal areas in the territory of the states. For
instance, the case of Attorney General of
Lagos versus Attorney General of the
Federation in 2003 where Lagos state
challenged the physical planning power of the
Federal government over land in the territory
of Lagos state is a typical example.
In general, the overall obligation to protect the
coastal areas of Nigeria is entrusted on the
Federal Government by section 17 of the
46 Int. Res. J. Environ. Sci. Stud.
constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria,
1999 (Awolaja, 2010). According to Awolaja
(2010) Federal regulation over coastal area
management is defined in two methods. The
first is by extending control and jurisdiction
over land within certain coastline in respect of
land in the territory of a state. The second way
is by enacting Federal laws that regulate the
dumping and disposal of solid and liquid waste
(e.g. components from oil spill), toxic and
hazardous wastes into the environment. Some
of these laws include Oil Pollution Act (1990),
Harmful Waste (1990), Petroleum (Drilling and
Production) Regulations (1969), Mineral Oil
(Safety) Regulations (1963). Whereas
international conventions include International
Convention on the Establishment of an
International Fund for Compensation for Oil
Pollution Damage (1971), Convention on the
Prevention of Marine pollution Damage (1972)
(Nwilo and Badejo, 2006). Despite these laws
and protection measures, environmental
degradation and pollution in the Niger Delta
continues unabated which albeit respected
would have prevented environmental
degradation in the area.
THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY IN THE
NIGER DELTA COASTAL AREA
The Niger Delta ecosystem is undergoing a
rapid change and decline in biodiversity due to
synergistic threats resulting from
anthropogenic pressures. This has plunged
the coastal areas at a greater risk
morphologically, ecologically and biologically.
The major threats to biodiversity and
communities in the Niger Delta are highlighted
below:
Habitat destruction
Habitat can be defined as the physical and
biological surroundings of an organism, or
specifically as sites having appropriate levels
of the biotic and abiotic features required by a
species for survival and reproduction (Van
Dyke, 2008). In order for a species to be
viable, its habitat must have essential
requirements such as food, mate, and water
(Opande et al., 2004). However, human
activities along the coast including coastal
modifications, pollution, oil and gas
exploration have degraded and destroyed the
pristine habitats making them unsuitable for
the survival of many species. In the Niger
Delta, pollution from oil spillage has been
described as the main threat to biodiversity
and human life (quote here). Intentional
destruction of pipelines (oil bunkering) by
unknown persons within the Niger Delta
communities and for artisanal refinery has led
to several habitat destruction, fragmentation,
and upwelling of bottom sediments which are
associated with turbidity affecting benthic flora
and fauna (Luiselli and Akani, 2003; NBSAP,
2014). Also, dredging activities purposely
carried out to facilitate oil exploration;
construction of base camps, and disposal of
waste has also been shown to have a very
noticeable effects on biodiversity, environment
and human life (Ohimain, 2004). These
activities involve deepening and widening of
channels or cutting down vegetation to make
access to roads. This have direct
consequences upon species niches, food
chain, hydrology and topography in general
(Ohimain, 2004).
Ringim et al 47
Fig. 2. Habitat destruction caused by dredging activities for oil exploration in the Niger Delta (Source: Ohimain,
2004). From the picture three main habitats destruction are identifiable: (1) Habitat fragmentation, (2)
Decrease in the size of habitat leading to patches, habitat isolation, and (3) Reduction on the quality of the
patches, habitat degradation (Van Dyke, 2008).
Pollution, oil spill, and gas flaring
Pollution is among the main challenges facing
the Niger Delta coastal region. Over the past
50 years, between 9 and 13 million barrels of
oil has spilled in the Niger Delta ecosystem.
Between 1976 and 1997, about 5334 listed
cases of crude oil spillage were documented
for the region alone (Adekola and Mitchell,
2011). This has direct effects on the
environment, including lowering water quality,
blockage of sunlight radiating into the water
column, mass mortality of plants and animals,
and destruction of spawning sites for aquatic
animals (Ingelson and Nwapi, 2014). The
findings of Luiselli and Akani (2003) provided
typical instances of oil spillage that occurred in
the Niger Delta; Bonny oil Spillage (1993),
Rumuekpe oil spillage (1995), and the
Ogbodo-Isiokpo oil spillage (2001). All these
had a negative impact on the hydrology and
biological processes.
For instance, loss of genetic resources (units
of hereditary material of plant, animal or
microbe) in the Ogoni land has been attributed
to pollution of soil by petroleum hydrocarbons
(NBSAP, 2014). As Reported by UNEP
(2011), about 307, 381 m2 of mangroves
forest were loss in four years in the Niger
Delta. In terms of gas flares, about 75% or
equivalent to 2.5 billion ft3 of crude oil
produced in the Niger Delta are flared daily
with an estimated yearly financial loss of
US$2.5 billion (Nduka et al., 2008). In Rivers
and Delta states, about 12 million tons of
methane gas is released annually making
Nigeria the highest emitter of green house
gases in Africa (Uyigue and Agho, 2007; Giwa
et al., 2014). This enhance acidic rain and
carbon emission into the environment with
direct effects on wildlife and humans
(Hendrey, 2001).
48 Int. Res. J. Environ. Sci. Stud.
Fig. 3. (a) Pollution in the Niger Delta region (NBSAP, 2014)
Climate change
Ogba and Utang, (2010) defines climate
change as change in the state of the climate
that can be identified by changes in the mean
and/or the variability of its properties and that
persists for an extended period, typically
decades or longer. Consequently, climate
change has been identified as one of the most
threatening process ever in human history due
to its impact on environment, and economic
aspect (Khaneshan et al., 2014), and African
continent is the most vulnerable (United
Nations, 2006). In recent decades, the
atmospheric temperature has increased due
to anthropogenic activities such as fossil fuel
combustion and deforestation (Sirakov and
Slavcheva, 2015). The current increase of
atmospheric CO2 of 400 ppmv is about five
times higher than any recorded levels in the
past 1.5 million years (Van Dyke, 2008;
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, 2016). This has detrimental
impacts on both terrestrial and marine
ecosystems. On continental scale, it is
predicted that by the year 2100, the global
mean surface temperature likely to increase
by 1.1oC -6.4oC and sea level rise by 75-190
(Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change,
2014). Some models predicted by the year
2400, humans will have released about 5000
gigatones of CO2 to the atmosphere since the
start of the industrial revolution which began
during the last half of the 18th century (Zachos
et al., 2008, Khaneshan et al., 2014).
Furthermore, numerous projections attempted
to predict the future consequences of global
climate change. Although, some areas have
started experiencing these impacts, the
coastal areas seem to be more vulnerable to
rising sea level, El Nino, unstable temperature
and rainfall (Sirakov and Slavcheva, 2015). In
the Niger Delta, for instance, the northward
extension has been creating tidal influences
up to 30-50 km from the shoreline (Ogba and
Utang, 2010). Some predictions in the Niger
Delta indicated an increase in the sea level by
30 cm in the next three decades and about
110 cm over the next century (Ogba and
Utang, 2010). This presents an extreme
danger to the Niger Delta coastal ecosystem.
The National Adaptation Strategy and Plan of
Action for climate change in Nigeria (NASPA-
CCN) echoed that the consequences of
climate change is being felt in many parts of
Nigeria and suggest that in the absence of
mitigation and adaptation, climate change
could result in the loss of between 2% and
11% of Nigeria’s GDP by 2020, and 30% by
the year 2050 (NBSAP, 2014). Hence, to
some scientist we have surged into
the Anthropocene thermal maximum, an era of
global warming (Zeebe, 2013). As a result,
climate change deserves crucial attention,
particularly in the coastal region of the Niger
Delta.
Overexploitation
Overexploitation of wild species could lead to
population depletion, loss of genetic diversity
Ringim et al 49
and structure, and untimely extinction of
species (Crain et al., 2009, NBSAP, 2014).
Despite several protected areas in the Niger
Delta, major threats such as deforestation,
logging, hunting, and fishing continue to
prevail (Adekola and Mitchell, 2011).
Overexploitation of resources within the region
is due to rapid expansion of human population
(Phil-Eze and Okoro, 2009). Some
commercially important timber species being
exploited include African Mahogany Khaya
spp, the vulnerable Bilinga Nauclea diderrichi,
and Black Afara Terminalia ivorensis (NBSAP,
2014). According to estimates by Mmom et al.,
(2010), the Niger Delta mangrove forests will
lose about 5-15% of its species by 2020 due
to overexploitation. Abowei and Hart (2009)
noted that fish species, Squeaker Synodontis
clarias, and Glass schilbid Parailia pellucida
are facing overexploitation due to
unsustainable fishing. Some globally
threatened species on the IUCN Redlist
(2015) in the Niger delta includes African
Manatee Trichecus senegalensis, African
forest elephant Loxodonta cyclotis,
Chimpanzee Pan troglodytes, Olive colobus
monkey Procolobus verus, Anambra waxbill
Estrilda poliopareia and Redcap mangabey
Cercocebus torquatus. Others that deserves
legal protection against overexploitation
include Pygmy Hippopotamus Hexaprotodon
liberiensis, Sclater Guenon Cercopithecus
sclateri, and West African Pepper Piper
guineensis (Phil-Eze and Okoko, 2008).
Therefore, it is necessary that the levels of
exploitation are controlled in order to protect
these species from facing extinction.
ESTABLISHMENT OF INTEGRATED
COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT FOR
THE NIGER DELTA
Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM),
are called by many names, such as
Ecosystem-Based Management (EBM),
Coastal Zone Management (CZM), and the
Ecosystem Approach to Management (EAM)
(Crain et al., 2009). Nevertheless, they all
address issues related to coastal and marine
resources, human safety, and costal
biodiversity conservation (Crain et al., 2009).
ICZM takes into account the interest of all the
coastal stakeholders: local people,
government authorities, non-governmental
organizations (NGOs), scientists and investors
(Chuenpagdee and Pauly, 2004; Ramesh and
Vel, 2011). This method involves planning,
coordination, and making decision for the
sustainable use of coastal resources and
conservation (Steijn et al., 2012). Other
processes include defining problems, data
collection, co-ordination, decision making,
implementation, monitoring and evaluation of
utilized resources. However, for the ICZM
process to be effective, all the stakeholders
need to be involved.
Despite the fact that ICZM process is a new
approach to coastal management, they are
common in many parts of the world including
beneficial examples from China, United
States, Philippines, Kenya, South Africa, and
Tanzania (e.g. Linden and Lundin, 1997;
Hershman et al., 1999; Pollnac and Pomeroy,
2005). Numerous efforts were made by the
Nigerian Government to curtail problems
confronting communities in the Niger Delta but
with little positive results. Therefore, there is
the need for a scientific approach such as the
Integrated Coastal Zone Management in order
to improve the deleterious situations in the
Niger Delta coastal areas. Recommended
Guidelines for the establishment and
implementation of ICZM in the Niger Delta are
highlighted below:
Staffing/Stakeholders
First, all the stakeholders and management
team for the ICZM processes should be
drafted. These include federal and state
government representatives; Ministry of
Environment, Ministry of Petroleum
Resources, Ministry of Water Resources, and
Ministry of Health, while non-governmental
organizations (NGOs) should include Nigerian
Conservation Foundation (NCF), Niger Delta
Wetland Centre (NDWC), the Niger Delta
Development Commission (NDDC), private
sectors (oil firms), the Centre for
Environmental Resources and Sustainable
50 Int. Res. J. Environ. Sci. Stud.
Ecosystems, and various representatives from
the local communities including chiefs, village
heads, elders, ward heads, district heads and
village residents. Additionally, experts from
various fields, e.g. ecologists (especially fresh
water and marine ecologists), botanists,
zoologists, and geologists who can focus
broadly on the impacts across the Niger Delta
ecosystem should be incorporated. The
specialist could also be from the local
conservation organization such as Nigerian
Conservation Foundation, and the Niger Delta
Wetlands Centre. Internationally, conservation
agencies such as the International Union for
the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and World
Wildlife Fund (WWF) should strongly be
involved. This will help to harmonize ideas and
achieve a desired decision which ultimately
will determine the success of ICZM.
Defining threats and problems
Threats pertaining to biodiversity should be
clearly identify. Habitat loss and degradation,
e.g. the destruction of wetlands, lagoons and
estuaries, habitat fragmentation due to
dredging activities, loss of plant and animal
species with emphasis on endemic and
threatened species to the Niger Delta need to
be clearly assessed to ensure the
sustainability of biodiversity in the delta. In
addition, problems related to socio-economic
issues between the local people, federal and
state government, oil companies should also
be considered such as good infrastructures,
e.g. good roads, health facilities, and
employment opportunities. This information is
critical in establishing ICZM and only their
proper management will determine the ICZM
success. The decision and policy makers
require these data to monitor and assess
natural resource inventories, environmental
and social-cultural changes, for sustainable
development.
Environmental Impact Assessment
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is
crucial and therefore should be included in the
ICZM plan to find out or verify the extent of
human impact on environment and
biodiversity. The output of the EIA should be
taken into account in the course of decision-
making for proper implementation processes.
Modern models, e.g. climate change
modelling, and satellite images will be
effective for explaining, predicting and
supporting the plans, strategies and policies.
Maps and other data gathering methods
should be presented in a way that will permit
easy access of information (Creary, 2003).
Furthermore, cost-benefit analysis of
resources for all kind of developmental plans
should be considered. This EIA report would
help to promote the costal management and
provide a mechanism for enhancing new
socio-economic opportunities and for
introducing long-term environmental protection
and conservation measures for the Niger
Delta ICZM (Anjaneyulu and Manickam, 2011)
Data collection and storage
Ecological, social, and indigenous traditional
knowledge should be combined to fill in most
of the data needed for ICZM plan preparation
and implementation through which the
sustainable management of the coast will be
achieved. This information is crucial to
develop successful ICZM plan, and therefore
should be well documented for future
monitoring and evaluation.
Stakeholders agreement
To integrate the sectoral plans, interactive
sessions such as workshops, seminars, and
meetings should be conducted among the
various coastal stakeholders. This should
contain detailed information about the ICZM
plan, status of the coast/habitats, threats to
biodiversity and humans, and benefits of the
coast/habitats, recommended strategies and
developmental action plan for the sectors and
implementation mechanism.
Public hearing, and workshop
After the ICZM plan has been circulated
among the various stakeholders, executives,
managers, representatives from both primary
and secondary stakeholders of the Niger Delta
states should meet to evaluate and make
modifications on the plan where necessary.
Reviewed plans should be shared amongst
Ringim et al 51
coastal managers for further clarifications,
while various means of mass communication
such as television, newspaper, and radio will
serve to promote integration and
communication among various stakeholders
(Chuenpagdee and Pauly, 2004; Ramesh and
Vel, 2011).
Recommended ICZM plan
Finally, this is the stage where ICZM process
is adopted, initiation of strategies, dialogue,
and call for new styles of management,
conservation and governance in the Niger
delta coast. This will help in achieving the
objectives and goals set in place so as
ecological, social and institutional needs of
people of the Niger Delta will be met.
Recommended plan should ensure active
involvement and participation of all
stakeholders especially indigenous
communities. The local people and other
stakeholders should have profound knowledge
of the plan objectives and components so as
to have clear understanding about how the
ICZM operates (Creary, 2003; Ramesh and
Vel, 2011).
Implementation, Monitoring and Evaluation
ICZM implementation activities should be
managed, monitored and evaluated by
respective states and other stakeholders
including the local communities to form a team
of representatives in the form of coastal
managers for successful ICZM plan. Cross-
sectoral coordination and consultation towards
the developmental activities of the
stakeholders should be encouraged prior to
actions to increase developmental plans of the
ICZM (Creary, 2003).
CONCLUSION
The Niger Delta coastal area is extremely
important for its rich wildlife and abundant oil
resources which account for about 90% of
Nigeria's Gross Domestic Product (GDP). The
ecosystem is fundamental to the well-being
and livelihood of the coastal communities
living in the region and beyond. Moreover, the
ecosystem harbour endemic species found
nowhere else in the world such as A.
deltaense, and the P. badius epeini. However,
this important region is under multiple threats
including pollution, habitat destruction and gas
flaring which are negatively affecting the
natural environment, biodiversity and human
health.
As the result, this paper review existing
studies and suggests an ICZM process needs
to be developed to ensure the sustainable
management and conservation of the Niger
Delta. Local communities within the Niger
Delta and the country at large would
immensely benefit from this through improved
economic and sustainable development,
conflict resolution, recreation and tourism
development, and secured oil and gas
exploration in the region. The Nigerian
government should adopt modern techniques
to handle oil spillage incidences and clean up,
put in place strong mitigation measures
against the effects of climate change. In
addition, improve the livelihood of the coastal
states particularly the rural communities
through the provision of infrastructures such
as quality education, electricity, portable
drinking water, good transportation system,
and health facilities. It is hope that the Federal
government, state governments within the
Niger Delta, conservationist and policy-
makers, non-governmental organizations, and
oil companies in the Niger Delta region will
adopt this new strategy for promoting the
management and conservation of this
productive ecosystem.
Acknowledgement We thank the financial assistance of Tertiary Education Trust Fund (TETFUND), and Federal University Dutse, Jigawa State, Nigeria.
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
52 Int. Res. J. Environ. Sci. Stud.
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