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1
REVIEW OF THE JAPANESE MODEL WITH REGARDS TO URBAN
PLANNING, PUBLIC FINANCE MANAGEMENT, AND CAPACITY
BUILDING - SELECTED FINDINGS
Prof NJ Schoeman
Prof C Thornhill
Dr M Schoonraad
6 September 2016
Objectives of the study
• A comparison of the composition of the machinery of state as
the framework within which the public service operates;
• Outlining the process of capacity building of the public service
to perform the functions assigned to each level of government
efficiently and effectively; and
• Define and compare the framework that guides the decisions
and actions of the public servants at the three levels of
government in Japan with the South African system.
3
CENTRAL GOVERNMENT STRUCTURE IN
JAPAN
4
Emperor
Diet
– House of Representatives
– House of Councillors
Ministries
Cabinet
– Prime Minister
– Ministers
Cabinet
Office
Notes on Japanese system
• The functions and powers of the central government
are prescribed in the Constitution. Constitutionally it
implies that its functions are restricted.
• Functions and powers not assigned to central
government vest in the prefectures and municipalities.
• Constitutionally it implies that the scope of local
government’s functions and powers are more
extensive (and flexible i.e. any new powers and
functions are exercised by the lower levels of
government: the principle of subsidiarity applies)
5
LOCAL GOVERNMENT STRUCTURE IN
JAPAN
6
Municipalities (1 718)
– Directly elected mayor
– Directly elected assembly
Prefectures (47)
– Directly elected governor
– Councillors
Local government’s
– Autonomy entrenched in Constitution
– Functions devolved (not delegated)
Government functions
In South Africa
• The national sphere of government is responsible for all matters not assigned to
provinces or municipalities (in terms of schedules 4 and 5 of Constitution)
• Different from Japanese system: In South Africa all functions not specifically
assigned to provinces and municipalities vest in national government
• The public service (national and provincial) consists of ± 1, 2 million employees
The municipal service consists of 278 000 employees
In Japan
• The functions of the national government are limited to affairs relating to Japan
as a nation and internationally
• Affairs relating to various activities and people that should be dealt with in a
uniform and nation-wide manner
• The Japanese public service consists of 600 000 employees and 2 750 000
local government officials
7
Comparison of national government functions
In South Africa
• Functions concurrently performed by the national and provincial
spheres, include education, health and environmental affairs and
• The exclusive jurisdiction assigned to provinces include inter alia
provincial planning, provincial roads and aspects of health.
• Advice from a national perspective is provided through the Department
of Cooperative Governance and Traditional Affairs and National
Treasury and from regional perspective through provincial governments
• South Africa has 257 municipalities consisting of 8 metros 44 district
municipalities and 205 local municipalities
In Japan
• The Japanese state divided into prefectures and municipalities.
Prefectures provide limited municipal functions and provide
municipalities with advice and training.
8
Capacity building principles
• Building capacity is a life long process
• Commences with the family at home inculcating ethical guidelines,
culture and community values
• During school term knowledge is imparted and supplemented by ethical
guidelines, culture and values
• Tertiary education includes: the need for honouring societal values,
making society a co-partner in fostering ethical conduct
• The next stage is post-appointment: the employer becomes co-
responsible for improving the knowledge base of the employee
• Conditions have to be provided to allow employee to acquire new skills
and develop a work ethic
• The employee must utilize the training opportunities and also initiate
self-development by initiating training required hinmself/herself
• Thus training is the responsibility of the community; the
employer and the employee
9
Recruitment and appointment
In Japan
• A prerequisite for appointment is usually a tertiary
qualification or equivalent certificate
• Appointment of a public employee is based on the
results of recruitment examinations, personnel
evaluation or other demonstrated abilities
• Special merit for those who have specialized
professional experiences outside the public service,
and the fixed-term appointment system
• An entrance examination is the primary method for
selection
10
Training
• Training in the Japanese public sector could be divided into two main
phases:
* Pre entry training (as already alluded to i.e. tertiary education,
specialised skills or professional e.g. engineering or legal)
*In service training i.e. after appointment the acquiring of additional
expert knowledge or skills
# while in service the training could be offered on the job i.e. by
e.g. the employer or the immediate supervisor
# training could also be provided off the job, i.e. assigning an
employee to another institution or a university to acquire the
necessary skills or expertise or experience
• In Japan the notion of life-long training is strictly enforced
• Teaching mental attitude and service discipline so that standards may
be maintained.
11
Training Japan(continued)
• The following principles apply:
– creation of a learning environment in the work place;
– innovation in and utilization of processes using working time; and
– establishment of systematic personnel training.
• In addition to this, provision is also made for self-development.
• Officials are normally rotated on a regular basis as part of their
training
• Justification for rotation/ transfers (usually in cycles of three years or
five years depending on the central, prefectural or municipal policies)
* inhibits corruption as the employee is not allowed the opportunity
to become personally involved in matters he/she should objectively
decide on;
* to gain experience of the duties and functions of other public/or
private institutions, thus promoting co-ordination
12
Lessons to be learnt on training
• South Africa should consider developing a system of
structured training adapted from time to time to meet
the requirements for each level through which an
official progresses.
• This training should include skills, values, knowledge
and managerial competencies
• A continuous inclusion of ethical values in all training
programmes
13
Measures to promote values and ethics in South Africa
• Various measures to promote ethical conduct – e.g. Public Service
Commission’s role to promote a high standard of ethics
• Eight (Batho Pele) principles defined that should apply in service
delivery viz. consulting users of services - setting service standards;
increasing access; ensuring courtesy; providing more and better
information; increasing openness and transparency; remedying mistakes
and failures; and getting the best possible value for money
• The establishment of the Public Administration Ethics, Integrity and
Disciplinary Technical Assistance Unit (Public Administration Management
Act, 11 of 2014) - provides technical assistance and support to
institutions in all spheres of government regarding the management of
ethics, integrity and disciplinary matters
• Prevention and Combating of Corrupt Activities Act, 12 of 2004 aims to
strengthen the measures to combat corruption and corrupt activities and
establishes a register to place restrictions on persons and enterprises
convicted of corrupt activities related to tenders and contracts
14
Current dilemmas
• Disconcerting to note that only 54% of cases investigated had been resolved
during the period 2014/2015 while 19 of the 43 national departments (44%)
and 54 of the 114 provincial departments (47%) did not respond to enquiries
by the Public Service Commission
15
• In Japan - strict adherence to ethical rules and guidelines – limited occurrence of
unethical actions
• Various measures developed to curb or discourage unethical conduct
• These measures are an extension of societal values, culture and ethical conduct
inculcated since childhood
• Actions taken against defaulters are also strictly enforced, discouraging an
official from becoming involved in unethical conduct
• Decentralized decision making requires concurrence of all officials involved
• The retirement bonus: a strong incentive for a clean service record (49. 59 times
the monthly salary at retirement after 35 years)
• system allows a citizen to claim compensation in a case of an official found guilty
of corruption which negatively affected an individual ( e.g. tender)
• Common sense of ethics among government officials due to a long culture of
ethical public service
• Proper level of remuneration based on annual review of salaries
16
Actions against defaulters: the Japanese approach
Concluding comments
• Issues which could improve capacity in
South Africa
* Entrance examinations for new entrants based on criteria establishing
knowledge of the post, expertise and skills (without political
involvement)
* Life long training according to a predetermined programme to meet
changing requirements of a post
* Decisive action in the case of misconduct
* Incentives for a clean service record on retirement
* Career appointments to prevent political interference
17