REVIEW OF LITERATURE - Shodhgangashodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/28746/7/07_chapter 2.pdf · Two different most common methods, blotter paper and agar plate method were

REVIEW

OF LITERATURE

Review of Literature

20

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The present review concerns mainly about the oil yielding seeds and

internally seed-borne mycoflora isolated from them.

Seed-borne pathogens are a serious threat to seedling establishment.

Amongst many assays used for detection of seed-borne pathogens visual

examination based on characteristic symptoms including discoloration, shrivelled

and reduced seed size is the most common, for separating healthy and diseased

seeds(Walcott, 2003). Two different most common methods, blotter paper and

agar plate method were used to detect seed borne mycoflora. The mycoflora

associated with Nigella sativa was studied by Srivastava and Chandra (1983).

Deena and Basuchaudhary, (1984) detected seed-borne mycoflora of chilli both on

agar and blotter method and 25 fungal isolates were recorded. The mycoflora

associated with cocoa beans, ectophytically (Blotter method) and endophytically

(agar plate method) were studied by Bopaiah and Mohanan, (1984). To test the

seed mycoflora of sunflower seed, samples were collected and tested with blotter

paper technique (Bhutta, 1998). Standard blotter, agar plate method and deep

freezing blotter method were employed to detect the seed-borne Cladosporium

oxysporum on five seed samples of sesame (Khati and Pandey, 2002).Using

standard blotter and deep-freezing techniques, seed-borne mycoflora of 35 samples

of sunflower were studied by Sharfun–Nahar et al., 2005. Fungi associated with

stored seeds of Triticum, aestivum, Oryza sativa, Zea mays, Helianthus annuus,


21

Glycine max, Arachis hypogaea were isolated (Javed and Anjum,

2006).Pathogenic fungi were obtained from germplasm samples of Sesame

indicum using modified (ISTA)blotter test (Agrawal et al.2006). The study was

conducted on seeds of 7 cultivars of sunflower to detect phytopathogenic fungal

species (Afzal et al.2010).Standard blotter method was used for isolation of seed-

borne fungi associated with groundnut (Ibiam and Egwu,2011). Aspergillus niger

and other Aspergillus species were dominant pathogens on groundnut, Rasheed et

al. (2004). Chaetomium sp.was detected from safflower by Smail et al. (2004),

Curvularia lunata was reported as mycoflora of soybean by Popoola and

Akyushi(1986) and phytopathogenic Alternaria alternata was isolated from

sunflower by Nahar et al. (2005). Aspergillus niger and A.flavus are dominant seed

borne fungi and are responsible for change in physiological properties of seeds

(Rathod, 2012).

Isolation of fungi from seeds of Momordica charantia were done with

blotter paper method and agar plate method using (ISTA 1993), their germination

percentage were also calculated (Shakoor et al., 2011) Storage fungi increased

gradually during the increasing period of storage. Standard blotter method (ISTA

2003) was used for isolation of mycoflora of rice and seed germination percentage

was also calculated (Nghiep and Gaur, 2005). Five different types of media viz-

PDA, Richard’s agar medium, Czapek- Dox agar medium, Brown’s agar medium

and Yeast extract agar medium were tested for best mycelial growth of the isolates

(Naik et al., 2010).


22

Six strains of Aspergillus fumigatus were studied on basis of virulence

and their spore size measurement was measured (Smith, 1977). A petri plate

method is described to screen pathogenicity of fungi from diseased seedlings of

plant roots, seeds or soil (Christensen et al., 1988). The morphology of

filamentous microorganisms plays an important role in fermentation metabolism.

Morphological studies of Paecilomyces japonica during cultivation in the

bioreactor have been correlated with rheological behavior of the fermentation

broth(Singh et al., 2001).Fungal pathogens were isolated from stored groundnut

seeds(Oluma and Nawankiti,2003). Isolates of Fusarium were obtained from

seeds of Vigna unguiculata (L.) by means of blotter test and slide cultures

(Rodrigues and Menezes, 2006). Morphological studies in identification of

Aspergillus versicolor showed conidia with roughened conspicuously echinulate,

3-4 µm in diameter (Guan et al., 2007). Aspergillus is major producer of

carcinogenic aflatoxins in crops worldwide and is also an important opportunistic

human pathogen in aspergillosis. Fusarium moniliforme was observed as

important seed-borne pathogen of soybean. After invasion of the fungus, rapid

degradation of cell wall occurred followed by intercellular and intracellular

development of the fungus (Muzahid E.Rahman et al. 2010).

Pathogenicity of the Cladosporium on cucurbits was proved by reproducing

symptoms on inoculating the leaves with conidial suspension of one week old

culture grown on PDA in distilled water within 7-10 days (Maharshi, 1982). Seven

fungi were isolated as endophytes from Musa acuminata and were inoculated on


23

banana leaves in vitro to test their pathogenicity (Photita et al., 2004). Four

Fusarium isolates obtained from diseased koa plants (Acacia koa) were tested for

pathogenicity (Dudley et al. 2007). On studying the effect of seed-borne pathogens

of wheat and barley on crown and root rot disease Fusarium, Alternaria and

Bipolaris showed pathogenicity Al-Sadi, (2010). Pathogenicity of Fusarium

semitectum as a seed-borne pathogen in Dalbergia sissoo was confirmed by

artificial inoculation in healthy host tissue which resulted in disease (Gupta et al.,

2011).

Technique for Thin-layer chromatography and use of different solvents for

detection of different lipid fractions and separation of total lipids of animal and

plant origin were described by Mangold, (1961 and 1964).). Studies of glycolipids

and phospholipids of immature soybean were performed by Singh and Privett

(1970). Study of lipids of maturing grains of corn and changes in their polar lipids

were studied by Weber (1970) Corn oil analysis was performed by Weber,

(1974).Different type of polar lipids in sunflower seeds were detected by Grewal et

al. (1978). Soybean oil oxidizes rapidly at frying temperatures due to presence of

high percent of unsaturated fatty acid. This causes loss in both nutritional and

sensory qualities. Some sterols have been reported to reduce frying oil

deterioration. Two sterols from oat i.e. delta5 avenasterol and β-sitosterol were

added to soybean oil and their antioxidant effect was studied at 1800C (White and

Armstrong, 1986). Composition of lipid in seeds of Cassia absus, C. fistula and C.

occidententalis were detected by thin-layer chromatography, (Zaka, 1988). Five


24

soybeans cultivars were analyzed to determine the total fatty acid and triglyceride

composition. (Yang and Peng,1990). Alcoholysis of soybean oil with methanol,

ethanol n-propenol and n-butenol was investigated and thin layer chromatography

of soybean oil was performed with silica gel plates and iodine vapour was used for

spot detection (Kildiran et al. 1996). Thin layer chromatography of maize oil

extract with Blig and Dyer method showed different amount of neutral and polar

lipids (Onyango, 2000). Lipid thin layer chromatography was performed by Folch

method using chloroform methanol as solvent. Thin layer chromatography of corn

oil was performed with silica gel plates and iodine vapour was used as spot

detector (Feng et al., 2002). Thin layer chromatography was performed for

estimation of Thiram, on treated seeds of maize. TLC with silica gel plates and

iodine vapour for detection of fungicides on chromatogram were used (Prajapati

and Agrawal, 2005). Thin layer chromatography was performed with oil obtained

from fresh maize and the fraction was found to be ulcer protective in nature

(Tovey, et al. 2005). Safflower oil was tested for iodine value, saponification

value and different lipid contents (Rafiquzzaman et al., 2006). Oil content,

peroxide value, iodine value, saponification value and acid value were determined

by following the method of AOAC-1995 (Sharma, 2007). Thin layer

chromatography for detection of new compounds resulting due to oxidation and

thermal alterations of unsaturated fatty acid was performed and amount of polar

lipids helping in determination of nutritional significance of total 25% polar

compounds limitation established for frying oils were detected (Gloria Marquez-


25

Ruiz, 2009). Diacyglycerides are more beneficial then triglycerides.

Diacyglycerides are stored in the human lever and here lipid oxidation of fatty acid

causes breakdown instead of storage of fat (Marimuthu et al., 2010). The acid

value, peroxide value and iodine value of crude sesame oil was calculated

(Alymeni et al. 2011). High acid value may be an indication of rancidity, oxidation

and high degree of biological activity and deterioration of non-oily constituents

such as carbohydrates and proteins, which may also affect the nutritive value of

oils (Artman,1969).

Thin layer chromatography with silica gel plates of chloroform extract of

seeds of chironji, walnut, apricot and sal were performed for detection of aflatoxin

spots and aflatoxin B-1 was detected as major type of aflatoxin present in oil seed

samples (Shukla and Singh, 2006). Corn seeds and grain having a higher oleic acid

content conventional corn were developed by virtue of heritable genes for

increased oil and oleic acid content (Leto et al., 2001).Lipid profile of cultured

cells of apple and apple tissue were tested with thin layer chromatography and

neutral and polar lipids were separated with sulphuric acid charring method

(Prabha et al., 1988). Yeast lipids were detected with thin layer chromatography

using silica gel as adsorbent and iodine vapour as lipid spot detector and non-

polar lipids i.e. free fatty acid, diacylglycerols, triacylglycerols, sterols and steryl

esters and polar lipids viz.- glycerolphosphoslipids and sphingolipids were detected

(Schneiter and Daum, 2006). Experiments performed with commercial corn oil

showed that phytosterols comprising less than1% of commercial corn oil


26

substantially reduced cholesterol absorption and may account for part of the

cholesterol lowering activity of corn oil (Ostlund et al., 2002).

Nutritional evaluation of pigeon pea meal showed high content of

potassium and phosphorus (Nwokolo, 1987). Pottasium and phosphorus are

needed as diet supplements required to maintain the osmotic balance of body fluid

and the pH of the body (NRC, 1989). Substantial changes in the mineral content of

seeds due to fungal infestation was reported Nair(1994). Mineral composition of

healthy and diseased seeds of vegetables were studied by Narain 1986, that of

legumes by Nair 1994 and of rice by Kohli 2004. Mineral composition of oil

bearing seeds and kernels of Peanut, sunflower, corn, safflower, soybean, cotton,

sesame, cumin, almond, rape and walnut were determined (Ozcan, 2006).

Composition and biophysical characteristics of soybean was studied by

Saleemullah et al., (2006). Nutritional potential of the leaves and seeds of Solanum

nigrum were studied using atomic absorption spectrophotometer after acid

digestion of the samples (Akubugwo et al. 2007). Mineral composition of cashew

nut showed potassium, calcium, magnesium, sodium, phosphorous, zinc and iron

(Akinhanmi and Atasle, 2008).Evaluation of mineral content and functional

properties of fermented maize flour blended with bambara groundnut was studied

by Mbata et al.,(2009). Determination of mineral content in methanolic safflower

extract was studied by Lee, Y. et al., (2009). Mineral contents of oil bearing seeds

of whole and dehulled Nigerian seasame seed were determined (Bamigboye et al.,

2010). Nutritional composition of bread nut seeds was studied by Adeleke and


27

Abiodun(2010). Mineral analysis of seed of Lophira lanceolata with atomic

absorption was detected by Lohlum et al. (2010). Chemical and nutrient analysis

of Gingerbread Plum (Neaocarya macrophylla) seeds was performed by Amza et

al., (2010).The maintenance of dietary mineral balance in the human body is very

important since they are part of enzyme involvement in fundamental biological

processes. Mineral composition of sesame seeds were determined by atomic

absorption spectrophotometer(Alyemeni et al., 2011).The nutritional functional

properties of the seed flour of three varieties of Carica papaya were analysed for

their mineral contents (Adesuyi et al., 2011).

Effect of pH and temperature on different fungal isolates such as, A.

niger was studied by Denning et al. (1993), Joseph et al. (2009)and Andrea et al.

(2010). Study on A. fumigatus was done by Rechardo et al. (2004), Sriranganadane

et al. (2010), on Fusarium species by Joseph et al. (2009), on Trichoderma viride

by Juwaiedi et al. (2010), on Chaetomium species by Methew et al. (2008), on

Fusarium species by Gulati et al. (2005), on Fusarium oxysporum and A. terreus

by Yadav et al. ( 2006), on Alternaria alternata by El-sayed (2006), on Curvularia

species by Jiezhang et al. (2010), Pattnaik and Gupta, (2008) and Brecht et

al.(2007).

Cladosporium herbarum and Humicola grisea isolated from city waste

were tested for growth at different temperature and pH (Mehra and Jaitly, 1995).


28

Effect of temperature and pH on Fusarium moniliforme and F. proliferatum was

studied by Marin et al., (1995). The effect of light, temperature and pH on four

bioluminescent fungi were investigated on cultures of Armillaria, Mycena

citricolor, Omphalotus and Panellus stipticus (Weitz et al., 2001). Four fungi

causing head blight of wheat Fusarium avenaceum, F. culmorum, F. graminearum

and Microdochium nivale was studied for their growth at optimum temperature

with potato dextrose agar plate method (Rossi et al., 2002). The effect of

temperature , pH and sodium chloride concentration on the growth of the

Monascus ruber, spoilage microorganism for table olive was studied (Panagou et

al., 2005). The effect of pH on growth and sporulation on the Aspergillus niger

isolates from two groundnut cultivars was studied by Kale, (2005). Effect of

sewage sludge alkalization and acidification on keratinolytic and keratinophilic

fungi was studied by Ulfig, (2005). Influence of culture media and environmental

factors on mycelial growth and sporulation of Lasiodiplodia theobrome (Pat.)

Griffon and Maubl was studied (Saha et al., 2008). The mechanism for the pH

relationships of fungal and bacterial growth in soil was investigated by Rousk et

al., (2010). Lentinus tuberregium (Fr.), an edible fungus was studied for growth

development at different pH and temperature (Manju Nathan and Kaviyarasan,

2011). Effect of pH on growth of fungus and bacteria in grassland soils was

studied and found that bacterial growth decreased and fungal growth increased and

lower pH (Rousk et al. 2011). Experiment on production of protease and growth


29

characteristics of Aspergillus sydowii was performed in Czapek- Dox broth (A. K.

Sharma et al. 2011).

Protein content in crude and purified enzyme was measured by Patil and

Shastri, 1985. Protein content of Aspergillus niger mycelium was determined

(Jernejc et al. 1986). Protein concentration was determined in leaves of

Andrographis paniculata(Ghosh et al. 2004). Total protein of Paecilomyces

tenuipes was determined with bovine serum albumin as the standard (Xu and Yun,

2004). The effect of magnetic field, the quantity of sawdust and culture age were

studied on content of soluble protein of Chaetomium globosum and Trichoderma

viride (Manoliu and Oprica, 2008). The fungal protein of Aspergillus oryzae was

determined with glucosamine during different cultivation time (Chen et al. 2010).

Protein content of Aspergillus niger, Curvularia lunata, Curvularia geniculata,

Neurospora crassa and Penicillium lanosum was determined by Madhanraj et al.

2010. Protein patterns for three Aspergillus species i.e., Aspergillus fumigatus, A.

flavus and A. niger was obtained (Leila et al. 2010). Protein content of Aspergillus

niger and Aspergillus awamori was determined using the Folin phenol reagent by

Spelzini et al. 2011. Concentration of protein in crude and purified amylase

extracts was calculated (Khan et al., 2011). Protein content in different seed-borne

fungal isolates was calculated (Nair 1994, Bindu 1997, Kohli 2004). Ptrotein

quantity was estimated in three strains of Aspergillus niger, also in Penicillium

camemberti, Tricophyton terrestre, Cladosporium cladosporoides (Lone et

al.,2012).


30

Amino acid metabolism in Aspergillus flavus showed absence of tryptophan

and presence of methionine in trace amount. (Pillai and Shrinivasan, 1956). Amino

acid composition of Penicillium griseofulvin during development in submerged

culture was determined by Bent and Morton (1964). Genetic control of uptake of

amino acid in Aspergillus nidulans showed uptake of various common amino

acids. (Sinha, 1969). Alpha amylase of Aspergillus oryzae showed presence of 19

common amino acids. (Stein et al. 1960).

Different range of pH influencing the lipase production by Penicillium

oxalicum and Aspergillus flavus was studied by David kirsh, (1934). Aspergillus

niger and A. terreus were tested for promising hydrolytic lipase activity with

Sorbitan monolaurate(Tween-20)by the method of Sierra(1957). In soybean food

fermentation industry growth conditions for protease production by Rhizopus

oligosporus, Mucor sp. and Actinomucor elegans were studied (Wang et al. 1974).

lipolytic(Sierra G.) amylolytic and proteolytic(Hankin and Anagnostakis) activity

was studied in isolates of Aspergillus flavus, A.tenuis, Curvularia lunata and

Curvularia pallescens. Lipolytic activity was detected by measuring the zone of

crystal formation beyond the extremity of fungal colony (Prasad, 1979 and Gupta,

G., 2001). Different isolates of fungi from sunflower seeds were tested for lipase

production (Roberts et al. 1987). Extra cellular lipase produced by Rhizopus

oligosporus was tested for different carbon sources and incubation period (Nahas,

1988). Extracellular amylase synthesis by Aspergillus flavus and Penicillium

purpurescence showed maximum enzyme productivity after 7 days incubation at


31

450C (Olama and Sabry, 1989). Culture media containing oil by gum acacia was

tested for lipase production by Rhizopus oligosporus (Ghosh et al., 1996). The

activities of amylase and invertase in ten varieties of mango at different maturity

stages were determined (M. Rahman et al., 1997). The activities of different

enzymes viz-protease, peroxidase amylase, cellulose, invertase, ascorbic acid

oxidase and polyphenol oxidase were tested on leaves of different ages of Moringa

olefera (Khatun et al. 2003). The amylase obtained from Aspergillus flavus isolate

was produced under optimum substrate concentration of starch (EL- Safey and

Ammar, 2004). Extra cellular lipase produced by Botrytis cinearea is able to

hydrolyse unsaturated long chain fatty acid esters, known to be component of

cutine and waxes (Ilona and Jan, 2004).

The increase in concentration of starch as substrate in the culture medium

enhanced fungal growth and enzyme production in Mucor spp. (Vahidi et al.

2005).The optimal pH and temperature for amylase production in Penicillium

rugulosum was studied by Tiwari et al., (2007). Ecological screening for lipolytic

moulds and process optimization for lipase production from Rhizopus oryzae using

tween twenty was studied by Shukla and Gupta, (2007). Effect of pH on alpha

amylase of activity of Trichoderma viride was tested and the optimum temperature

was found 300C with optimal pH range between 6 and 7.(Mahmood Muzahid

Rahman, 2008). Microorganisms are important source for enzyme production.

The Aspergillus species produce a large variety of extracellular enzymes, of which

amylases are of significant industrial importance. Many important industrial


32

enzymes such as amylase, lipases and cellulases are produced by fermentation of

filamentous fungi (Davecha et al., 2009). Three starch degrading fungal species

were isolated Aspergillus spp., Mucor spp. and Geotrichum candidum and highest

raw starch hydrolysing α-amylase activity was shown by the species G. candidum

after 72hours incubation (Silva et al., 2009). α-Amylase hydrolyses starch to a

range of products such a glucose and maltose. Amylase activity of five fungal

strains of two fungi Aspergillus niger and A. flavus showed maximum α-amylase

activity after 48h incubation (Shafique et al., 2009). Amylase activity of A. flavus

was highest at 300C temp. and 6 pH(Sasi et al., 2010). Aspergillus spp. produced

many enzymes such as cellulases, xylanases, amylases, proteases and lipase.

Aspergillus joponicus isolated from the paper nest of Ropalidia marginata showed

lipase production at pH 7, 300C and 7 days old culture.(Jayaprakash and Ebenezer,

2010). Lipolytic activity of Trichoderma reeseii was tested for optimal

temperature and pH. Lipase activity was confirmed by zone of clearance on

trybutrin agar medium (Rajesh et al.,2010). The lipolytic activity of storage fungi

of safflower was studied using different nutritional sources and variable results

were tested for degree of lipase production (Kakde and Chavan, 2011).Fifteen

fungal isolates of Aspergillus, Penicillium and Trichoderma showed a high

potential for amylase production (Khokhar et al., 2011).

The sensitivity of different micro-organisms to griseofulvin and their ability

to take up the antibiotic, especially into their acid and protein fractions were

studied by. El- Nakeeb and Lampen, (1965). The radial colony growth and germ


33

tube specific growth rate of Absidia glauca decreased with griesofulvin. (Trinci

and Gull, 1970). Griseofulvin deteriorates spindle and cytoplasmic microtubules

influencing cell division and outgrowth of hyphal tips (Borgers, 1980).

Tetracycline analogs were tested, (minocycline) against Aspergillus fumigatus, A.

flavus, and A. niger (Hughes et al., 1984). Griseofulvin inhibits growth of A.

flavus.(Sher Richard K.1989). Use of tetracycline sorbate for control of

Aspergillus fumigatus.(Roy et al., 1991). Antifugal properties of serotonin

reuptake inhibitors against Aspergillus spp. were studied in vitro (Lass Florl et al.,

2001). Antifugal drug resistant mechanism was tested with amphotericin B and

griseofulvin (Anderson, 2005). Griseofulvin obtained from Xylaria sp. showed

antifungal activity against Corticium sasaki,Botrytis cinerea, Puccinia

recondita(Park et al., 2005). Antifungal activity of griseofulvin was tested against

Aspergillus niger, A. flavus and Rhizoctonia sp (Agarry and Edremoda, 2007).

Tertracycline alters drug susceptibility in Candida albicans and Aspergillus

fumigatus (Oliver, 2008). Streptomycin was tested against Aspergillus niger, A.

flavus and A. fumigatus(Thenmozhi and Kannabiran, 2010). Griseofulvin reduced

growth of Aspergillus niger and Candida albicans. Norfloxacin also showed

reduction of growth in Aspergillus sp. (Ternikar, 2010). Tetracycline inhibits

growth of Aspergillus niger (Sajjan, Sangita 2010). Griseofulvin showed inhibition

of growth in Candida albicans, Aspergillus niger and Fusarium oxysporum

(Mbatchou et al. 2010). Novel norfloxacin analogues reduced growth of Candida

albicans and Aspergillus fumigatus(Dina, 2011). Antimicrobial activity of


34

thiazolidinone norfloxacin hybrids were tested against Candida albicans and A.

niger (Vikas kumar et al. 2011). Griseofulvin showed antifungal activity against

Candida albicans, Aspergillus niger and A. clavatus. (Bhalodia and Shukla, 2011).

Griseofulvin binds microtubules and inhibits fungal mitosis.

Pisum sitivum was protected from Fusarium solani f. sp. pisi by kitazin P

an organophosphorus fungicide causing inhibition of cutinase (Koller et al., 1982).

Seed-borne Alternaria tenuissima in pigeonpea was controlled by bavistin, thiram,

captan, benomyl and difolatal. (Mahendra Pal,1984). The rust disease of pearl

millet was controlled by bavistin (Pawar and Ghuge, 1987). The effect of

fungicides benomyl, carbendazim, chloroleb, kitazin, edifenphos, thiabendazole

and wetable ceresan was tested on production and activity of enzymes in

Rhizoctonia solani (Kannaiyan, 1988). Effect of organophosphorus fungicide

iprobenfos (Kitazin-P) was tested against Pyricularia oryze (Binks et al. 1993).

Seed treatment with benomyl, vitavax, captan, dithane and bavistin showed

significant reduction in infection of rhizosphere and rizhoplane mycoflora of

soybean (Farzana Ali, 1997). Bavistin was found be efficatious in controlling the

growth of A. Parasiticus (Dehuri et al., 1998). The impact of fungicide, binomyl,

kitazin, mancozeb and tridemorph on population of fungi bacteria and enzymatic

activities was studied by Shukla, 2000. Aspergillus infection in silkworm was

tested with bavistin (Singh et al. 2002). The toxicity of chlorothalonil on the

growth of yeasts was tested and growth inhibition was seen. Chlorothalonil reacts

with sulfhydryl groups present in protein or in cofactors and this is the mechanism


35

of its fungicidal activity (Jae-Ho shin et al. 2003). Five fungicides viz- bavistin ,

rovral, cupravit, dithane M-45, and thiovit were tested against conidial germination

of Fusarium oxysporum (Alam et al. 2004). Varieties of Magnaporthe grisea were

treated with kitazin P and carbendazim for development of resistant mutants

(Zhang chuan, 2004). Carbendazim, captan, and their different combination were

found effective against Fusarium moniliforme effecting stored maize seeds

(Mahajan et al., 2004). Two fungicides viz- bavistin and dithane M-45 were tested

for effect on mycorrhizal fungi of sunflower crop (Agrawal et al. 2005).

Chlorothalonil at the concentration of 0.09% proved most effective controlling the

Citrus disease in Ethiopia (Tessega et al., 2006). Fungicides carbendazim and

chlorothalonil was found quite effective against Alternaria alternata causing leaf

spot of datepalm (Pal et al. 2008). Bavistin exerted antifungal activity against

Aspergillus niger, F. oxysporum, A. flavus and A. alternata.(Sayyed and

Chincholkar, 2009). Formlin and bavistin were tested for inhibiting the radial

colony growth of fungi, obtained from Oyster mushroom (Pervez et al., 2009). The

efficacy of carbendazim 50% WP against Fusarium oxysporum was tested

(Srivastava et al. 2010). The effect of fungicide carbendazim, canjcozeb, Copper

oxychloride, captan and captafol on Aspergillus flavus was studied by food-

poisoning technique (Rathod et al. 2010). Chlorothalonil(11µg/g) caused 16.4%

and 2.6% inhibition of soil respiration (Stefani et al. 2010). Five synthetic

fungicides such as bavistin, blitox, captan, dithane and thiram were tested against

Altenaria alternata, Aspergillus flavus, Curvularia lunata, Drechslera oryzae,


36

Drechslera halodes and Fusarium moniliforme (Mohana et al., 2011). Synthetic

fungicides dithane M-45, captan, benlate , thiram and bavistin were tested against

Aspergillus alternata, Fusarium. solani, F. moniliforme and Curcularia lunata

(Lalitha et al. 2011). The seeds of Cercospora leaf spot were treated with bavistin

(Carbendazim) to study disease incidence (Ali et al. 2011).Bavistin showed

inhibition zone against Aspergillus niger (16mm) and Fusarium

oxysporum(13mm) (Hemavani and Thippeswamy, 2012). Aspergillus niger and

Aspergillus terreus showed higher percentage of growth inhibition while testing

with different concentrations of tested fungicides followed by other isolates.

The antifungal activity of leaf extract of Datura alba and Cannabis sativa

was tested against fungal isolates (Pandey, 1982). Essential oil of turmeric showed

antifungal and insect repellant activities (Saju et al. 1998). Turmeric is credited

with biopesticidal properties (Khanna,1999). Turmerin of turmeric was found to be

an efficient antioxidant, DNA protactant, and antimutagen (Srinivas et al. 2004).

Effect of 5 powder spices using poison food technique was evaluated against

fungal pathogens, out of which clove completely checked the growth of pathogens

(Pereira et al. 2006). 34 medicinal plant extract against Sarocladium oryzae

causing sheath rot in rice were tested for fungitoxicity ( Yadav and Thrimurty,

2006). Leaf extract of locally available 10 plants including some obnoxious weeds

viz- Ipomea cornia , Lantana camara, Solanum xanthocarpum, Eupatorium

edenophorum, Dodonea viscosa, Jasminum dispermum, Eucalyptus citrodora,

Agave ameriacana and Sapium insigne were evaluated against fungal


37

pathogens(Ashok kumar, 2006). Nutmeg oil and turmeric oil showed antifungal

properties against Penicillium chrysogenum (Matan and Matan, 2007). Asafoetida

oil at 0.1 and 0.15 % showed fungal growth inhibition, while blackcumin showed

little effectivity at 0.15%. Blackcumin is used in treating fungal infection of A.

flavus, A. niger, and Penicillium sp. blackcumin seed oil is used as remedy as one

of the most virulent and difficult pancreatic cancer. Nutmeg also showed

antifungal property against various plant pathogenic fungi such as Alternaria sp.

and Colletotrichum sp.(Jun young cho, et al., 2007). Nigella sativa extract and oil

inhibited the production of aflatoxin by 5% (Maraqa et al. 2007). Extracts of nine

botanicals viz- marigold, neem, ashoka , parthenium, ginger, vinca, makoy, tulsi

and garlic were tested against Sclerotium rolfsii causing Collar rot of lentil (Singh

et al. 2007). Sufficient testing of these extracts will indicate the possibility of

further field using. The phenolic compounds found in clove and turmeric may

denature the enzymes responsible for spore germination hence growth of the

pathogens gets inhibited. Blackcumin showed efficiency in inhibiting aflatoxin

production by A. flavus. It can be exploited as food preservative to minimize

mycotoxin effects. (Maraqa et al.2007). The cumin oil caused 100% growth

inhibition in different species of Aspergillus, A. alternata, C. lunata and F.

oxysporum (Pandey et al. 2007). Alcoholic extract of turmeric showed good

control over A. flavus and A. parasiticus (Jham et al. 2007). Leaf extract of

Lantana camara inhibited the growth and effectively killed the Parthenium

hysterophorus (Singh R. 2008). Leaf extracts of 55 plants species were tested for


38

their toxicity against Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. pisi causing wilt in Pisum sativum

(Rao et al. 2008). Three essential oils extracted from Cybopogon citrates, Ocimum

gratissimum and Thymus vulgaris were tested for their ability to control seed-

borne infection of Alternaria padwickii, Bipolaris oryzae and Fusarium

moniliforme in naturally infected seeds ( Nguefack et al. 2008). Antifungal activity

of the ethanolic extract of different plants parts of 45 medicinal plants were tested,

against Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. lycopersici (Srivastava and Yadav, 2008).

Screening of extract of four plant species viz- Chromolaema odarata, Ageratum

houstonianum, Polygoum hydropiper and Tagetes erecta was done against

Colletotrichum capsici using poisoned food technique (Deka et al. 2008).

Antifungal activity of 16 spices were tested against different root rot fungi and F.

solani, Rhizoctonia solani and Macrophomina phaseolina. R. solani was inhibited

by turmeric and nutmeg by Shahnaz Dawar et al. (2008). The aqueous flower

extract of Cassia alata( Linn.) was investigated for antifungal activity by agar

diffusion method against five fungi, Aspergillus flavus, A. parasiticus, Fusarium

oxysporum, Helminthosporium oryzae, Candida albicans and Microsporum

audouinni (Abubacker et al. 2008). Asafoetida showed antifungal and allelopathic

effect against Trichoderma sp. and Pleurotus sp. It also increases the level of

detoxification enzymes in the body (Angelini P., et al. 2008). Antifungal effect of

essential oil on in vitro growth of pathogenic fungi were tested.(Uzma sitara et al.

2008). Turmeric and Lantana sp. showed control against anthracnose of papaya

caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides (Jaiswal et al. 2009). Turmeric and


39

clove fully controlled A. flavus infecting rice grains (Reddy et al. 2009).

Antifungal properties of five spices were used for control of Fusarium

oxysporum.(Adekunle et al. 2009). Antifungal activity of aqueous extract of some

spices were tested against bean rust (Uromyces sp.) out of eight spices tested

blackcumin showed most effective results at 2 and 3 % concentration (Arslan Umit

et al. 2009). Clove and turmeric gave best results amongst all five tested spices.

Clove and turmeric showed higher inhibitory effects on Alternaria and Fusarium

sp.(Suwichyanon and Kunasakdakul, 2009). Ethanolic extract of turmeric and

blackpepper showed good antimicrobial activity.( Pundir and Jain 2010). The

mechanism of action of Nigella sativa is inhibition of DNA synthesis by inhibition

of histone deacetylase enzyme interacting with the chromosome. While screening

of Nigella sativa seeds plant extracts against the various pathogenic fungal strains

for antifungal evaluation, thymoquinone present in Nigella sativa seeds was found

active for antifungal activity (Suthar et al., 2010).Antimicrobial activity of clove

oil was tested against Aspergillus flavus, A. niger, Paecilomyces lilacinus and

clove oil was found quite active.(Joseph and Sujatha, 2011).

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REVIEW OF LITERATURE - Shodhgangashodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/28746/7/07_chapter 2.pdf · Two different most common methods, blotter paper and agar plate method were