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ACADEMIC JOURNAL OF MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING, VOL.19, ISSUE 3/2021
71
REVIEW OF 3D MOLDED INTERCONNECT DEVICE
(3D-MID) IN THE PROSPECTIVE OF ADDITIVE
MANUFACTURING
Salman Ahmed Hashmi
1, Nik Mohamad Farid Nik Ismail
2 and Jaronie Mohd Jani3
[email protected], [email protected], [email protected]
Malaysia-Italy Design Institute, University of Kuala Lumpur (UniKL MIDI), Malaysiar
ABSTRACT: The use of conductive inks and direct writing techniques for the fabrication of
electronic circuits on complex mould base or substrate is attracting ever increasing interest.
Several challenges are encountered in the process of printing conductive ink material on any
moulded 2D or 3D structure. Such structures are sometime known as molded interconnect
devices (MID). The present review aims to summarize the ideas to address these challenges. It
focusses on these points: 1) Identifying conductive inks available, 2) Issues involving deposition
of conductive ink on 2D, 2.5D and 3D structures which includes adhesive concerns, 3)
Deposition of electronic parts such as capacitors, resistors, and integrated chips specially on
the 3D surfaced structures. In this review paper, the audience is introduced with the printing
techniques and then discussed in detail one by one. The term printed electronics is defined with
a survey of applications in terms of types of inks utilized, techniques used in printing, and
substrates or surfaces used in the application.
KEYWORDS: molded interconnect device, printed electronics, additive manufacturing,
conductive inks
1 INTRODUCTION
The field of printed electronics has emerged as
vital technology for all sorts of electrically
controlled machines. It promises a straightforward
process of manufacturing an extensive variety of
electronic circuits and electrical devices on a
flexible or a solid substrate inexpensively with
effective performance. It challenges a continuing
drive to boost performance, improve printing
processes with increased manufacturing speed, and
discover other novel applications.
In the past recent years, a sudden development in
cyber technologies has been observed, the internet
of things (IoT) has become a hot topic in this
modern world [1]. It is a device which interconnects
other devices that can interact with humans. There
exists a drive for brand spanking innovative
capabilities, such as sensors, actuators to be
integrated in daily electronic devices which is
resulting in the a huge advancement in its
innovative technologies by combining mechanical
and electrical functions to create interconnected
systems with improved performance and reduced
weight [2]. The manufacturing industry recognizes
the need of in methods that integrates electronics
onto or into 3D structures to improve performance,
lessen the footprint and complexity of
electrochemical fabrication. One such method is to
use 3D-MID (moulded interconnected devices)
which enables the incorporation of electronic
circuits into thermoplastic devices using injection
moulding process. This method has proven to be
more effective in several fields, for example,
automotive [3], medical and telecommunications
[4]. Such devices require some extra steps within
the fabrication process of thermoplastic objects to
integrate electrical components in or at the surface
of the object. A two-shot injection moulding is one
of the approaches for MIDs, where final plastic part
is produced by bonding two different polymers. The
challenges with such method are strength of
bonding and interface quality [5]. The other method
is known as Laser Direct Structuring (LDS) in
which a thermoplastic molded material is patterned
by a laser. The thickness of the circuit is performed
using plating process. The challenges include
limited availability of substrate materials, multistep
processing, and the requirement of plating for both
process [6]. Another method to achieve integration
of electromechanical structures is to use two-
dimensional manufacturing practices, such as low
powered circuits fabricated on a flexible film and
them moulded around a 3D surface [7]. Another
approach is to adapt Aerosol Jet process which
enables developing the 3D part along with the
integration of electronics on any geometrical
substrate and material. Such process can print on
complex orthogonal surfaces and generate multi-
layered circuit with no utilization of two-
dimensional approaches. For example, any circuit
ACADEMIC JOURNAL OF MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING, VOL.19, ISSUE 3/2021
72
incorporating IC‟s and LED‟s in a 3D structure;
printed antennas on 3D surfaces.
This review paper mainly focuses on the printing
electronics subject and methods used for
manufacturing printed electronic devices.
Furthermore, it focuses on the conductive inks and
materials used for printing in those methods.
Printing and Printed Electronics
Printing process involves producing predefined
pattern by deposition of material on a substrate.
Printing is a prominent process by which identical
multiples of originals can be produced rapidly.
There exist three fundamental techniques of printing
which are positive contact, negative contact, and
non-contact printing. The positive contact printing
involves a separate surface that holds the ink. The
inked surface is than stamped on to the substrate.
The negative printing involves a recessed surface.
The pattern is then filled by ink when part‟s surface
is getting in contact with the substrate. Once the
surface is removed, it leaves the desired imprint on
the substrate and neglecting the spread of extra ink.
Gravure printing is an example involving patterned
drum with the recesses that define the patterns being
filled with the ink. Screen printing also involves
negative contact printing in which ink is placed on
top of the mesh to one edge and pushed onto the
substrate travelling to the other edge. At the other
end, noncontact printing is a contactless printing
where substrate does not make any contact with the
printing device. Inkjet printing and aerosol printing
are examples of non-contact printing.
1.1 Inks
Ink-jet printing in printed electronics is ascribed
to functional printable inks which categorised as
zero-dimension (0-D), one-dimension (1-D), two-
dimension (2-D), and three-dimension (3-D)
nanostructured materials [8]. Typically, less than
100 nm has been used for 0-D materials, while 1-D
materials are larger than nanoscopic scale;
nanotubes and nanowires are examples of 1-D. The
2-D materials have similar structure to plates such
as graphene. The 3-D nanomaterials have higher
surface area.
1.1.1 Metallic Inks
Metals is an essential material to be considered
when developing conductive tracks. Metallic
nanoparticles (0-D) based ink is more stable and
leads to a good shelf life while it has a lower
contact resistance. Metallic nanowires (1-D) also
have similar characteristics. Metallic nanowires
have higher mechanical flexibility over
nanoparticles and are used in producing antennas
[9], and wearable devices [10]. The other type of
ink can be metal organic decomposition which is a
metal solution incorporating metallic salt dissolved
in a suitable solvent. It delivers higher conductivity
and reduced nozzle clogging as it is a solution.
There are several methods for increasing
conductivity. One of it is depositing additional
layers which reduces variation in conductance
values. Another method is to process it at higher
temperatures to decrease the dot spacing of the
inkjet printer. The preference of opting metal type
depends primarily on the cost, performance, and
easy handling. Copper, which affordable but
requires a controller and regulated atmosphere to
prevent the development of CuO (copper-oxide),
whereas silver is the most conductive one but is
expensive.
1.1.2 Non-Metallic Inks
The creation of conducting tracks are not
constrained to functional inks (based on metals).
There exists alternatives such as polymer-based inks
i.e. poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) mixed with
polystyrene sulfonate (PEDOT:PSS) which is an
advanced resin formulation and has several benefits
over functional inks such as chemical stability,
optical transparency of approximately 88% and
structural elasticity of 1.2 GPa. Moreover, multiple
depositions of printed patterns increase its electrical
performance and have proven to be biocompatible
material. Such material has been utilized in solar
technology [11], energy storage devices[12], and
biocompatible flexible devices [13].
Another non-metallic 2-D ink which is an
allotrope of carbon has some exceptional properties.
It exhibits much stronger physical properties than
steel or diamond. It is an incredible light, flexible
material and has elasticity up to 20% of its original
size. The graphene material is available in form of
sheets and has excellent conductive properties and
thermal conductivity [14]. Graphene has been
utilized in applications such as developing thin film
transistors (TFT) [15, 16], sensory devices, and
energy devices [17, 18]. After combined with
PEDOT:PSS to incorporate biocompatibility, has
been used to develop temperature sensor that
comfortably attached to a human skin [19, 20].
Printed electronics is not limited to conductive
resin or conductive ink only. A TFT device is a
good example where two electrodes are separated
by a printing layer of insulating polymer. Materials
such as aluminum oxide-resin composite, SU-8,
epoxy-based resins, EMD6415 have been used
previously for metal-insulator-metal (MIM)
capacitor and smart textile devices [21-24]. Another
material, polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), a silicon
based organic polymer is used due to its insulating
ACADEMIC JOURNAL OF MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING, VOL.19, ISSUE 3/2021
73
propertiesUsing Inkjet-printing, zirconium dioxide
has been used as an insulator to manufacture a TFT
device. Another material polyaniline, a polymer
with an intriguing behaviour, occurred while doped
with electrons and became insulating while
oxidized. Such behaviour has been exploited
extensively in printed devices [25, 26].
In capacitor and transistor printed electronics,
polymers as a dielectric material are used. Most
commonly poly(4-vinylphenol) i.e. (PVP) is used
for producing TFT device. One stabilizing agent is
poly(melamine-formaldehyde) methylated (PMF),
working as a cross-linking agent, in propylene-
glycol-monomethyl-ether-acetate (PGMEA) [27].
1.2 Substrates
After selection of the ink comes the selection of
the substrate.
Paper
Glass
polymer substrates
Glass slides, a non-porous material, and a non-
reactive substrate offers reasonably smooth and
even adhesive surface for the material to be printed
on. An inexpensive option with apparent
transparency permits the printed material to be
observed from both the sides clearly. Inks in printed
electronics sometimes must go through heat
treatment or chemical washing which are post
processes. Therefore, the substrate material needs to
withstand the procedure. Glass slides are built from
silica and can endure approximate high temperature
of 513 °C until they start to decaying. Temperature
above 200–300 °C exceeds limits of sintering
temperatures of most functional inkjet inks. While
measuring the electrical and physical characteristics
of functional inks, it is essential for the substrate not
to influence those characteristics.
Paper is a permeable and rough substrate, and is
frequently favoured due to its flexibility,
inexpensiveness, and recyclable properties. Its
applications are flexible sensors [28], anti-
counterfeit applications [29], microfluidics [30],
and even biomedical applications [31]. Even though
paper-based substrates are porous but due to the
addition of coatings, the printing resolution and thee
functioning behaviour of the ink has significantly
improved. One of the examples of inkjet printing on
a paper is that it occupies a thin layer of resin which
accumulates ink nanoparticles onto the surface and
liquid content is absorbed. This results in a lower
resolution print giving a shiny finish [32]. The
process of sintering is very much constrained, as
paper substrate is produced from cellulose, its
thermal decomposition temperatures are beyond
100 °C. Whereas polymer as a substrate is more
reliable and generally used for flexible printed
electronics.
There are polymer substrates preferred for
carrying wide ranges of thermal stability such as
Polymide (PI) substrate, sustain under temperature
ranges (-269 °C to - 400 °C), which is also flexible
along with robust mechanical properties under
tough conditions such as DuPont™ Kapton®; It can
be produced into thin film structures up to 25 µm.
They are being used in many electronic devices and
applications. However, PI is not recommended for
applications where transparency is mandatory, that
is due to its opaque nature. There exist more than a
few polymers for example semi-crystalline
polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and polyethylene
naphthalate (PEN) which are in high demand for the
development of flexible electronics. The thermal
characteristics of PET and PEN do not meet that of
PI, their chemical endurance to solvents make them
suitable for applications that require optical
transmission and electric flow [33]. Another
material, Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) is a
silicone elastomer substrate, utilized for flexible
electronics as it has elastic properties [34]. Optically
clear, nontoxic nature make it suitable for bio-
compatible applications [35]. Despite being highly
hydrophobic in nature, the material can be reshaped
via surface treatments using other polymers in order
to advance the adhesion and surface wettability to
metallic inks [36, 37].
After printing, comes the process of wetting to
determines the quality of print. It is a phenomenon
of defining how the liquid spreads over the surface.
To quantify the adhesion of ink to a substrate; two
types of tests are followed. One is cross-cut test and
pull-off test. Detailed discussion on both ISO
standardized test can be found in following studies
[38, 39].
1.3 Non-Contact Printing
1.3.1 Inkjet Printing
The inkjet printing technique develops images
and structures in form of droplets. Continuous inkjet
and drop on demand inkjet printing are the two
major types of inkjet printing. As depicted in epithet
suggests continuous ink jet printing produces
continuous flow of beads which are passed between
charging plates, which as a result produces an
electric charge, and then guided towards the
substrate by an electric field whenever necessary.
Since droplet production is continuous, there is a
necessity to manage unwanted droplets. These
undirected droplets are taken through the canal; and
then recirculated back into the reservoir. However,
there may be possible clogging in the nozzle due to
drying up on the occasions when print head is left
ACADEMIC JOURNAL OF MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING, VOL.19, ISSUE 3/2021
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idle. There are two possible types in droplet on
demand printers which are:
• Thermal droplet
• Piezoelectric droplet
In piezoelectric type, pressure is formed in the
ink chamber and piezoelectric actuator ejects a
droplet. By varying the voltage levels, velocity and
volume of an ejected droplet can be controlled. The
size of the droplet is determined by the diameter of
the nozzle and can be varied by replacing it with a
required corresponding size.
In thermal droplet on demand printer, droplets
are produced based on resisters temperature. The
resistor heats up vaporizing liquid and producing a
bubble. The majority of industrial and research
droplet on demand printer heads are piezo type [40].
The continuous advancement of inkjet printing
permits researchers and manufacturers to avoid the
costly conventional manufacturing techniques.
Above all. The printed electronics is the most
benefitting from advancement in such resources
[41]. There are some profoundly written articles on
printed electronics. The selection of materials and
printing procedures were mostly emphasized in the
discussion [42]. In another place, review paper
documented which focused mainly at inks
containing metal nanoparticles, its preparation and
locating patterns of conductive ink by utilizing
several sintering techniques [43]. Elsewhere, a
study was conducted with a prominence on
conductive nanomaterials, printing technique and
ink formulations. Furthermore, flexible and
stretchable electronics are reviewed to illustrate
their potential [44]. A comprehensive review was
presented on several printing technologies over
larger flexible substrates. The focus of the study
was related to flexible sensors and other electronic
devices using inkjet printing [45]. Another review
was presented with the focus on inkjet printing for
wearable devices.
Table 1: Various types of ink materials and substrates
used in inkjet printing.
Author Ink Type Substrate
Niittynen [53] CuNPs silicon wafer
Niittynen [54] CuNPs Kapton PI
Chan [55] CuNPs PI film
Kang [56] CuNPs glass–epoxy
Huang[57] Au nanocrystals plastic
Perelaer [58] AgNPs PEN foil
Perelaer[59] AgNPs and
additives
boron silicate
glass
Niittynen [60] AgNPs PI film
Magdassi [61] AgNPs in PDAC
solution
glass, PET and
paper
Black [62] Silver ROM ink glass
Jahn [63] Silver MOD ink Glass and PET
Dearden [64] Silver MOD ink glass
Valeton [65] Silver MOD ink PET
Van-Thai [66] ZnO with silver
printed electrodes
Kapton
Pyroelectric
sensor by Wang
[67]
ZnO Aluminium
Sheet
3D shape
memory
polymer printed
object by Zarek
[68]
Silver
nanoparticle ink
Kapton
LED attached
circuit by Zheng
[69]
GaIn24.5 liquid
alloy
Coated paper
Electronic
Tattoo by
Tavakoli [70]
Silver ink Temporary
Tattoo Paper
Due to the significant advances in material
technology printed electronics is getting fishable for
manufacturers.
Nowadays the functional inks developed are
getting more reliable. The ink consists of relative
components which have either semiconducting,
conducting, dielectric or insulating properties.
Furthermore, they are being used to produce organic
LED displays [46, 47], sensors [48, 49], transistors
[50], thin film batteries [51], and even solar cells
[52] using inkjet printing. A drawback to inkjet
printing is that it uses raster motion for printing
which slows down the process. Table 1 show types
of inks and substrates used in studies using inkjet
printing.
1.3.2 Aerosol Printing
Another contactless deposition technology,
aerosol jet printing, developed mainly for the high-
resolution circuitry. It is a direct write process
which uses aerosol droplets to deposit functional
ink on to a substrate. The process relies on
aerodynamic jetting of impinge droplets to the
substrate. The functional liquid is aerosolized in
droplets of 2 to 5 microns in diameter by means of
ultrasonic or pneumatic atomization. The viscosity
of the inks ranges from 1 to 1000 cp and passed
through a printing head into a collimated beam with
the velocity of 80 m/s from a deposition head and
impacted on a substrate. The printing of any shape
is achieved by the translation of printing head all
ACADEMIC JOURNAL OF MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING, VOL.19, ISSUE 3/2021
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x,y,z and theta directions. Standard materials used
for printing includes nanoparticle metal inks, carbon
nanotubes, dielectrics, biological materials and
functional organic materials However, it has been
reported in the literature that metallic printed
conductive patterns have limited bending durability
for flexible printed circuits [71]. However,
alternative conducting materials can be solution to
this problem. The conductive materials based on
polymers or forms of carbons such as graphene
provide good flexibility. Furthermore, the
conductivity with lower resistance matters in such
materials. It was investigated that the deposition of
graphene-built interconnects has low resistivity and
good conduction property. Another reason for
limited conductivity is nozzle clogging; in order to
overcome this issue graphene inks are required to
have lower concentrations [72]. In a follow up
study, an attempt was made to overcome this
problem by combining graphene with silver
nanoparticles. This allowed the graphene to be more
flexible and produced increase in conductivity [73].
Aerosol jet printing has mainly been used for
surface patterning, and its potential is being
explored in 3D additive manufacturing. A study
demonstrated a method using direct writing of
nanomaterial dispersion using aerosol printing in
3D space without templating of supporting
materials followed by binder removal and sintering
[74]. By varying post processing conditions,
additional control over internal hierarchical porosity
was introduced to demonstrate an overall void size
and feature size control of five orders. Silver
nanoparticle ink with ethylene glycols as a solvent
was used in the process. Further in the study it was
stipulated that any nanoparticle ink could be used in
this process. Later studies presented that these
lattices can be utilized as electrodes in lithium ion
batteries [75]. Another method to build 3D
formations is to accumulate thin layers on to a non-
planer surfaces which can be cured with UV. The
hybrid approach of fusing the thin layer capabilities
of aerosol printing technique with the laser-based
direct write to produce high-resolution 3D
structures [76, 77].
A new technique for manufacturing a hybrid
smart device on cellulose material substrate is
presented by using aerosol jet printing. Three
different materials were used in the study which are
photopaper, cardboard and chromatographic paper
along with HPS 108-AE1 (an aqueous suspension
of silver fragments), which has been used for
printing conductive tracks and are specifically
formulated for aerosol jet printing. It carries
polymeric additives to strengthen the adhesion to
substrates. Furthermore, the method was used for
fabricating a smart multilayer electronic device on a
3D cellulose paper [78]. Aerosol jet printing has
been used in several printed electronics applications
such as TFT [79], capacitive sensors [80, 81], and
RFID tags [82].
As mentioned earlier, the process uses three or
more axes to create complex 3D circuits on
thermoplastics (3D-MIDs). One such example is
shown in Fig. 1 which demonstrates an electronic
thermometer printed on a 3D-MID part. First, the
body is molded from rapid tooling thermoplastic
material and then aerosol jet deposits a 3D circuit
using silver which is then sintered to accommodate
desired conductive characteristics. The SMD
components are then mounted on to the device.
Figure 1: 3D MID Digital thermometer [83]
In applications such as aerospace require several
devices such as sensors, antennae, or interconnects
to be printed or embedded into non-planer surfaces.
Figure 2: Phased array antenna [6]
Similar to 3D printing, the requirement to print
on non-planer or 2.5D surfaces i.e. significantly
planar surfaces, but with a gentle slope, curvature or
topography is of general interest. An example of a
large scale 2.5D application is the phased array
antenna shown in Fig. 2. Table 2 presents some of
the experiments done with the types of ink materials
and substrates used for aerosol jet printing.
ACADEMIC JOURNAL OF MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING, VOL.19, ISSUE 3/2021
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Table 2: Various types of ink materials and substrates
used in aerosol jet printing.
Author Ink Type Substrate
Mette [84] Silver
nanoparticles
Glass and Silicon
Arsenov [85] platinum ink
containing
colloidal
particles
ceramic
Padovani
[86]
Silver Glass
Jabari [73] Graphene
combined Ag
Kapton, DuPont
Platt [87] Aluminum Silicon
Hest [88] Silver MOD Silicon
Williams
[89]
Copper zinc
Tin Sulfide
Kapton and glass
Jabari [72] Graphene Si/SiO2
Serpelloni
[78]
Silver chromatographic
paper, photopaper,
cardboard
1.3.3 Fused deposition modelling
Fused deposition modelling (FDM), a most used
additive manufacturing methods to create a three-
dimensional (3D) product from CAD data with
complex geometry. Its cost effective with a
resolution of 40 µm and being used for medical
applications to automotive and aeronautics [90-94].
Such process of manufacturing is assisted with heat,
in which the printing material that is usually a
thermoplastic polymer in the form of rolled
filament. The platform moves in the direction
perpendicular to the nozzles (z direction). The
filament is heated up in the printer head and it is
then extruded. The material is deposited onto a
substrate layer by layer through printer nozzle
which moves in the x-y plane, thus depositing the
extruded material onto a sliding platform moving in
vertical direction (z). When the first layer is
completed, the platform slides down allowing a
second layer to be placed onto the previous one.
The layers hold on to each other as they cool down
and the process ends once the entire layers are
deposited. The process is shown in Fig. 3 [95].
Figure 3: Schematic diagram showing the important
components of an FDM printer [95]
Furthermore, there is a good potential for
developing and new and novel materials as they are
being continuously researched and developed. A
polymer/metal composites and adding metal
powders to thermoplastics such as acrylonitrile
butadiene styrene (ABS).
It may improve efficiency and performance of
manufactured parts as its thermal and electrical
conductivity increases. There are several
applications utilizing such composites which are
rapid tooling and moulding, electromagnetic
structures for coating and 3D-printed circuits [96,
97]. For FDM process, utilization of polymers such
as acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), poly(lactic
acid) (PLA), poly (caprolactone) (PCL), poly
(carbonate) (PC) and poly (ether-ether-ketone)
(PEEK) have been reported [98, 99]. While
combining metal traces into FDM parts, the
smoothness of the surface is a vital factor. The
printed FDM parts accuracy is dependent on the
interaction of the material feed and the movement
of the extruder. It can produce extruded droplets
ranging from 0.20mm to 0.97mm wide and heights
ranging from 0.127mm to 0.508mm. Height of
extrusion is an important factor in the finishing of
the part, the finer droplets provide good finishing of
the part‟s surface.
In a study, stretchable composites were
developed by combining a biocompatible
thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) and carbon
material. Using such material, structures were
printed which could exhibit electric conductivity
and higher flexibility. Three different types of
Carbon/TPU composites, carbon nanotube (CNT),
carbon black (CCB), and graphite (G) were
developed with different size and compositions. The
results implied that Carbon/TPU composites offer
different techniques to develop a 3D-printed
stretchable electronic circuit in a single
composition. TPU/CNT with better mechanical
properties of printed parts proved to be more stable,
ACADEMIC JOURNAL OF MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING, VOL.19, ISSUE 3/2021
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specifically with the composition of 10 wt% CNT.
Such composited provide the best solution when
designing biomedical related devices such as
implant for soft and robust structures. The
composite filament is suitable for printing 3D
structures exhibiting flexible properties with good
electric conductivity as shown in Fig. 4. This
prototype demonstrates using Carbon/TPU
composite materials in 3D-printed electronics. Fig.
4a–c shows good electric conductivity in the soft
and flexible structures. Fig. 4c represents the circuit
working while it is being deliberately curved.
Developing more complex devices requires
improvement in conductivity levels.
Figure 4: Prototypes of 3D-printed electronic devices
made from TPU/CNT (10 wt %); (A) PNE lab logo,
(B) joystick with MakeyMakey Printed Circuit
Board(PCB), and (C) flexible circuit [100]
However, Carbon/TPU composite materials
proved to be suitable for printing conductive
flexible 3D structures [100]. Table 3 incorporates
the different composite materials used in the
literature.
Table 3: Various types of polymer materials used
in FDM
Author Composite
Type
Fillers
Foster [101] PLA Graphene
Namsoo [100] TPU Carbon
Lebedev [102] PLA Graphene
Dorigato [103] ABS CNT
Papageorgiou
[104]
PEEK CF/GNP
Leigh [105] PCL CB
Christ [106] TPU MWCT
Gnanasekaran
[107]
polybutylene
terephthalate
(PBT)
CNT
Mohan [108] (PMMA) GNP
1.3.4 Laser Direct Structuring
A method widely used for fabrication of MID
structures. The thermoplastic moulded parts are
produced with the process of injection moulding.
These moulded parts undergo through laser
activation to stimulate the surface of the moulded
part which further undergoes through process
known as metallization to form the conductive
patterns and can be seen in Figure 5 [109]. The
technology comes with several advantages such as
design flexibility, the possibility of developing
circuits on 3D structures with enhanced functional
functionality and reduced costs. Such process
permits the manufacturing of ultrafine parts to be
printed with widths less than 100mm [110].
Figure 5:Schematic of LDS process steps [110]
In a study, it was established that CuAl2O4 may
be used to generate conducting patterns using LDS.
It was utilized to fabricate thermoplastic (PC)
composite and thermoset (PI) composite. Laser
parameters were set to 11 W with the frequency of
50 kHz, in order to achieve uniformity on surface
patterning and plating in PC composites, , while
hatch width was 25 mm. For PI composites, the
optimum parameters were set to 9 W while
frequency and hatch width was 40 kHz and 40 mm
respectively [110].
Table 4: Various types of polymer materials and inks
used in LSD
Material Metallization Type of
Laser
Reference
PA6 Cu Pulse
(Nd:YVO4
and
Nd:YAG)
[112]
PC/SMA/GF Cu Pulse (FB-
20W fiber
laser)
[113]
ABS Cu Pulse
(Nd:YAG
[114]
ACADEMIC JOURNAL OF MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING, VOL.19, ISSUE 3/2021
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fiber
lasers)
PC Cu Pulse
(Nd:YAG
fiber
lasers)
[115]
PEEL Cu/Ni/Ag Pulse
(Nd:YAG
fiber
lasers)
[116]
Several critical factors for determining LDS
thermoplastic quality were also identified which are
thermal stability, mechanical characteristics, and
solderability etc. It has been reported that there are
some well-known LDS compatible thermoplastics
which are ABS PC (Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene
Poly Carbonate), PPE (Polyethylenimine), LCP
(Liquid Crystal Polymer), PBT (PolyButylene
Terephthalate), PEEK (Polyether ether ketone), PEI
(PolyEtherImide), PPA (PolyPhthalAmide) etc.
In another study, concept of multilayer 3D-MID
process is defined in detail. The metallization layer
requires to be covered with a dielectric layer, in
order to achieve multilayer structure. It is indicated
that unmetallized surfaces receive a laser treatment
to modify the polymer surface to get valuable effect
on the adhesion of the over moulded dielectric.
After laser treatment, the part reinserted to injection
mould tool for next layer [111].
1.3.5 Contact Printing
1.3.5.1 Screen Printing
A well-known process used for manufacturing
electronic circuits and components due to its shorter
processing times. It is one of the mass printing
methods used. A conductive ink through a patterned
template which is known as screen has been pressed
with a squeegee as shown in Fig. 6, its job is to be
displaced on the screen while pressing the ink
across it.
Figure 6: (a) flat-bed Screen Printing, (b) rotary Screen
Printing [44]
Higher aspect ratio is the distinctive element of
this printing technique. The suitable range of wet
layer for printed electronics ranges between 10–500
µm. Thickness in such range is utilized when higher
conductivity is essential. The applicability of this
method is determined by viscosity of the ink,
substrate wetting, and other parameters. Another
method of screen printing is the rotary screen
printing, which is basically R2R (roll to roll)
method. Using such technique improves the
efficiency of printing. In this technique, there is a
rotary screen with static internal squeegee, the ink is
confined inside the rotating screen and ink is
exposed with minimal effects of surroundings. The
resolution of screen printing is higher and is
dependent on the screen mask. Such masks can be
produced by photochemical patterning of polymer
on the screen mesh. The printed resolution of 40 µm
is achievable with method [117].Table 5 presents
various types of materials and substrates used in
screen printing.
Table 5: Various types of conductive materials and
substrates used in Screen Printing.
Conductive
Material
Substrate Post-
printing
Treatment
Reference
Ag NPs PI 250 °C [118]
Ag NPs Aramid 50°C [119]
Cu NPs PI 240°C (N2) [120]
Cu NPs PI Laser [121]
Graphene PI 350°C +
compressive
rolling
[122]
Graphene PI 300°C [117]
Graphene PET Photonic +
compressor
rolling
[122]
Graphene Paper Photonic +
compressor
rolling
[122]
Graphene
oxide
PET HI + 80 °C [123]
1.3.5.2 Gravure Printing
In gravure printing, functional ink is transferred
directly with the physical contact of the carved
engraves with substrate. Higher throughput may be
achieved by patterning functional materials with
R2R at high speeds [124]. A typical gravure
printing process is shown in Figure 7a.
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Figure 6: (a) Gravure Printing, (b) Inverse Gravure
Printing [44]
The surface of the printing cylinder is engraved
with patterns. The ink is transferred to the
substrate‟s surface, squeeze between the printing
cylinder and the impression cylinder [125]. The
other type of gravure printing, which is called
“inverse direct gravure printing,” is represented in
Figure 7b. In this process a flat surface is used to
transfer patterns on the impact cylinder [126, 127].
As substrate is directly in contact with impression
cylinder, an advanced version gravure offset
printing can be used to avoid any damages.
Table 6: Various types of conductive materials and
substrates used in gravure printing
Conductive
Material
Substrate Post-
printing
Treatment
Reference
AgNWs PET 90 °C +
Spin
Coating
[131]
AhNWs/IZO Glass and
Plastic
One step [132]
AgNWs PET Rod
coating
[133]
AgNWs PET 150 °C +
coating
[134]
GO/AgNWs PET Rod
Coating
[135]
AgNWs/ZnO Glass ALD +
Rod-
Coating
[136]
AgNWs/TiO2 Glass Two step
Spin
Coating
[137]
AgNWs/ZnO Gass Sputtering
& Spin
coating
[138]
Printing results are affected by parameters such
as velocity, pressure, and blanket‟s thickness [45,
128-130]. Table 6 presents various types of
materials and substrates used in gravure printing.
2 DISCUSSION
It has been sometime that inkjet technology is
being used for deposition of functional materials
such as in printed electronics and biological
applications. However, their usage has mainly been
limited to flat deposits i.e. 2D applications. Any
nanomaterial when printed on a substrate, with the
evaporation of solvent, leaves behind an arbitrary
network of nanotubes. As a result, several
nanotubes may entirely get isolated from other
nanotubes without having any contact, which
suggests that isolated nanotubes have no
contribution in electric conduction. For any network
of nanotubes, this corresponds to a lower amount of
current flow. This implies that the length of the
nanotubes plays a vital role in the conductivity of
nanotubes. If the nanotubes are longer, the
probability of touching them increases. It has been
reported that in order achieve higher conductivity
using inkjet, requires to print multiple layers [139].
In the inkjet printing, good printability, super
rheological property, good adhesion to specific
substrates are essential conditions for conductive
inks. For acquiring ideal printing performance, vital
parameters such as viscosity, surface tension,
wettability and adhesion to substrate must be tuned.
Organic substance or any aqueous solution is
usually added to the ink to maximize its
performance and avoid clogging at the nozzle. The
ink used for printed electronics typically adds an
aqueous or organic fluid and numerous other
additives to enhance performance and avoid
clogging at the nozzle. It was reported in a study
that unstable jetting was observed when using
solvents such as xylene which evaporates during
printing process, and which causes ink‟s viscosity to
rise at the nozzle. The clogging at the nozzle occurs
when solutions are with 70% or greater curing
agent. Solutions with less than 60% curing agent
tend to jet out effectively without clogging [140].
Another issue with inkjet printing is the bulging
effect which occurs due to smaller drop spacing. In
a study, conductive lines of silver nanoparticle were
deposited with the inter-dot spacings from 20 µm to
40 µm before and after sintering at 200°C. It was
observed that the line width is negatively correlated
with the increasing inter-dot spacing. However,
bulging was observed in all the lines [141]. Such
formations arise due to instability inside the liquid
which occur due to changes in the contact angle
along the printed path [142]. One factor of
instability can be avoided by increasing the spacing
between the drops [143].
A study presented a combination of 2D printed
electronics with the additive manufacturing. The
conductive tracks were printed layer by layer, this
requires repeated post processing after printing each
layer. Even with such difficulty in processing
conductive material, ink jet printing comes with
some benefits if after deposition process is
accelerated. The inkjet printing is scalable and after
the multiple deposition of material, at the same time
it offers possibility for complex properties. A
method of improving the efficiency of
postdeposition processing is based on a
photothermal mechanism known as intense pulsed
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light. A UV sintering method is used for enhancing
the conductivity of the deposited material [144].
Aerosol jet printing is another unique digital
manufacturing technique for producing electronic
circuits and components on various kinds of
substrate materials. Its process operates on both 2D
and 3D surfaces with a wide range of functional
materials. Parts produced by rapid prototyping
systems reveal several characteristics which hinders
the incorporation of 3D electrical systems. Several
challenges have been identified relative to the rapid
prototyping parts which are rough and permeable
surfaces, materials with lower thermal stability, and
higher coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) of
the substrate.
With Aerosol, porous, uneven, and rough
surfaces can be printed easily. Sometimes such
porous and rough surfaces can have adverse effects
in terms of the behaviour of the deposited ink. It is a
tricky process to print a uniform and even deposits
when surface energy is high. In such a case, the
thickness of the ink is much smaller than the
roughness of the surface. A probable alternative to
avoid such problem can be to smooth the surface
where electrical path is to be printed.
There exists various polymer based rapid
prototype materials with lower temperature
characteristics which can also be problem. Due to
which it can become challenging from the deposited
inks to provide good electrical conductivity. There
are commercially available inks based on silver
nanoparticles which begins to sinter at 100 °C.
However, to obtain a good electrical property with
good adhesive properties, higher sintering
temperatures are required. Though, the range at
which silver nanoparticles sintering process
operates is between 150-250 °C. Most rapid
prototyping polymer materials have highest
temperature properties in the range of 100-150 °C
which ultimately limits the circuit performance. A
solution to overcome such constraint is to utilize
alternative sintering techniques working at lower
temperatures.
There are possible alternatives which may be
used such as laser, light beam, xenon flash lamp,
microwave, and electrical sintering. However, not
every low temperature sintering method is
straightforward to be used when producing 3D
surfaces. The most promising method to be used
with 3D parts is laser sintering as it has ability to
sinter with precise energy levels into the printed
circuit. The substrate materials with high CTE can
also be a problem, the thermal disparity can lead to
a cracks and lamination of silver printed circuit can
be affected. However, laser sintering may assist in
overcoming this issue by softening the surface. The
comparison of basic technical specification between
Inkjet printing and Aerosol Jet Printing is depicted
in Table 3 [145]. Aerosol jet printer with working
height of 1 to 5 mm is capable of print with highly
viscous ink 1-2500cP over non-planar surfaces. Its
printing resolution can go up to 10 µm without
creating any clogging at the nozzle.
FDM with many advantages exhibit fewer
downsides such as high temperatures result in
material degeneration, higher thickness of the
materials, thermal, and rheological properties. The
rheological properties of the material can be altered
by incorporating nanofillers with higher aspect
ratio, as a result it becomes easier for the nozzle to
extrude. To maintain a consistent flow, the material
must remain softer during extrusion which can be
achieved by heating the polymer matrix. The
heating must be controlled to avoid any material
degradation. This degradation temperature must be
higher than the processing temperatures [146].
Selection of right composites to work at allowed
range of temperatures is a challenging task [147].
Another parameter which effects the process is
coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE). This
parameter has to be low which ensure neither any
expansion nor contraction occurs during the
process. The material cools down and to achieve a
consistent geometry, it is important that there is a
consistent extrusion through the nozzle [146].
In FDM process, the rheological properties of
the composites play an important part in
determining the flow, consistent texture, and
stability. As viscosity also play an important role, it
must continue to be constant as possible. Variations
in parameters such as temperatures may affect the
quality and result in inconsistent flow of the
deposited material. To keep the viscosity of the
material in allowed range, it is necessary to attain
percolation at low filler content. This is necessary to
improve thermal conductivity of the composite.
Other parameters also affecting thermal
conductivity of the printed object are temperatures
of printing bed, printing orientation, printing rate
and voids.
The quality of the manufactured good depends
on temperatures of the nozzle and cooling bed; it
affects the physical properties of the printed
structures. These effects are in form for
crystallization and viscosity. Minimal defects in
terms of voids, polymer chain adhesion and
structures can be guaranteed with steady extrusion
of material with viscosity set in working range. This
results in reduction of phonon scattering and
thermal conductivity effects are reduced [148]. In a
study, it was found that laser irradiated metallic
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PLA had highest and coated metallic PLA had
lowest surface metallization roughness. Lowest is
better to achieve good adhesion [149]. The
incidence angle of the laser also influences the
surface roughness, and it is preferred to increase the
laser frequency to have lower surface roughness.
The incidence angle has a unified effect on the
structuring and relationship between the structuring
and incidence angle are based on the laser velocity
[116].
The most extensively used contact printing
method is the screen printing. One of the most
marketable products developed using screen
printing is the Si solar cells. For manufacturing of
conductive elements silver particles are largely used
[150, 151]. There are some shadow loses using Ag
particles as they do not allow printing with higher
resolution. There are several approaches to improve
the resolution which include rising temperatures of
the substrates which allows to reduce the spreading
of the material, controlling the adhesion of ink by
altering the mesh surface, and shrinking width of
nozzle [152, 153]. In a recent study, Ag
nanoparticle ink and ethylene glycol as cosolvents
were used to obtain silver lines. The size of the lines
was 22 µm and resistivity of 5.5 µΩ cm was
achieved. It was observed that the level of
resistivity obtained was lower than resistivity of
printed silver patterns using screen printing [153].
The synthesizing process of AgNW ink material for
screen printing has drawn prominent attention [154,
155]. In a study, the least feature size of 50 µm was
attained for the printed linewidth [154]. The
conductivity measure of AgNW were measured to
be 4.67 × 104 S cm-1. This reduction in the
conduction was caused by the void between printed
lines as linewidth increased. The adhesion of Ag
lines or patterns on the substrate is influenced by
two reasons which are roughness of the surface and
the extent of organic remains on the surface [156].
Another appealing process known for its higher
resolution patterning at higher speeds Is gravure
printing method. Similar to screen printing, silver
flakes ink and silver nanoparticles are frequently
utilized in this printing technique. The distinctive
feature of both inks leads to distinctions in
printability and electrical conductivity [157-159]. In
a study, an alternative to conventional thermal
sintering process, R2R printed silver nanoparticle
films on PET substrate were sintered using laser
sintering process. The films showed great
improvements in electrical and mechanical
characteristics. The process was done with rapid
sintering and there was no damage to the substrate
[160-162]. Gravure printing of silver nanowires has
drawn prominent attention from researchers [131-
135]. In a study copper engraved patterns were used
to print a network of silver nanowires on a substrate
made of PET. The fabrication of silver conductive
lines were carried out with different linewidths by
regulating speed and pressure [132]. In recent
studies, further work on printing CNMs has been
done which resulted in improved conductivity and
resolution. An effort was made for consistent
printing of graphene lines with solution of
approximately 30 µm over a sizeable area by
modifying the characteristics of ink and printing
conditions. The electrical conductivity of these
patterns was ≈10000 Sm-1. A printing speed of 0.3
m/min can be achieved by merging graphene sheets
with PEDOT:PSS and ethyl cellulose.
Furthermore, it was observed that the electrical
conduction of the fused hybrid films improved by
four time when ethylene glycol (EG) was used to
removed PSS component. Thermal sintering for
approximately 10 min was applied to achieve the
results at 120 °C. The improvement is much
noticeable as compared to film comprising of pure
PEDOT:PSS. Such rise in electrical conduction is
attributed due to two causes which are the strong
bonding between PSS and ethyl cellulose
(EC)#ensures separation between PEDOT and PSS
chains and highly uniform and conductive
graphene:EC enables the rearrangement of the
PEDOT chains with more expended conformation
surrounded by graphene:EC through the π–π
interaction between graphene:EC and PEDOT.
Table 7 shows a comparative analysis between
Inkjet, Aerosol jet, FDM, Screen, and Gravure
printing can be seen. Table 7 shows a comparative analysis between
Inkjet, Aerosol jet, FDM, Screen, and Gravure
printing.
Characteri
stic
Inkje
t
Aeros
ol Jet
FDM Screen Gravu
re
Printing
Technique
Non-
conta
ct
Non-
contac
t
Non-
conta
ct
Contac
t
Contac
t
Printing
principle
Electr
ostati
c
Aerod
ynami
c
Extru
sion
Stencil
ling
Engrav
e
Viscosity
(Pa s)
0.01-
0.02
0.001-
0.16
0.001
8-
0.001
9
0.5-5 0.1-1
Surface
Tension
(mNm-1
)
115-
50
- 40-65 35-50 25-45
ACADEMIC JOURNAL OF MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING, VOL.19, ISSUE 3/2021
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Linewidth
(µm)
30-50 10-120 - 30-50 10-50
Line
thickness
(µm)
0.01-
1
0.01-3 - 0.1-
100
0.01-1
Printing
Speed
Medi
um
Mediu
m
Medi
um
High High
3 CONCLUSION
Printed electronics is one of the most diversified
and growing field of additive manufacturing in
which printing technologies plays a prominent role.
Regardless of the differences in the means of
deposition, all the techniques require a good
understanding of the interactions between ink and
substrate. This paper exhibited a detailed review on
inks being utilized for printing electronic circuits on
2D, 2.5D and 3D structures. Moreover, printing
technologies have been the focus of the study,
mainly inkjet, aerosol jet, FDM and LDS printing as
a contactless printing methods and Screen and
Gravure orienting as a contact printing. Ink
flexibility is limited in inkjet printing due to low-
viscosity inks with small particle sizes can be used.
Whereas aerosol jet printing permits much higher
viscosities and larger particle sizes, which is an
advantage over inkjet since a broader range of
functional materials can be used. It is a challenging
and hectic task to print a conductive 3D circuit
using inkjet printing as the process is quite lengthy
as compared to the 3D printed circuit using aerosol.
It was found in the study that, inks such as
graphene, carbon nanotubes and silver are suitable
for printed electronics provided if suitable solvents,
substrates, and process is used to enhance the
conductivity.
Moreover, materials for coplanar structures for
flexible electronics are also discussed in detail.
Several applications utilize complex shapes and
constrained space required electronics to be
seamlessly adaptable to such asymmetric and
arbitrary shapes without compromising their
electrical functionality. One situation can be for the
human body with its curved and complex geometry,
wearable and implantable embedded electronics can
then provide an imperative opportunity for day by
day and personal health monitoring. In this way,
such shaped and no-planar surfaces prompt the need
to remove the restriction for electronics to be
deformed and stretched. Furthermore, other
processes such as FDM and LDS have also been
discussed in detail. FDM is multi-material
aerodynamic printing technique and high-aspect-
ratio nanofillers to the printing materials can help
modify their rheological behaviour and make it
easier to extrude them through a finer deposition
nozzle. The choice of the right polymer matrix
having a sufficient high Tdeg must also be
considered for the FDM process. Whereas LDS is
largely used with MID devices for laser structuring
and followed by metallization.
Furthermore, the challenges such as nozzle
clogging, adhesion issues of conductive path with
different substrates and issues in additive printing
have been described in detail with some discussion
on comparison between all the methods stated.
Despite inspiring innovations, there are
considerable challenges requiring close attention.
For the development of flexible circuits, scalable
synthesis process of conductive nanoparticles can
contribute significantly. Gravure and screen printing
are popular methods for attaining higher throughput
i.e., mass production. However, the printing
resolution remains a common hinderance under
high-speed operations. Conductive nanomaterials
will indeed assist in the manufacturing of
innovative configurations of electronic devices.
Textile as substate represents certain and natural
solution for flexible electronics. Fabric has been
used previously for depositing functional inks on
them.
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