34

Chapter – 2

Review of Literature

Review of earlier studies on the present topic of research enables the

researcher to know the methodologies, research tools and Techniques used,

interpretation process and the areas covered. It also helps to identify the gaps in

the area of study to point out the scope for future research. The variables chosen

and the conclusions arrived it can also be examined. A researcher can carry on

the process of research systematically and scientifically with the help of such

review so as to fit in the research work into the body of knowledge on the

subject.

This researcher has reviewed the following studies by keeping the

above in view.

Amartya sen1 (1977) in his paper “Human capital and Human

capability” explains the conceptual meanings of both Human Capital which

concentrates on skill Knowledge and productivity while human capability

helps the individuals to live the lives they choose and increases the choices

they have. Both are concerned with the human beings. Human capital need

not be under stood in the form close to physical capital. It enhances the

human capabilities also as stated by Adam smith in his Wealth of Nation.

The author maintains the link between productive abilities and the ability to

lead better lives as explained by Adam smith. Education, health care and

other factors, enrich economic prosperity along with the freedom, people

wish. Human beings are not just means of production. They are the ends of

production. The UNDP Human Development Reports have motivated over

the years by this broader view and capability approach helps both production

and social development. Human capabilities promote well being and

35

freedom of the people along with production. They influence social

changes, as opined by the author.

Riskin2 (1988) observes that substantial disparities between Chinese

provinces in the 1950s become much more serious with industrialization. He

states that the leadership opted for the diversion of investment resources to

the more backward provinces and consequently “relative convergence of

provincial industrialization occurred from the start of the first five year plan

(1953-57) with less industrialized provinces growing at higher proportional

rates than more industrialized ones.” Nevertheless, he argues that the

regional disparities in terms of rural poverty remained high.

In the paper entitled Development as capability Expansion” the Nobel

Lauratte Amrtya Sen3 (1989) states that it is a mistake to view expansion of

real in come or growth as successful economic development . The author

has taken (6) the per capita incomes of six countries with life expectancy.

China and Srilanka with low per-capita incomes have higher life

expectancy than the other four, Brazil, South Africa , Mexico and Oman.

Capability approach to evaluate the quality of life is explained as “Doings

and Beings”, . They can also be called functionings. The roots of the

capability approach date back to Aristotle, Adamsmith and Karrl Marx,

Development is to seen as a combination of distinct processes. The

challenge of human development demands sectoral concerns and different

social and economic processes. It is stated in the paper that freedom to

choose a kind of life needs emphasis. Education, the people receive helps

them in exercising freedom and so education acts as the foundation to

capability approach and the roles of educational expansion are given.

Education helps productivity. It helps in the distribution of national income

among the people. It also helps in utilizing incomes and resources properly

besides helping the individuals to choose lives intelligently. Good health also

36

increases productively. Human capabilities, the author states, are the yard

sticks to judge human development. Social changes are also needed in the

context of human well being.

The author has analysed earlier Human Development reports of UNDP in

the book “India Towards Population and Development Goals” and

Mahabub–Ul–Haq’s (1997)4 book “Human Development in South

Asia,1997. According to him only limited areas of human development are

covered in these books. Many important aspects of human development are

neglected and a clear State-Wise picture is not provided by these works in

the opinion of the author. He has enlarged the parameters to work out a more

effective measure of human development objectives of the study and

methodology adopted are also given in the article. Index of Life Expectancy

Index of Percapita Income, Index of Education, Index of quality of Life,

Index of Poverty Eradication and Index of Urbanisation have been calculated

state wise. Quality of life index numbers for rural and Urban, State-Wise,

along with spatial disparities are worked out in the article. Besides inter

states disparities the indices commuted have significant levels of correlation

between 0.86 to 0.97, and the study takes 1988-94 as the period.

The Philippine Human Development Report5 (1997) examines changes

in the Human Development Index (HDI) across various provinces in

Philippines for 1990 to 1994 ranging from an increase of nearly 25 per cent

to a decrease of nearly 4 percent. It states that Human Development across

its provinces is influenced by the past biases “absolute standouts are few and

far between and geographical concentration of development is still evident”

UNDP Human Development Report6 (HDR – 1997) describes clearly

the concept of Human Development. The report states that people like to have

incomes. But income is a means with Human Development the end. A long and

37

healthy life, acquisition of Knowledge and access to resources for a decent

standard of livings are the three essential choices for people. The report

maintains that the process of widening people’s choices and the level of well

being they achieve are at the core of the notion of Human Development.

Zaidi and Salam (1998)7 in their study correlated various indices of

human development, life expectancy, educational attainment per capita GDP to

other parameters of the economy. They took 15 major states of India to find out

the reasons for the variation in the values of these indicators. The Study pointed

out the public expenditure has close relationship with educational attainment. In

conclusion it is stated that the life expectancy depends on multiple factors like

heredity, race, climate and environmental factors and as such the impact of

public expenditure on health, nutrition and sanitation is neutralized.

The UNDP report8 (UNDP-IDF 1998), reflecting on disparities in

Human Development between states and districts in India, identified the 13

most backward districts in terms of female literacy in the 7+ age group on the

basis of the 1991 census data. The districts in question were all located in just

five states: Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Orissa and Uttar Pradesh.

Nepal Human Development Report9 (UNDP 1998) Nepal is still a very

much a rural country, but there are serious disparities between the urban and the

rural areas. Because public and private investments are concentrated in the

urban areas and the urban population has much better access to social

infrastructure and a higher income per capita than the people in the countryside.

The Human Development Index (HDI) value for rural areas is approximately

two thirds of that of the urban areas. The disparities become even more evident

when the country is divided into regions, as was done in the Nepal Human

Development Report 1998 (UNDP 1998).

38

Armugim10 (1999) In this article has reviewed Human Development

Index for the districts in Tamil Nadu. There is a deviation in the construction of

district wise Human Development Indices from the established practices. He

has substituted female literacy for adult literacy. This researcher has also

introduced some deviations with regard to parameters.

Human Development Report of the I. R. of Iran11 1999

(PBOUN,1999) observes wide regional disparities within 26 provinces of Iran

in terms of Human Development Index and its gender adjusted indices and the

Human Poverty Index (HPI). Such disparities have been growing at an alarming

rate leading to serious problems including migration with its associated

problems from backward provinces to the more developed provinces. After

dividing provinces into higher, medium and lower groups according to the value

of their Human Development Index (HDI) the report highlights the extent of

regional disparities and the need to deal with them. “The level of deprivation

seen in the third group (lower group in terms of HDI) and the vast areas covered

by the provinces in the second (Medium) group suggest that special disparity

reducing measures need to be taken”. The report concludes the analysis of

regional disparities in Human Development by stating that “An improvement in

Human Development in the I.R. of Iran as a whole requires not only a higher

rate of economic growth but also a more equitable distribution of health and

education facilities”.

NIRD (1999)12 conducted a study on the human development for the

major states of India for the years 1961, 1971, 1981 and 1987-88. Human

Development scores in all the states had gone up as per the study. But

states like Bihar and UP were at the bottom level in human development while

the state of Gujarat made considerable strides of development. Rankings of the

states during the period of study changed significantly. It implies that the

growth rates in human development indices across the states are even. The

39

study reveals the gender discrimination was common in 14 states except Kerala

and Karnataka.

Viswanatham (1999)13 in her study for Madhya Pradesh point out that

higher incomes do not lead to higher human development. Higher human

development, at the same time, does not mean equal benefit to men and

women. The study questions the relationship between incomes and human

development on one hand and gender equity on the other.

N.J. Kurian14 (2000) in his article “Widening Regional Disparities in

India” Published in EPW (Feb 2000), has analyzed regional disparities in the

post reforms period in India in detail. Increased participation by the private

sector has aggravated regional disparities in his view. The better of states have

been preferred by the private sector as the socio-economic infrastructure in

these states is well developed. Poor infrastructure and lack of resources have

become handicaps to the backward states in attracting more investment. The

author concludes that the backward states are a vicious circle as to the flow of

private sector investment.

Wei15 (2000) considers the policy of the reduction of regional inequality

as one of the major components of the above plan and subsequent policies in

China, though he states that researchers are not in agreement over the success or

failure of such policies. He maintains that regional inequality has remained a

major concern of the Chinese Government in post- Mao China.

Planning Commission has prepared National Human Development

Report16 (2001) showing the state wise as well as All India Human

Development Indices for the years 1981, 1991and 2001. This report uses the

same development indicators of the UNDP Human Development Report. But

weightages are given with slight changes in the indicators span of life,

education and economic attainment are the basic factors in both computations.

40

Fedorov17(2002) highlights the growing regional inequalities in Russia in

the 1990s. referring to recent studies on the growing disparities in Russia he

states that” Virtually all authors agree that the transition period has been

characterized by rapidly growing economic inequality among Russia’s regions”.

This study shows that regional inequality and polarization during the

transitional period in Russia have increased significantly.

Ravallion and Datt18 (2002) in a cross – state study of poverty in 15

major states in India, conclude that various states have different capacities for

poverty reduction for a variety of reasons. They argue that a substantial

difference of the elasticity of poverty of poverty index to non-farm output

between the states. The diferance between Bihar and the state of Kerala is due to

the difference in the literacy rates between these states.

Vanderpnye-Orgle19 (2002) after citing a number of studies on the

growing regional disparities in Ghana, discusses the growing trends in spatial

inequalities and polarization in Ghana during the period of stabilization and

structural adjustment programmes – late 1980s to late 1990s. This study

concludes that regional inequality increased during the first stages of reform

period, followed by a short period of decline before resuming its increasing

trend for the rest of the period to 1999.

Wei and Kim20 (2002) report that, the increasing regional inequality is

widely considered to be the reason for the existing regional problems in China

asan obstacle to its stability and development. In this study of inter-county

inequality in Hiangus province of China they conclude that for the period of

1950 – 1995 neither Beta – convergence nor Gama – convergence took place in

these counties.

Biswajith Guha (2003)21 in his article “Human Development in India –

A Study of Interstate Disparities” has deviated from the established Human

41

Development Indices and has taken access to safe drinking water, electricity

connections two meals a day throughout the year, permanent houses and

availability of beds in public hospitals in 15 major states of India. Quality of life

Index for rural and urban population has been worked out. He stated that the

Central Government should play an active role in removing interstate disparities

in Human Development. In his opinion a Nation cannot develop without

adequate provision for public health, education, food, clothing, shelter and

decent standard of living. There are glaring disparities in Human Development

among the states in India as analyzed by him in his article. This research work

adopted some of the parameters used by the researcher. This article is thought

provoking both in the concept and content.

The article under review is based on an empirical study by G.B.Pant

(2003)22 social and science institute during 1995-96.Academic standards of the

students were very low in the U.P primary schools as analysied by the author.

The reasons for school drop outs were examined and the most important one

was the need to attend to household duties. Coming to teachers it was found that

proper enthusiasm was not evinced for in service training by them. With regard

to the guidance and assistance most of the teachers expressed dissatisfaction

over the inspecting officers and Head-Teachers. Schools were not attractive as

they were amidst dirt and dust with stray animals freely roaming about. The

author feels that backwardness of elementary education limits the freedom and

well being of the people. High levels of Mortality, Fertility, Poverty and

Deprivation of the weaker sections particularly women are due to the negligence

of primary education. It states that the state should make qualitative

improvement of the elementary education and enhance the learning components

of the students. The author concludes that the system of education should

become an instrument of social change to ensure the well being and freedom of

the people.

42

K.N. Bhatt (2003)23:In his article “Human Development Profile a study

of primary education standards in Uttar Pradesh” has stated that human

development can be taken as the expansion of human capabilities. Human

development, as a process is to widen people’s choices and the level of well

being they attain. Basic objectives of the development process should be

directed to remove illiteracy, ill health and social deprivation to ensure

individual freedom and elementary capabilities of human beings. The

components of a good quality of life make the people more productive and help

in generating more output and incomes. Primary education facilitates rapid

participation process of development. The author has enumerated the backward

scenario of U.P and deplores at the low literacy rate of 41.6 percent in U.P

against the national average rate of 52.1 percent.

Nasir Ahemed Khan24 (2003) In the article “Human development in

India”: a study of inter-state Variations states that human development is Multi-

dimensional involving Political, Social, and Economic elements. Countries do

not have identical ranks on the income and human development scales.

Economic growth and human development are complimentary in the opinion of

the author. They should go hand in hand for sustained over all well being. He

has quoted the “Asian Development Report 1996-97” where it is maintained

that in India still lags behind most Asian Countries in Social indicators though

there is improvement. The author has adopted UNDP methodology to measure

inter-state variations in the human development in India by taking 1991 as the

year of study. Urbanization is added as the fourth indicator for the

Computations H.D.G.s for 15 major states in India. As per the analysis in the

article Kerala, Maharashtra, and Punjab have more than 0.50 H.D.G values and

can be categorized as states of medium human development. H.D.Gs for Orissa,

Bihar, U.P. and Assam are less than 0.3 indicating a very low level of human

development. The inclusion of urbanisation as the fourth indicator marginally

43

affects the H.D.G values worked out along with the other three indicators viz

Life expectancy Educational attainment and percapita state domestic product.

Kerala has achieved the top position in human development among the states of

India with low per capita domestic product. (9th Rank). Non –Government

organizations have contributed much for Kerala’s achievement in higher level

of human development, as felt by the author.

Padmanabham, C.R and Kanakasai Nagarjan25(2003) in their paper “

Measures of Human Development and Related concepts, A case study of

Tamilnadu” have reviewed the Human Resource Development strategies of the

Neo classicals first. Theories of human capital focussing have also been

discussed. Human Development approach with policy orientation has come

into the fore since 1990 with the initiative of UNDP. The authors have

reviewed different kinds of HDIS put forward by UNDP and research studies.

The components of HDI in assuring human well being are discussed. It is

pointed out that Tamilnadu is 7th on the basis of Per-capita income where as it

is 3rd among the Indian States in 1991.

The authors have reviewed the stands of Armugum where in HDIS for the

districts in Tamilnadu were worked out. Per-capita District Domestic Product,

life expectancy and Female literacy are the indicators chosen by Armugum. It

is stated in the study that 8 districts in Tamilnadu have 0.5 to 0.8 HDIS and thus

are in the medium Human Development category. All remaining 21 districts are

in the low Human Development category with HDIS at below 0.5. The authors

under review have presented an overall view of HDI and analyzed the relative

position of the districts in Tamilnadu as to Human Development indices.

R Annapurani26 (2003) In the article, “Concept and Estimation of

Human Development Index” has worked out Physical Quality of Life Index

(PQLI) by taking Infant Mortality Rate (IMR), Life Expectancy (LE) and basic

44

literacy. She has taken 16 states in India and worked out the Human

Development Index. She has also worked out Gender Development Index

(GDI). Fourteen countries are taken for comparison of ranks in Human

Development Index and Per Capita Income. In her opinion each state of

development requires a new package to achieve higher state of development.

Satisfactory level of Human Development needs a suitable package to the

social, economic and technological conditions of the region.

In the Paper entitled “ Human Development in Orissa” An Inter-District

Analysis from the perspective of infrastructure the authors, Amar Kumar

Mohanty, Narayana Nayak and Banichatterjee27 (2004) examine Human

Development in Orissa by taking districts as units of study. The study is

divided into five sections and the data is secondary. HDI values for the districts

are computed for 93-94; 97-98 and 2003-04 along with index values of Index

components. It is noted that Tribal districts lag behind in all dimensions of

Human Development. Availability of quality infrastructure, both economic and

social is a key factor for human development. Infrastructure in the form of

health, Education, transportation, communication, electricity, irrigation and

banking facilities is measured with composite index. The state suffers from

disparities in infrastructure among districts. Development of infrastructure in

Orissa over the years has not been encouraging and the districts with poor

infrastructure base have achieved low level of Human Development. The state

is divided into (3) clusters of districts, Developed Moderately, developed and

less developed in the study. The districts with poor infrastructure have

remained less developed over, the three periods of analysis, 1993-94, 1997-98

and 2003-04. Orissa needs to develop quality infrastructure, both social and

economic to attain better level of human development and in so doing lagging

districts deserve favorable approach as stated by the authors.

45

In the Article the current scenario of Human poverty in India Dr.P.Usha

Devi28 (2004) has taken the census data of 1991 and 2001. Trends in the

decline of the decadal growth rate by 2.52% and improved sex ratios from 927

to 933 and the overall literacy rate at 65.38% in 2001 were analyzed. However

in 2001 it is clear that 25% of men and 45% of women are illiterates. Gender

bias is there in school enrollment figures, 70% of the tribal people, it is noted

from the census 2001 are illiterates. Outlay of the Government, central and

states on education between 1993-94 and 98-99 showed near zero increase. The

author has analyzed the percentage of people below the poverty line between

1973-74-1999-2000. It is noted that the decline in Urban poverty is more than

that of the rural poverty. Employment growth between 1991-99 in the public

and private sectors has been examined. There has been a constant decline in

the overall growth of employment from year to year. It is zero in the public

sector and just 0.11% in the private sector in 1999.

The author concludes that Economic Reforms have resulted in adverse

effects on poor and rural people. Liberalization, globalization and privatization

have helped the middle class and the rich in all aspects. Primary education,

health facilities, gender equity, growth in Employment food security and

absence of discrimination alone can promote Human development and Social

progress as stated by the author.

K.C.Reddy, U.N.Murthy and M.Sarojini29 (2004) in their article

“components of Human Poverty Index: comparative study of Indian states”

begin with the statement that people are both the means and ends of Economic

development . Economic growth gives importance to economic choice while

human development embraces all human choices economic, social, cultural,

political and the like.

46

The authors have worked out Educational achievement, Health

Achievement and tax effort indices and they have chosen 1980s and 1990 s as

time periods and compared the achievement indices of 15 Major states in India.

Kerala is at the top in 1980s and has improved at higher rate in the 1990s, But

Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Orissa have low level of achievement in the 80

s and the rate of improvement is also very low. States with higher tax effort

index have higher per-capita expenditure on education.

Prof.P.Leela30 (2004) in the paper entitled “Gender Inequalities and

Human Poverty” states that the world of the 21st century still faces huge

backlogs of deprivation, poverty, inequality and gender disparities. Some earlier

studies by eminent authors have been quoted to narrate the poverty and gender

discrimination. The basic objective of this paper is to examine the gender

dimension of poverty, 2001 census figures are taken by the author to arrive at

76.7% of the population being women and children. Poverty of the women can

be mitigated by employment and income for which training and literacy are

important as rural women could bring in improvement in their lives with income

generating economic employment. Gender empowerment index (GEM) of the

U.N. Development report and the three indicators in its computation are

elaborated. 73rd constitutional amendment providing 1/3rd reservations and the

schemes of the central and state governments are reviewed. The efforts of the

Government of A.P. and the vision 2010 programme on women empowerment

are mentioned. The author laments at the low literacy rate of the women

(32.72%) in A.P. It is the lowest among the southern states as revealed by the

2001 population census. Poverty remains as a Major problem to the rural

women as they suffer from lack of education, employment opportunity and

access to resources. Positive changes in Social, Cultural attitudes of the society

towards the role of women are needed. Information on employment, creation of

47

awareness, bureaucratic help and elimination of gender bias in development

policies can help women as opined by the author.

Prof.S.Subrahmanyam,31 (2004) in his paper “Poverty in India”

measurement and Trends has reviewed the focus on Eradication of poverty in

the plan period in India. The incidence of Poverty has declared in the mid

seventies and Eighties. The paper is in 5 sections dealing with the concepts,

measurements, trends in the poverty and conclusions. Poverty, in its, general

meaning, is a situation where in an individual or household suffers from lack of

resources. The author has elaborated different types of poverty, the poverty

line and the measures of poverty. He has discussed the Human development

Index and the method of calculation by taking the development indicators of the

UNDP. Human poverty Index and Gender empowerment Index have also been

touched by the author. Poverty in Indian in the 1950, 1960 and over the time

has been reviewed. It is noted that rural Poverty declaimed to 39% in 1987-88

from 56% in 1973-74. It is stated further that the economic reforms have no

positive impact on poverty reduction Gross Domestic product grew at the same

rate in the1990s as in 1980 s, but there is no decline in the incidence of poverty

as revealed by the study.

Amitabh, Kundu, abusalah sheriff and P.K.Ghosh32 (2007) in their

article Index in Human Development India” Indicators, scanning and

composition” state that the concept of human development can be traced to

oriental societies as Kautilya’s Arthasastra and Adamsmith’s Wealth of

Nations” refer to the good for the common man . Methodological issues,

weightages and the like in the construction of H.D.I. are questioned. They have

worked out Human Development Indices with alternative methods. The authors

suggest that the researchers and academicians better use alternate data sources

and methodology to build up a vision. Planning bodies, policy framers and the

academicians are to inter act among themselves. It is also stated that no single

48

method of HDI construction is superior or inferior. HDI depends on the

conditions of development of the region choice of indictors and methodology.

The planning commission and other bodies should obtain larger acceptability in

the selection of indicators and methodology.

Human Development Report Andhra Pradesh (2007)33 was prepared by the

centre for Economic and Social studies (CESS) at the behest of the planning

Department, Government of Andhra Pradesh. As for the other states in India

this report was sponsored by the planning commission, Government of India

and the United Nations Development programmed (UNDP). The report covers

fifteen years of post reform period to examine the impact of economic reforms

on Human Development in A.P. The report is the result of collective effort of

several people and departments.

Workshops at Mahaboobnagar, Warangal, Visakhapatnam, Guntur and

Ananthapur were held to elicit opinions on different issues of human

developement by involving academicians and civil society, NGOs , centre for

Dalit Studies, state planning Department and the faculty members of the CESS

have been involved in the preparation of the report.

It is stated in the report that the aim is to draw attention to issues of

human development by reviewing the quality of life. It examined in different

sectors which have a bearing on human development. Economic growth, or

development alone cannot bring light into the lives of the people. Both

economic growth and human development are important as they reinforce each

other.

Participatory procedure has been followed in its preparation. This report

is the first for the state of A.P. covering the data base up to 2005-06.

49

APHDR provides comprehensive picture of human development at the

district level unlike the earlier reports. This report analyses and high lights

several issues concerned with human development and livelihoods.

Assessment of turnaround in the economy, policy initiatives, participation

of people and their impact on the welfare of the people n the state are parts of

the report. Social movements and their impact are included in the report.

APHDR has examined disparities across districts and their impact on

human development along with health education and per capita district domestic

products.

The report is organized in 14 chapters, chapter 2 presents human

development in AP. It begins with the statement that human development

relates to general well-being and economic capability apart from income HDR

of UNDP 1990 and the NHDR of the planning commission are referred to

Andhra Pradesh in the context of all in the years 1981, 1991 and 2001 is

examined the ranks of Human Development. The ranks of A.P. in 1981 and

1991 are 9th but there is a slip to 10th in 2001 as per the NHDR. Revised HDI

ranks for the states with a change in methodology as constructed in this report

show that AP is in the 10th rank in both 1993-94 and 2004-05

District level human development indices are worked out in the report

and per capita district domestic product at 1993-94 prices represents the income

dimension. Adult literacy (15+age group) and school enrollment rate. (6 to 14

years) show education while infant mortality rate (INR) refers to health

dimension. Thus a composite index with three dimensions for each district is

constructed by taking two points of time early 1990s (1993-94) is the base point

and the early 2000 s are (2004-05) the terminal points of time. Over time the

index values of A.P. have increased from 0.402 to 0.537. But the rate of

development varies from district to district. The ranks of Kadapa, Chittoor and

50

Nellore have declined. Backward districts of 1990s have improved more

asserting convergence of districts in terms of HDI. No correlation is observed

between income and health / education in some districts. APHDR states that the

components need careful scrutiny in order to initiate effective policies.

APHDR has also constructed human poverty index (HDI) for the

districts to measure the level of deprivation . It is worked out for 1991-2001

with the same indicators of HPI in reversal. Adult illiteracy rate and percent of

children not attending schools for education infant mortify rate for health and

percentage of households not having access to basic amenities like safe drinking

water, Sanitation, Housing, Electricity and cooking fuel. It is observed that the

deprivation levels decreased in 2001 over 1991. Vizayanagarm, Srikakulam

and Mahaboobnagar were less developed while Hyderabad, Ranga Reddy,

Krishna and Guntur wee more developed.

Gender development index (GDR) is another important index used by

UNDP. It takes the inequality in achievement into account between men and

women as greater the inequality lower is the GDI in a district. It is observed

in the report that GI improved accorss the districts in 2001 when compared with

1991. However the rate of change varied. Regional disparities remained the

same between 1991-2001 in GDI . The rate of improvement in the GDI in

Mahaboobnagar has been better while three Rayalaseema districts Kadapa,

Kurnool and Ananthapuram have recorded least levels of improvement.

Gender Empowerment measure index (GEM) indicates the participation

of women in economic and political activities. APHDR uses percentage of

women elected in local body elections, rate of violence against women and sex

ratio of children to construct Gem. It is noted that Krishna district followed by

East and West Godavari and Guntur have higher index values, Women in these

districts are better in terms of empowerment. The backward district in GEN

51

are Adilabad , Warngal, GEN is constructed for 2001 only and it is interesting

to note that the rank of Hyderabad is 16th implying the disadvantageous

position.

APHDR being comprehensive has analyzed different aspects of human

development, Social movements (III chapter), economy ;of Andhra Pradesh (IV

Chapter), Employment and livelihoods (V) Agrarian Economy of A,P,(VI) ,

Demography, Health and nutrition (VII) , Education (VIII) Womens

Empowerment and child wellbeing (IX) Marginalised Sections in A.P. (X)

Environment (XI) Institutions and Governance (XII) urban challenges (XIII)

and conclusions and policy implications in the (XIV) chapter are the dimensions

of analysis in the report.

In conclusion the APHDR States that human development in a state depends

on historical factors, macro policies of the central and state Governments,

budget allocations and effective government, Economic growth is important to

sustain human development and human development is the key to sustain

economic growth. There have been many studies to establish this

complementary nature of inclusive growth as it does not mean that economic

growth is taken for granted. Social sector in A.P. is confronted with six issues as

per the report.

i) Low levels of human development.

ii) Slow progress in some of the indicators of Human Development

iii) Regional and social disparities of considerable magnitude.

iv) Low level social sector expenditure..

v) Low quality and quantity of education and health.

vi) Privatization of education and health.

The post reform period in AP has witnessed an increase in disparities

across regions and social groups and between rural and urban areas. A.P.

52

needs faster, broad based and inclusive growth to improve human

development. Agriculture growth, poverty eradication, employment,

Innovation, social sector development, reduction of regional, gender and

social disparities as components of inclusive growth need special attention.

It helps to reduce exclusion, social tensions and inequality besides improving

human development. The repot ends with a caution that the state has to learn

lesson from its failures over the years and focus on the priority areas in the

years to come in order to become one of the top performing one among the

top performing states in human development.

Nayak and Thamas (2007)34 conducted and in-depth study on human

development in Meghalaya by working out HDIs for all the seven districts in

the state. Status and trend of human development and deprivation in

Meghalaya were compared with other leading states in India. Both primary

and secondary data were used for the study. The study revealed a low level

of human development in the State. Inequalities between rural and urban

areas, among districts and also between genders were found in the study.

In their paper “ The perspectives of Economic Growth and Social

insecurity on Human Development for lagging states in India by

Aswanikumar Mishra and Biswa35 (2009) the authors give two basic path

approaches which are complementary for variations in Human Development

across the states and regions. The former is growth mediated to promote Public

and Private incomes while the later, aims at Public support in Education, health

care, employment, asset redistribution and social assistance. The paper

examines the economic performance and Social insecurity across the major

states with emphasis on lagging states to show the interstate variations in

Human Development. Economic performance is worked out by taking the

shares of the state population and gross state domestic product of the country in

selected years 1993-94-2001. In all 15 major states, including BIMARU states

53

are covered in the analysis. Per capita Income and growth rates of these states

for the selected years are taken and ranks are assigned. Dimensions of social

security, state wise are taken in the study. Social security provision in most of

the states except in Maharashtra, Tamilnadu and Kerala is not encouraging

Governments in richer states have more funds to take care of social security .

The paper explains the live connection between economic performance and

Human Development. Lagging states with low growth performance have

inadequate funds for social welfare. They suggest private sector participation in

creating favorable infrastructure and environment.

Liliane Bensahes, Steven Colssard and Asma Benlzrak36 (2009) in their

paper” Gender and Human Development” Attempt to show the importance of

reducing gender disparities to promote human development. Study of the

situations, roles, social functions and the roles of the man and the woman is of

vital importance. Feminine power is not the issue as put forth by the authors.

Relations between the development and the growth amidst growing poverty and

ecological imbalances are being questioned. Women have an important role to

play in strengthening human development. The authors have taken Beijing

conference in China where in the status of the women, at length, was discussed.

They have discussed the Tunisian women and the progressive measures they

enjoy. The success of the women entrepreneurs, women’s rights, employment

nature in Tunisia have uplifted the women. They conclude that “ To be Happy”

gender discrimination be eliminated as both men and women together can think,

feel and act properly.

“The Birth of the Human Development Index” authored by Mahbub-Ul-

Haq37 (2009) States that GNP as a measure of human welfare is incomplete

GNP is one dimensional and does not include social, political cultural and other

choices people make. HDI has emerged as a new composite index of socio-

economic progress. The author has narrated the guiding principles in the

54

constructions as well as methodology. The validity of HDI in comparision to

GNP has been elaborated in the paper. Ranks in GNP and HDI are examined

and it is found the HDI ranks are better than GNP ranks with regard to countries

like China and Strilanka (1994 HDR) National priorities potential growth,

Disparities between people, early warning system and choice over time are

revealed by the HDI as elaborated, Criticisms and possible refinements in HDI

over the years are also described vividly. In conclusion, the author admits that

HDI is neither perfect nor fully developed. It requires continuous analysis and

refinement.

The paper entitled “ Human Development in India” Issues and Challenges

by Mihir K.Mahapatra and Rajesh Raj S.N38 (2009) begins with the fact that

India is in the 127th position with HDI score 0.602 among 177 countries as

estimated by the HDR of UNDP for 2006. The Paper examines the level of

Human Development in comparison with other countries between 1975 and

2005 by taking different points of time. It also makes an assessment of the

variations in the Human Development across the states. The paper has focused

on Health care scenario both in the country and major states to identify the

determining factors and the study finds wide disparity in human development

across the states. BIMARU states are not in a position to give priority to Health

care when compared to Middle and High Income states. Health infrastructure,

safe drinking water and sanitation besides maternal and child health care are not

effective in some states. Health care, if neglected can lead to adverse effects on

education and level of poverty which are the determining factors of HDI and the

authors conclude that the Governments suffer from funds crunch to increase

expenditure on social sector including health care. They suggest public-private

partnership in promoting health infrastructure.

The paper entitled “A Study of Human Development Indicators and

Declining Child Sex Ratio in Himachal Pradesh” by Piar Chand Ryhal and

55

Shashi Punam39 (2009) examines the relationship between Human

Development and declining child sex ratios in the state of Himachal Pradesh.

This paper is based on the census and NFHS II data. The state witnessed

increasing trend in the sex ratios between 1901 – 1991 as the no of females per

1000 females rose from 912 to 976 (next to Kerala in India). But the girls in the

0-6 age group in 2001 decreased to less than 900 per 1000 boys: (in 1971 girls

were 982 per 1000 boys). In the Urban areas the ratio was alarming at 844 only

even though the state has achieved a lot of development in education, female,

literacy and female work participation. It is a progressive state in many

indicators of human development. The districts with high literacy levels have

lower child sex ratios. In the rural areas with very low literacy child sex ratios

are higher comparatively. Increase in incomes and female work participation

show bias to girl child before and after birth. Human Development has no

meaning without gender equality. Mere increase in education, health and

incomes cannot assure human development in its proper perspective. The

declining trend in the girl child sex ratio definitely will have adverse effects on

the socio-cultural base of the nation. This is to be viewed with seriousness in the

opinion of the author.

In his paper “Status and Trend of Human Development in North East

Region of India” Purushotham Naik40 (2009) has discussed the nature of HDR

and examined the construction procedure of HDI. The paper has reviewed the

literature on the subject both from the Methodological aspects and empirical

evidences . General scenario of the 8 States in the North eastern region is

analyzed. Four of these states have Tribal population in Majority, ranging

between 64-94 percent. Human Development of the Region is examined for the

years 1981; 1991 and 2000. The author has estimated HDI for 2000 which for

the other 2 points of time Government of India figures are taken for analysis. It

is noted that the Rural-Urban despairity in Human Development is of

56

considerable magnitude. The status of women in the region is contrary to

popular perception. Gender disparity is very high in Assam and Tripura.

Gender disparity varies from state to State in the region and follows a declining

trend except in Nagaland. The author concludes that India has not been able to

achieve on human development and welfare counts, HDI in India is below 0.62

and it is much below in the North Eastern Region. Increasing gender disparities,

growing rural-urban gaps in human develop0ment and un even Human

Development levels in the states of the region demand an appropriate action

urgently the author opines.

Sakiko Fukuda –Parr, Kate Rawanth and A.K.Shivkumr41 (2009) in

their article “Using the HDI for policy analysis” examined the GDP per capita

and HDI values of (8) countries and state that there is no relationship, exact, in

nature, between these two variables . Costarica, Srilanka and Jamica with low

levels of Per capita incomes have higher HDI values (2001). Income and HDI

need not have close correlation. Levels of human development within the

regions of a country are bound to vary. They have taken Kerala in 1991 and

state the HDI values in UP and Bihar were less than half of Kerala. Rural –

Urban and ethnic disparities within a country are also there in the HDI values.

It is a summary measure to guide and reorient policies. Development from a

human point of view is evaluated. Countries are compared to assess the relating

positions only. As a composite index it is to be disaggregated in order to

comprehend trends in the Index values. The authors concluded that other

indicators to help the short run Policy to reflect political freedom, personal

security and public participation.

In the paper entitled “Recasting Human Development Indices: A look

into the state of Gender empowerment in Karnataka” by

SanjeevdKenchalgor42(2009) status of women in Karnataka in the Human and

gender development is examined. Methodology of UNDP human development

57

report 1995 and the methodology of Karnataka’s human development report

2005 have been followed. Data is secondary and the author has first elaborated

the HDIS for Karnataka in 1991 and 2001. To estimate Gender Empowerment

in the districts of Karnataka index of political participation; knowledge and

decision making index and earned Income Index, three in total, are worked out.

Gender empowerment is analyzed for the districts, index wise, first.

Combined index with ranks to the districts on gender empowerment are

examined as in 2001. Karnakata is second state in India after Madhya Pradesh

to Publish state level Human Development Reports. The author concludes that

Women, still, suffer from male dominance in exercising choices. The

patriarchal mind set curbs their freedom and gender in equalities prevail in some

of the district over the years. Regional disparities are evident in gender

development as analyzed by the author. Gender disparities in human

development and gender empowerment have continued over the years across the

districts. More micro level research in this direction is warranted in the opinion

of the author.

The Paper entitled “A note on Human Development indices with Income

Equalities” by S.K.Mishra43 (2009) has analyzed the computations of HDI by

UNDP 2004 and Sarker et al 2006. The author argues for the inclusion of

income equality as one along with health, education and income indices to

obtain Human Development index. Alternatives to assign relative weights to

these indices are also given. HDI by all these methods are compared and the

egalitarian method of giving weights is supported by the author. Human

Development Reports assign arbitrary weights to the indices of Life expectancy,

education and Income. As such it is observed that the HDI of HDR suffers from

an excessive bias to pragmatism. The method suggested in the paper takes care

of weakly correlated indices and gives them proper representation in the

58

composite Human Development Index. Data used by Sarkeretal from HDRS of

UNDP is used by the author to compute composite indices of HDI in the paper.

Sumanash Datta44 (2009) in the Paper entitled “Human Development

and Economic Development: the case of Assam” indentified the poorer regions

in Assam with the help of selected indicators. Regional disparities have been

widely examined by researcher both theoretically and empirically. The author

has taken (8) variables as indicators of Economic Development . District is

taken as a unit of study. Composite Development scores of the districts (CDS)

with date 2001 are worked out HDI values of the districts as given by the

Assam Human Development (2003) Report are taken to assign ranks to the

districts. Dimension Index of development for each district is calculated by

using a simple formula. HDI is not a very comprehensive measure of Human

development in the opinion of the author as it takes only three variables. It

ignores safe drinking water, electricity, Sanitation and such basic amenities of

life. DID includes more variables which determine Human Development

effectively. It is observed in the paper that the disparities in Economic

Development are higher in Assam in comparison to human development. The

author has taken (C.V.HDI) and C.V.(DID) to establish the disparities. It is

concluded that Brahmaputra valley region is more developed than the other two

regions, Karbianglong and cachar hills. Regional disparities of economic

development are glaring and they need a proper planning.

“Human Development in India; challenges for a society in transition” is a

study to balance competing goals without ignoring the details. It relies on the

data collected by India Human Development survey (I.H.Ds) 2005 by

interviewing 41,554 families across the country . This survey was organized by

the authors of this book as a part of the collaboration between university of

Maryland and National council Applied Economic Research (NCAER)45 (2010)

New Delhi. 41,554 households were covered in 1503 villages and 971 Urban

59

blocks in 33 states and union territories in India. Different dimensions of human

development and social inequalities were incorporated. The report is holistic in

nature as beyond basic indictors, more complex evaluations of human

development are given in this book. Human development outcomes are

disaggregated based on caste, religion education, region and the like. Human

development outcomes are considered in the context of human contacts,

employment, education, health and social net works as they are interrelated and

this aspect is examined in the ;book under review in a holistic approach.

Economic growth in India is accompanied by inequalities among social

groups between urban and rural India and among sates, Human development

indices are not given in this study. HDI computation takes life expectancy at

birth, adult literacy and enrollment in primary, secondary and tertiary education

and per capita gross domestic product. HDG with three indicators can provide a

rough and quick feed back to the policy makers, a variety of dimensions are

analyzed in the study to provide a comprehensive picture of human

development. The monograph concludes that poverty in India has declined

from 54.9% in 1973 – 74 to 27.5% in 2004-05. Many families in GHDs survive

at the margin, enrollment of children is low and of the elderly people, still, work

and live within the joint families. Tribals and Dalits are at the bottom on most

of the indicators of well being and social inequalities and inheritance of poverty

are noted with regard to Dalits, Adivasis , OBCs and apathetic attitude to girls is

noticed. Urban advantage in human development is considerable. Regional

disparities in income, education, health and other dimensions of human

development are glaring. The authors wish more micro level studies to reveal

human development is imperative.

Human Development in India Analysis to Action46 (2010) is a

publication based on reports from State Governments. Planning commission and

UNDP in collaboration initiated two projects. Capacity building for preparation

60

of State Human Development Reports (1999 – 2005) is the first one, under this

project State Governments were given support to prepare State Human

Development Reports. 21 States have already prepared such reports by creating

data base at the district levels. Madhya Pradesh is the first state to prepare S H

D R. These reports at the state level have enabled the administration and the

civil society to comprehend the levels of Human Development. The second

project 2004 – 2009 aimed at using Human Development data as an integral

tool in the state and district planning process. The experiences of India in

promoting H. D action is shared by countries like Indonesia. The document is in

4th chapters covering the areas of collaborative work.

Prof. S. Kanakachary47 (2010), in his paper “Regional Disparities in

Andhra Pradesh; A Spatial Study” has analysed the regional disparities and their

increasing trend by dividing the districts into 6 sub regions in A.P. Secondary

data in the form of statistical Abstract 2007 and A.P Economic survey 2006-07

is taken for the study. Sixteen variables are chosen and they are grouped into 4

categories to represent the economic development in 2005 – 06. Agricultural

activity and social activity are the dimensions in which the 16 variables are

grouped.

It is revealed in the study that 10 districts in the state are developed in

agriculture of which 6 are in Telangana, 3 in Andhra and only one in

Rayalaseema. North Telangana is at the top while North Coastal Andhra is at

thebottom. Telangana is in Ist place in agriculture followed by Coastal Andhra

and Rayalaseema. The author has divided the districts into – Sub regions.

Hyderabad as separate one. North Coastal Andhra: Srikakulam, Vizianagaram

and Visakhapatnam. South Coastal Andhra: East Godavari, West Godavari,

Krishan, Guntur, Prakasam and Nellore. North Telangana: Adilabad,

Karimnagar, Warangal and Khammam. South Telangana: Mahabubnagar,

61

Rangareddy, Medak and Nalgonda. Rayalaseema: Kadapa, Kurnool,

Ananthapur and Chittoor.

With regard to industrial development, Andhra Region is at the top

followed by Telangana and Rayalaseema. Hyderabad, Krishna, Guntur and

Rangareddy are the most developed districts where as Ananthapur, Nalgonda,

Khammam, Kadapa, Adilabad, and Mahabubnagar are the least developed in the

state.

As to the tertiary activities the study points out that Hyderabad,

Rangareddy and Krishna districts are the most developed while Karimnagan,

Prakasam, Warangal, Adilabad, Medak, Khammam, Nalgonda and

Mahabubnagar are the least developed. In social activities, again Hyderabad,

Krishna and West Godavari districts are at the top while Kurnool, Adilabad and

Mahabubnagar are as the bottom.

The author has classified the 23 districts into four levels of overall

development. Hyderabad, Rangareddy and Guntur are more developed; Krishna,

West Godavari, East Godavari, Nizamabad, Visakhapatnam and Karimnagar are

developed; Srikakulam, Medak, Warangal, Kurnool, Chittor, Nelloore,

Vizianagaram, Prakasam, Adilabad, Khammam and Ananthapur are backward

and Kadapa and Mahabubnagar are the most backward districts.

Sub regions are given ranks in the overall development and it found that

Hyderabad, being the state Capital is at the top, South Coastal Andhra and the

South Telangana are in the second and third positions, North Coastal Andhra

and North Telangana are in the fourth and fifth positions while Rayalaseema is

at the bottom.

In conclusion the study reveals that Hyderabad, Rangareddy, Karimnagar

and Nizamabad districts (4) are among the top 10 ranks, While Krishna, Guntur,

East and West Godavari districts, Visakhapatnam and Srikakulam (6) in the

62

Coastal Andhra are among the top10 ranks. All the Rayalaseema districts are at

the bottom 13 ranks. Three Telangana districts (Mahabubnagar, Adilabad and

Khammam) Vizianagaram of North Coastal Andhra and Kadapa of

Rayalaseema are the bottom 5 districts in the study.

UNDP “Human Development Report”48 (2010) has taken the

suggestion with regard to the Inclusion of certain items and methodology states

that many concerns are valid. But the objective is not to build an unassailable

indicator of well being. Education, health and income are the three dimensions

to measure human progress. In this report (2010) the indicators of education

and income are modified. Knowledge dimension earlier was measured with

literacy and Gross enrollment. This has been replaced by expected years of

schooling and mean years of schooling. GDP per capita to measure standard of

living is replaced by GNI as there are international remittances from and to by

the citizens along with flow of aid from abroad. Life expectancy at birth is

retained as health indicator as better alternative is not identified. Method of

aggregation also changed from 2010. Geometric mean of the three indicators is

introduced to ascertain the performance indictor wise. Based on the

suggestions it has received HDI computation is modified keeping the basic

elements in fact.

India Human Development Report49 (2011) was released by the Union

Rural Development Minister Sri Jairam Ramesh and the Deputy Chairman of

Planning Commission Sri Montek Singh Ahuliwalia. This is the second report

as the first one was released in the year 2000 by the Planning Commission. The

report is prepared by the institute of Applied Manpower Research of the

Commission for the period between 2000 – 2007. H.D.I for India has gone up

by 21 percent against 17 percent in China during the period under reference. As

per the report poverty, unemployment, child labour and inter – state disparities

are declining. Health and education indices have risen by 13 percent and 28.5

63

percent respectively. Kerala, Delhi, Himachal Pradesh Goa and Punjab are in

the top 5 positions. Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Chattisgarh, Mahdya Pradesh,

Odisha and Assom have H.D.I values which are less than the average H.D.I of

the Nation. The report maintains that, health, nutrition and sanitation are the key

challenges. 12th five year plan (2012 – 2017) is to concentrate on these issues

pertaining to Human Development.

Srinivas Ranabothu50 (2011) in his paper “Telangana Development:

Regional Imbalances in Human Development in Andhra Pradesh” has taken the

Human Development Report prepared by Center for Economic and Social

Studies (CESS) in 2008. The objectives of the paper are to find out the regional

disparities in Human Development in the state of Andhra Pradesh. The basic

objective of the paper to find out regional imbalances between Telangana,

Andhra and Rayalaseema in terms of development with and without Hyderabad

as the state capital has developed exponentially. Apart from Human

Development Indices many aspects of general well being and capabilities are

analysed in the paper. CESS data pertaining to early 1990s to early 2000s,

Human Poverty Index; General Development Index; income dimension of HDI,

growth of District Domestic Product, Health dimensions of HDI; Health

facilities available per 10 lakh population 2004 – 05. Education Dimensions of

HDI; Adult literacy; Dropout rates; Agriculture dimensions (2004 – 05) other

aspects of development in the form of infrastructure index (2004); Urbanization

and percentages of Households with basic amenities in 1991 and 2001 have

been worked out, region wise.

The author concludes that the growth rate in the Andhra region is more

than Telangana during the reference period. The only exception is better

facilities in electricity in Telangana. Regional disparities exist in Human

Development and well being as observed is the paper. Though Hyderabad, with

its development is a part of Telangana cannot help the region in development,

64

since “Developed Hyderabad is not a developed Telangana”. People of

Telangana feel dissatisfied with the development of Telangana in the light of the

above facts leading to regional disparities.

In the array of research studies on the subject of inter regional disparities

two opposite schools of thought are observed. First one, those that have found

that there was marked reduction in income differentials or that they have seen a

noticeable tendency for convergence of long – term State Domestic Product

(SDP) growth rates. The second one is those that have noted a widening of

regional disparities amongst states or have depicted a picture of interstate

divergence. The studies that have been a positive sign of convergence are

Gupta51 (1973), Dholakia52 (1994), I Cashin and Sahy53 (1996), Sarkar54

(1996), and Ahluwalia55 (2000&2002). On the other hand, those that have

discerned tendencies of divergence are , Majumdar and Kapoor56(1980),

Bajpai and Sachs57 (1996), Marjit and Mitra58 (1996), Rao et al59(2005-06),

Dasgupta er al60 (2000), and Sachs et al61 (2002).

65

Sum-up:

The above mentioned studies have examined the different facts of Human

Development Indices in general and some studies have analysed HDI in India

and the state of Andhra Pradesh.Even CESS release HDR 2004-2005 distric

wise Conceptual issues processes, state of HDIs, overall factors of linkage are

critically focused in the studies. They have enabled the researcher to develop an

insight into the concept, methodology, analysis and interpretation besides

research tools and techniques. The gaps in the above studies are addressed in the

present study with specific references to the micro units (districts) and region

QLI with basic aminities like DEC Dwelling Safe Drinking Water Toilet

facilities Non tradational feul and women status index with female literacy and

sex ratio are analyse in the state of Andhra Pradesh from 1981 to 2011. The

researcher has made an effort to fit in this research study and results into the

existing body of literature on the subject with the help of the reviews in this

chapter.

66

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