Review on Food Adverts

8/8/2019 Review on Food Adverts

1/57


2/57

ii

ABSTRACT

This literature review assessed the influence of food advertising and marketing to children

and adolescents. The food and beverage industry in the recent years have intensify

advertising and marketing of their products to children and adolescents. They viewed them as

a major market force that has the potential to increase their own purchase and influence the

purchase of their parents. Therefore, they target these young consumers using multiple

advertising and marketing techniques or channels beginning from their early ages in life, so

as to foster their brand in their mind and influence their food products purchase behaviour.

Such advertising and marketing channels includes: television advertising; the internet; in-

school marketing; toys and youth targeted promotions. However, these intense advertising

and marketing of food products to children and adolescents have been argue to influence their

food preferences, their purchasing power, eating behaviour and even causing various diseases

such as; obesity and diabetes. Also these food products have been shown to be energy-dense,

high in fat, sugar and salt content. Therefore, researchers and nutritionists have argue that

these foods are unhealthy, lacking the required nutrients by children and adolescents. Hence,

are not consistent with the national dietary recommendations. This review found out that

majority of the children and adolescents are eating unhealthy foods and also have been

affected by various food related diseases while there are few or no regulations on the

advertising and marketing of unhealthy food products been advertised and marketed to these

future leaders.


3/57

iii

Table of Contents

Title page ..i

Abstractii

Table Of Contents.......iii

List of Tables..vi

List of Figures.. ............................................................................................................................vii

CHAPTER 1: Introduction. . page

1.1 Introduction..11.2Background to the Literature Review.2

1.3Justification for the Literature Review3

1.4Review questions..5

1.5Review Objectives.6

1.6Framework.6

1.7Summary.7

Chapter 2: Advertising and Marketing Concepts and Issues

2.1 Introduction..8

2.2 Definitions and Concepts of Advertising and Marketing8

2.3 Costs of Media Advertising and Marketing on Food to Children and Adolescents ..10

2.4 The Types of Food been Advertised and Marketed to Children and Adolescents.13

2.5 The Challenges of Advertising and Marketing to Children and Adolescents.14

2.6 Social Responsibility and Ethical Issues related to Advertising and Marketing15

2.7 Summary...16

CHAPTER 3: Food Advertising and Marketing Channels

3.1 Introduction.17

3.2 Television Advertising..17

3.3 The Internet.20

3.4 In-School Marketing /Advertising.21

3.5 Toys and Products with Brand logos..22


4/57

iv

3.6 Product Placements23

3.7 Promotion.23

3.7.1 Favorite Character/Celebrity.24

3.7.2 Movie tie- ins....................25

3.7.3 Competition/Sporting Activities..........25

3.7.4 Give away.26

3.8 Summary27

Chapter: 4 Children and Adolescents Comprehension of Food Advertising and Marketing

4.1 Introduction.28

4.2 Cognitive Development of Children and Adolescents on Advertisements and Marketing28

4.3 Children and Adolescents Viewing Habits..29

4.4 Children and Adolescents Perception of Food Advertising and Marketing30

4.5 Regulations on Food Advertising and Marketing to Children and Adolescents. 30

4.6 Summary32

Chapter 5 Effects of Food Advertising and Marketed on Children and Adolescents

5.1 Introduction33

5.2 Nutritional Contents of Food Advertised and Marketed to Children and Adolescents33

5.3 Health Risks and Diseases associated with Food Advertising and Marketing.37

5.4 Influences of Advertising and Marketing on Food Preferences and Eating Behavior38

5.5 Children and Adolescents Influences on their Parental Purchases.39

5.6 Summary........40

CHAPTER 6: Conclusion and Recommendations

6.1 Introduction............41

6.2 Conclusion.41

6.3 Major Findings.......... 41

6.3.1 Channels of Advertising and Marketing.41

6.3.2 Viewing Habits and Advertisements Knowledge.42


5/57

v

6.3.3 Nutritional Contents of Foods Advertised and Marketed to Children and

Adolescents..42

6.3.4Children and Adolescents Eating Pattern and Food Preferences .42

6.3.5 Recommendations.43

6.4 Summary43

Bibliography...44


6/57

vi

List of Tables

Pages

Table 2.1: The AIDA Model.........................................................................10

Table 2.2: Food and Beverage Industries Spending on Food adverts in the UK

2003........................................................................................................ .......12

Table 5.1: Food standards Agency Nutritional Content classification

(per100ml/100g)........................................................................................ 35


7/57

vii

List of Figures

Pages

Figure 3.1: The power of television advertising to children and Adolescents 19

Figure 5.1: The National Health and Medical Research Councils dietary

guidelines for children and adolescents in Australia. 36


8/57

1

Chapter 1: Introduction

1.1 Introduction

This literature review deals with the subject of the influence of food advertising andmarketing to children and adolescents on their food preferences and eating behaviour. There

are many definitions of children and adolescents, for the purpose of this review; children are

considered to be between the ages of 2 and 11 while adolescents are considered to be between

the ages of 12 and 19. The review examine and focus on the cognitive development of the

children and adolescents in relation to their ability to assess, understand, recognise and make

informed decisions on the content of food been advertised and marketed to them.

Advertising and marketing has been identified as a key tool by which food and beverage

industry promotes and showcases their products. The world today has been saturated with

different media ranging from television, radio, newspaper to the internet and these have

allowed the food and beverage industry to reach all their costumers in a very attractive and

enticing way, while their products are now ubiquitous. Consequently, the food and beverage

industry through these mass media has focussed more on advertising and marketing foods to

children and adolescents and these in turn; as generated issues on the content of these foods,

the influence these foods have on their eating behaviour and its impacts on their health.

Since, children and adolescents are exposed to massive amounts of marketing that promotes

consumption of calorie-dense and nutrient-poor foods. Therefore, advertising and marketing

of food to them has been argued not to have been done in an ethical way and these have now

come under scrutiny becoming the focus of many researchers, as they have been proved to be

one of the contributing factors to the prevalence of different diseases associated with food

such as: obesity, diabetes and cardio-vascular diseases. Currently, children and adolescents

obesity is one of the major global health challenges of the twenty- first century. However,

while there are many regulations and codes of practice been enacted with regards to

advertising and marketing ethics at various individuals and governmental levels; issues on the

influence of the food advertised and marketed to children and adolescents have just been

recently raised and particular attention has also been paid to the nutritional content of these

foods.


9/57

2

1.2 Background to the Literature Review

Many studies have demonstrated that children and adolescents have not only been recognised

as a significant segment of the food market alone (McCarthy, 2009; Kelly et al., 2008; Reed,

2008; Kopelman et al., 2007), but also as a potential consumer that spends money and have

an important contribution to make in determining the foods that are purchased and consumed

by their family (Consumers International, 2008; Stitt and kunkel, 2008; Warren et al., 2008;

Powell et al., 2007; CI, 2004). Consequently, advertising and marketing industries have now

realised that children and adolescents are in fact, one of the most profitable segments of the

market (Reed, 2008; Swinburn et al., 2008,). Since, it is evident that if children and

adolescents are attracted to their products, the industries reap huge profits (Radley, 2007;

Robinson et al., 2007).

Many researchers have described children as Young Customer when explaining their

purchasing power and consuming patterns (Schlosser, 2002). Children and adolescents will

influence their parents and elders by pestering and nagging until they get the product they

desire irrespective of the content of it (Radley, 2007; Robinson et al., 2007). Even, some

older children have enough money to purchase what they want at the time they want it

(Rebecca and Adrian, 2009; Powell et al., 2007), this is in line with Consumers International

(2008:1) claims that: what they see is what they want. Furthermore, older children and

adolescents have opportunities of purchasing foods of their choice such as: snacks, chocolate,

ice cream and other high fat, sugar and salt food each day without their parents or adults

supervision (Bogue, 2009; Stitt and Kunkel, 2008; Powell et al., 2007; Robinson et al., 2007;

Radley, 2007; Kopelman et al., 2007; CI, 2004).

In addition, several studies have shown that many of these purchases by children and

adolescents are based on what they have either seen on television advertisement, the internet,

billboard and all other media of information (Warren et al., 2008; CI, 2008; Story and

French, 2004). However, Powell et al. (2007) asserted that these foods have very poor

nutritional content and may be harmful to their health, due to the high fat, salt and sugar

content. The children and adolescents of today could become the obese adults and youths of

tomorrow if they continue to purchase these foods, and as a result they may suffer from many

obesity related illnesses and diseases particularly; cardio-vascular diseases, hypertension and

diabetes (Story et al., 2009; Radley, 2007; WHO, 2006; CI, 2004). They may even be more

susceptible to different forms of cancer (Lavizzo, 2009; Robinson et al., 2007). The likely


10/57

3

consequence of these problems with these future leaders and pecuniary implications for the

economy, employers and employees include increased malingering, reduced productivity and

increased health care costs (Harris et al., 2009; Radley, 2007). While many criticisms have

been levied against food and beverage industries producing, advertising and marketing these

so-called junk foods for their lackadaisical attitude and insufficient response to concerns

regarding these health issues (WHO, 2006; CI, 2008; CFAC, 2007), still many food and

beverages industry are yet to yield on to these calls (CI, 2008).

Furthermore, the type of food purchased, prepared and consumed by members of some

families especially among the developed world has change due to the economic boom of the

early 1990s (Harris et al., 2009; Radley, 2007; CI, 2004), among the changes that occur is

the environmental influences which has in turn affect eating behaviours of many individuals

due to the changing nature of the food supply; increased reliance on foods supplied,

consumed away from home, food advertising, marketing, promotion and food prices (Harris

et al., 2009; Folta et al., 2008). The food industry responded to these changes by increasing

the number of convenience foods and prepares meals available (CI, 2008; Ofcom, 2007).

Similarly, they also increased the portion sizes of their product as more families now engages

in buying prepared or cooked food which comes with the term on the go food for

consumption due to the work and time limitations where by the two parents are working

(Bogue, 2009; CI, 2008; CFAC, 2007).

1.3 Justification for the Literature Review

Recently, some significant researches and studies have been carried out on the implication

and influence of food advertising and marketing on the society and particular emphasis has

been placed on the effects that advertising and marketing has had on children and adolescents

(Story et al., 2009; Dorey and McCool, 2009;; Buijzen et al., 2008; Robinson et al., 2007;

Powell et al., 2007; Story and French, 2004; Hastings et al., 2003). This area of study has

been under the inspection of many researchers and also in the media spotlight since the

inception of this century when it was revealed that the world levels of obesity and other food

related diseases were increasing at an alarming rate (Stitt and Kunkel, 2008; Radley, 2007;

Powell et al., 2007; WHO, 2006; Story and French, 2004; CI, 2004). The World Health

Organisation (WHO) in its 2006 report estimating the rapid increase in obesity and other food

related diseases concludes that:


11/57

4

Obesity and other food related diseases that were once considered to be a problem

in high income countries, are now dramatically on the rise in low-and middle

income countries, particularly urban settings. (WHO, 2006: 1)

The report further points out that the fundamental causes of obesity and overweight are an

energy imbalance between calories consumed on one hand and calories expended on the

other hand. Furthermore, childhood obesity is associated with a higher chance of premature

death and disability in adulthood (Lavizzo, 2009; Story et al., 2009).

According to World Health Organisation (WHO) 2006, at least 20 million children under the

age of 5 years are overweight globally in 2005, approximately 1.6 billion adults (15 years and

above) were overweight; at least 400 million adults were obese. WHO further projects that by

2015, approximately 2.3 billion adults will be overweight and more than 700 million will be

obese. In addition, cardiovascular diseases were reported to have been the worlds number

one cause of death killing 17 million people each year, while diabetes deaths were projected

to increase by more than 50% worldwide in the next 10 years. Similarly, in the previous study

conducted by Consumer International (CI) in 2004, it was revealed that in Malaysia obesity

has increased from 1% in 1990 to 6% in 1997 among 13-17 years old children. However, in

Japan the prevalence of obesity among 9 year old boys increased from 2.9% in 1970 to 9.7%

in 1997, while rates for girls increased from 3.4% to 8% over the same time period. In Ireland

on the other hand there has been a two-to-fourfold increase in obesity in children aged 8-12

years since 1990; one in five boys and one in four girls are overweight or obese. In addition,

two-thirds of men (67%) and over half of women (54%) are overweight or obese (McCarthy,

2009a). Consequently, The Coalition on Food Advertising to Children (CFAC) in its 2007

briefing paper has estimated that reducing the prevalence of obesity in Australia alone by

20% would yield an annual saving of AU$59 million and a saving of 2300 years of life.

These statistics are not only astonishing but also calls for an urgent attention as matters will

degenerate even further if action is not taken immediately. The rise in levels of childhood

obesity and other food related diseases is of great concern, particularly as this lead to

increasing number of illnesses and deaths from; cardio-vascular related illnesses, strokes,

hypertension, fatty liver, asthma, some types of cancer, musculoskeletal disorders and gall

bladder disease (Story et al., 2009; WHO, 2006; IOM, 2006). Many researchers believe that

if food advertising and marketing to children and adolescents is banned, then children and


12/57

5

adolescents will not be influenced by the attractive advertisements and marketing

encouraging them to purchase foods with high fat, sugar and salt content (Radley, 2007;

Story and French, 2004; Hastings et al., 2003; CSPI, 2003). If healthy eating patterns are

developed and encouraged in childhood, this will make for adults with better eating habits

and thus reduce the prevalence of obesity and other related diseases both in childhood and

adulthood (Roberts and Pettigrew, 2007; Amat, 2006). However, food and beverage industry

do not think in this direction as they take the contrary viewpoint. They believe that the

proceeds generated by advertising and marketing are essential in order to regain the money

spent on producing the product and in order to develop novel and exciting products (Folta et

al., 2008; Radley, 2007). Consequently, Consumers International (2004) declares that:

For every US$1 the World Health organisation (WHO) spent on trying to improve

the nutrition of the Worlds population, US$500 is spent by the food industry on

promoting processed foods. (Consumers International, 2004: 9)

While some food and beverage industries have banned advertising and marketing to certain

categories within the children and adolescents segment e.g. Coca-Cola, General Mills and

Cadbury (Harris et al., 2009; Stitt and Kunkel, 2008; Powell et al., 2007), none will actually

commit to an outright ban on advertising and marketing to people under nineteen years old of

age (Robinson et al., 2007).

1.4 Review Questions

The main question of this review is:

What are the influences that food advertising and marketing to children and adolescents have

on their food preferences and eating behaviour? While the sub-questions are as follows:

(a) What advertising and marketing channels are used to advertise and market foods to

children and adolescents?

(b) Does children and adolescents purchase foods based on advertising and marketing

targeted at them?

(c) What are the food products and the nutritional contents of the foods marketers advertised

to children and adolescents?


13/57

6

1.5 Review Objectives

The broad objective of this review is to assess the influence of food advertised and marketed

to children and adolescents on their food preferences and eating behaviours.

The specific research objectives of this review are to:

(i) Identify the channels and techniques use to advertise and market food to children and

adolescents.

(ii) Examine awareness of children and adolescents on the food been advertised and marketed

to them.

(iii) Identify children and adolescents purchasing pattern of the advertised and marketed food

targeted at them.

(iv) Examine the types and nutritional content of foods been purchased by children and

adolescents.

1.6 Framework

Chapter 1: Introduction to Review

Chapter 2: Literature Review -Advertising and Marketing Concepts and Issues

Chapter two seeks to define and give various concepts of advertising and marketing, outline

the costs on foods advertising and marketing to children and adolescents by marketers and

challenges of various advertising and marketing aimed at children and adolescents. It will

also describe the types of food been advertised and marketed to children and adolescents

specifically the packaging of the foods. Ethical considerations and the social responsibilities

of advertising and marketing will also be considered.

Chapter 3: Literature Review -Food Advertising and Marketing Channels

Chapter three examines all the advertising and marketing channels or techniques that food

and beverage industries are using to target the children and adolescents. These channels range

from the internet, television, magazines and mobile phones to the products placement.

Specifically all the alternative way and methods of using promotions to target children will be

mentioned.

Chapter 4: Literature Review-Children and Adolescents Comprehension of Food

Advertising and Marketing

Chapter four seeks to explore childrens and adolescents understanding and perception of

advertising and marketing. An outline ofchildrens and adolescents cognitive development

and understanding is included. Also the viewing habits of children and adolescents will be

examined to show the effects of advertising on the programmes they watch in the media and


14/57

7

the amount of time used in watching these advertisements. Existing regulations on food

advertising and marketing to children and adolescents will also be examined.

Chapter 5: Literature Review-Effects of Food Advertising and Marketing on Children

and Adolescents

Chapter five discusses the nutritional content of the food been advertised and marketed to

children and adolescents, the health risk and diseases associated with these foods. The

changes in eating and nutritional patterns of children and adolescents will be explored, the

consequences of poor nutrition will be outlined and the influences of the children on their

parental purchases will also be investigated.

Chapter 6: Conclusion and Recommendation

Conclusion will be drawn from the review and recommendations made.

1.7 Summary

This chapter briefly introduced the literature review topic of influence of food advertising and

marketing to children and adolescents, it also mentioned the health implications of children

and adolescents food choices and consumption, presents the review questions and objectives

and finally a brief outline is given of the contents of each subsequent chapters.


15/57

8

Chapter 2: Advertising and Marketing Concepts and Issues

2.1 IntroductionThis chapter will shed light on the concepts of advertising and marketing with regards to

spending on the foods advertised and marketed to children and adolescents. The expenditures

of most of the food and beverages industries on food advertisements targeted at the children

and adolescents are to be highlighted. The challenges of advertising and marketing as well as

the types of food been advertised and marketed to children and adolescents will be examined.

While the social responsibility and ethical issues on food advertising and marketing targeted

at children and adolescents will be considered.

2.2 Definitions and Concepts of Advertising and Marketing

The Institute of Practitioners in Advertising (IPA) defined Advertising as a way of presenting

the most persuasive possible selling message to the right prospects for the product or services

at the lowest possible cost. Similarly, Advertising has been defined by Hill and OSull ivan

(2004) as any form of paid-for media communication design to inform and influence existing

or potential customers. However, Jefkins (1994) claims that advertising is considered to be

one of the stages of marketing. He further stated that marketing is more than just distribution

of goods from manufacturer to the final customer, but also comprises all the stages between

creation of the product and the after -market which follows the eventual sales.

Advertising is therefore as important as every other stage or link and each depends on the

other for success, the naming, packaging, pricing and distribution of goods are all reflected

in advertising, which has been called the lifeblood of an organisation (Wells et al., 1998).

Lury (2001) concurred that without advertising the products or services cannot flow to the

distributors or sellers and on to the consumers or users. Thus the modern world depends on

advertising. Without it, producers and distributors would be unable to sell; buyers would not

know about and continue to remember products or services and the modern industrial world

would collapse. Jefkins (1994: 2) notes that: If factory output is to be maintained profitably,

advertising must be powerful and continuous. However, Hill and OSullivan (2004)

commented that although advertising has been regarded as a major marketing expense, but in


16/57

9

spite of the amount of money that is invested in it, there is relative little scientific consensus

about how advertising works.

Marketing on the other hand has been defined by the Chartered Institute of Marketing as the

management process responsible for identifying, anticipating and satisfying customer

requirements profitably. Similarly, American Marketing Association (AMA) defined

marketing more elaborately as a process of planning and executing the conception, pricing,

promotion and distribution of ideas, goods and services to create exchanges that satisfy

individual and organisational goals. Therefore, advertising is central to the marketing of the

food supply and it is one type of marketing activities (Jobber, 2007). The issues and concerns

on advertising and marketing to children have started since the 1970s. For instance in 1977

experts in the US estimated that the average child watched more than 1,300 hours of

television annually, which resulted in exposure to over 20,000 commercials (Wells et al.,

1998). In addition, studies have shown that marketing has also included all forms of

promotion in which television advertisements is one (Bogue, 2009; Hawkes, 2007; Wells et

al., 1998). However, in recent years there has been a growth in other types of marketing

directed at children. These other types of marketing include the internet, sponsorship,

competitions, loyalty schemes, products placement, packaging and point of sale promotions

(CI, 2008; CFAC, 2007).

Advertising and marketing are considered to have a direct and powerful impact on the

purchase and eating behaviour of children (Harris et al., 2009; Radley, 2007; Amat, 2006).

They have also been identified as the important tools which the food and beverage industry

used in selling their product to the children and adolescents (Bogue, 2009; CSPI, 2003). Food

and beverage industry are using advertisement, through various media always as an important

tool to promote their products to children and adults as they have seen them as an important

market force with spending power, purchase influence, and adults customer (Veerman et al.,

2009; Harris et al., 2009; Bridget et al., 2008). Jobber and Fahy (2006) and Lury (2001) notes

that the marketer can be seeking a cognitive, affective or behavioural response from their

target audience. They further suggested that the marketer might want to put something into

the consumers mind, change the consumers mind or get the consumer to act. Consequently,

four different models were developed by E.K Strong in his book entitled Psychology of

Selling published in 1925 as cited in Lury (2001) and the basis of these models is

summarised in table 2.1 below:


17/57

10

Table 2.1: THE AIDA MODEL

Stages AIDA

Cognitive gaining recognition Attention

Affective- affecting perceptions Interest

Desire

Behavioural- affecting behaviour Action

Source: Lury (2001: 31)

Food advertisements were found to be the single largest category of products advertised,

accounting for 50% of the total advertisements and used significantly more animation

stories, humour, and the promotion of fun, happiness and mood alteration (Sixmith and

Furnham, 2009). In a thematic content analysis by Roberts and Pettigrew (2007) four

major themes were identified in the advertisements of food to children as: the prevalence

of grazing; the denigration of core foods; exaggerated health claims; the implied ability of

certain foods to enhance popularity and performance and mood. The US Institute of

Medicine (IOM), in its 2006 comprehensive report on food marketing to children and

youth concludes that:

Children and youth represent a primary focus of food and beverage marketing

initiatives. Between 1994 and 2004, the rate of increase in the introduction of new

food and beverage products targeted to children and youth substantially outpaced the

rate for those targeting the total market. (IOM, 2006: 3)

2.3 Costs of Media Advertising and Marketing on Food to Children and Adolescents

Food and beverage industry spend hundreds of millions of dollars on marketing and

advertising, in order to maintain and increase market share (Robinson et al., 2007).

Advertising is a large and growing industry that is very much realised as an integral part

of UK advertising is a STG9 billion business that employs thousands of people (Lury,

2001). Similarly, in the US food advertisers and marketers are estimated to have spent

US$10 billion annually to promote products to children and adolescents (Robinson et al.,


18/57

11

2007; CFAC, 2007). Gantz et al. (2007) concurred that recent decades have seen a

marked increase in spending on food marketing. They further reported that food and

beverage industry reach children under the age of 12 with over 500 food advertisements

and to attract these young customers, each year they spend over US$10 billion.

Furthermore, the food industry is highly skilled in using diverse media to present itself in

a favourable light, as studies have shown that they now move from producing educational

materials for schools to providing charities (Lang and Heasman, 2004).

In the US total spend on food advertising and marketing to children in 2002 was estimated

to be US$15 billion, this was recognised to be over twice the amount spent in 1992

(McCarthy, 2009b). However, Brownell et al. (2009) reported that in 2006 alone the food

marketers spent more (US$1.05 billion) marketing to adolescents (12-17) than to children

age (2-11) (US$4870 million). Similarly, the cereal companies spent US$229 million to

target children and adolescents (Harris et al., 2009). Furthermore, McDonalds expenditure

on media advertising in Australia increased from AU$6 million in 1983-84 to AU$50-55

million in 2005. In 2005 Kellogg (Australia) invested 74% of its media dollars in

television advertisements (CFAC, 2007). In addition, Nestle and Unilever spent AU$7.3

million and AU$3.7 million respectively in 2004 on magazine advertising and marketing

to children equating to 16-18% of total markets spent (Kelly and Chapman, 2007).

According to Rudd Center for Food Policy and Obesity press release in February 2010,

the Food Industry in the US spends over US$1.6 billion per year to market their product

directly to young people. Consequently, over 75% of US Food Manufacturers advertising

budgets and 45% of US Fast-food restaurant budget are allocated to television (Story and

French, 2004). Furthermore, advertising expenditure in 2005 for fast-food chain restaurant

and cafes in New Zealand was estimated to be NZ$67.4 million with McDonalds alone

contributing, NZ$21.42 million. In comparison only NZ$6.2 million was spent in 2005 on

advertising for fruits and vegetables (Dorey and McCool, 2009).

In the UK on the other hand, around half a billion pounds a year continues to be spent on

food advertising, most of it for sugary, fatty, fun foods with the healthier foods-fruit and

vegetables receiving negligible advertising support (Lang and Heasman, 2004). Recent

studies gives the total UK advertising spending per annum in the categories of food, soft

drinks and chain restaurants as STG743 million, with STG522 million spent on

television advertising and STG32 million spent in childrens airtime (Livingstone and


19/57

12

Helsper, 2006). Consequently, Consumers International (2004) identifies ten food and

beverages industries to have spent most on television advertising to children and

adolescent in the UK in 2003 as: Nestle, Kellogg, Coca-Cola, Master foods, Unilever,

Wrigley, Walkers, Procter and Gamble and Ferrero. The amount of spending in pounds

sterling and the food products advertised to children and adolescents are represented in

the table 2.2 below:

Table 2.2: Food and Beverages Industries Spending on Food Adverts in the UK 2003.

Source: Consumers International, (2004: 9)

Company Product Amount Spent in Pounds

Sterling (GBP)

1. Nestle Cereals, chocolate 43million

2. Kellogg Cereals 30million

3. CocaCola Drinks 26million

4. Masterfoods Chocolate 25million

5. Unilever Bestfoods Snacks, ready meals 23million

6. Unilever Ice-Cream and Frozen

foods

23million

7. Wrigley Chewing gum, mouth

fresheners

16million

8. Walkers Crisps 16million

9. Procter and Gamble Coffee, snacks 11million

10. Ferrero Chocolate 11million


20/57


21/57

14

However, CFAC (2007) vehemently stated that though the high in fat, sugar and salt (HFSS)

foods are prevalent among the food advertisements the prepaid convenience foods such as;

sauces; soups and ready meals and alcoholic beverages appear to dominate the food been

advertised and marketed to target children recently.

2.5 The Challenges of Advertising and Marketing to Children and Adolescents

There are many issues on the challenges of advertising and marketing of food to children and

adolescents. Story et al. (2009) stated that the issue of children and adolescents advertising

and marketing demands crucial attention in todays environment especially with the growth

of advertising and marketing to children in interactive, media and web based formats. The

problem of advertising to children and adolescents does not however, just lie within the

programmes specifically designed for them (ACCM, 2009; Radley, 2007; CI, 2004; YMA,

2003b).

Since, it has been stated that there is no market that is uniform therefore the issue and the idea

of advertising and marketing to children is given much concern (Radley, 2007; Hawkes,

2007). Buijzen et al. (2008) points out that for infants and young children, getting the age

correct is central to advertising and marketing success. Different studies show that children

begin to comprehend and respond to advertising between ages three and five (ACCM, 2009;

CFAC, 2007). From the age of five at the latest they start to articulate their brand and product

preferences strongly. The marketers therefore, must make its brands and products striking to

these different age groups (CI, 2008). However, marketers are aware that very few products

are bought by children themselves (YMA, 2003a), as concurred by Consumers international

(2008) that until they are well into their teens, children have minimal buying power. This

means that the advertisements must be satisfactory to the parents and the custodian of the

childrens buying power. Advertising and marketing must simultaneously excite and appeal

to children, while being comforting and engaging to adults (Swinburn et al., 2008). However,

Brownell et al. (2009) argued that the anticipated banning of food advertising and marketing

to youth by the Government, some organisations, advertisers, self-regulatory individuals only

attempt to reduce the amount of unhealthy food marketed to only children under the age of

12. They further warned that exposure to food advertising and marketing may also

significantly influence adolescents and do so at the time they are establishing life-long

consumer and eating behaviour pattern.


22/57

15

2.6 Social Responsibility and Ethical Issues related to Advertising and Marketing

According to Australian Council on Children and the Media (ACCM, 2009) young children

are particularly vulnerable to advertising as they are often unable to distinguish advertising

from programs. Furthermore, children under the age of five or six could not distinguish

effectively between advertisements and the programme they are watching (YMA, 2003a).

Radley (2007) found that children of seven years and over have developed an understanding

of the symbolic nature of brand meaning and notes that children over the age of seven appear

to have been equipped to deal with advertising; children are no more inexperienced about

advertising and marketing and are actually quite sceptical about its truthfulness. Young

Media Australia (YMA, 2003c) concurred with this and points out that these children under

the age of seven are unlikely to understand selling intent, to understand selling intent; the

child has to be able to take the perspective of another and to understand that the seller will

engage in puffery, trickery, exaggeration in order to sell. Children are not developmentally

capable of this until the age of seven or eight.

Brownell et al. (2008) asserted that children under the age eight are subjugated by advertising

and Hawkes (2007) notes that younger children are not as capable of protecting themselves

from pressure advertising and marketing exerts upon their exciting and rational drives.

Consequently, Radley (2007) warned that if younger childrens behaviours are being

influenced by advertising and yet, children are not entirely clear on what advertising is all

about, then advertisers should be linked with the ethics of social responsibility, as a

susceptible section of society is targeted when it can be strongly argued that they should not.

However, to achieve their sales and market share goals, more and more companies are now

resorting to exploitative and unethical marketing practices (Sheth and Sisodia, 2006).

Food and beverages companies take advantage of vulnerable customers such as children, the

elderly and the indigent. They convey a false sense of objectivity in their advertising, engage

in opportunistic pricing or price gouging, push harmful or unnecessary products, pressurise

customers into making swift decisions, or unduly influence trusted advisors to give customers

poor advices (Sheth and Sisodia, 2006). Further research shows that children who are

exposed to advertisements at anearly age are more vulnerable to them than those who have

less exposure. However, some researchers have pointed that it is difficult to envision of an

argument in favour of advertising directly to very young children (YMA, 2003a).


23/57

16

ACCM (2009) vehemently commented that majority of food and beverage purchases have

been reported by parents and guardians of these young consumers as nagging driven.

Parents feel that they are being pressurised by advertisers through the means of their children,

and very often experience this as an attack upon their finances and patience. Over half of the

advertisements shown during childrens television programmes are for food related products

not to mention at other times. The consumers International (2008) claims that parents find

that advertising of food stuffs makes it difficult for them to provide a healthy diet for their

children. Similarly, Radley (2007) concludes that ethical issues typically arise because of

conflicts between individuals personal moral philosophies and the marketing strategies,

policies and organisational environment in which they work. It has been observed that while,

advertisers and marketers face extensive regulations (Sheth and Sisodia, 2006), every issue is

not covered by an apparent, written rule, therefore, advertising and marketing related issues

area are left to the prudence of the advertiser and marketers (Hawkes, 2007: Powell et al.,

2007).

2.7 Summary

This chapter outlined the basic advertising and marketing concepts and dealt with both the

costs and types of food been advertised and marketed to children and adolescents. The

different social and ethical considerations were dealt with in depth and various challenges of

the food advertising and marketing were discussed. It is clear that food advertisers and

marketers aimed at children and adolescents as shown by the various spending on the foods

advertised and marketed to them. The effectiveness of this will be shown in the following

chapter on advertising and marketing channels and techniques used in advertising and

marketing of foods to children and adolescents.


24/57

17

Chapter 3: Food Advertising and Marketing Channels

3.1 IntroductionThe previous chapter discussed the concepts, types, costs of advertising and marketing as

well as types of food been advertised and marketed to children and adolescents. This chapter

will discuss all the various techniques and channels used by food and beverages industry in

advertising and marketing their products to children and adolescents. Also each technique

will be examined and its effects on the children and adolescents will be highlighted. The

various alternative methods used under the promotions techniques in food advertising and

marketing to children and adolescents will also be investigated.

3.2 Television Advertising

Advertising and marketing media consist of any means by which sales messages can be

conveyed to potential buyers. There are many forms of advertising and marketing media in

the industrialised countries and they are sometimes limited in the developing countries

(Jefkins, 1994). However, recent studies have identified multiple channels and techniques

used by the food companies to foster brand-building and influence the food and purchasing

behaviour of children as: television advertising, in-school marketing, product placements,

kids clubs, the internet, toys and products with brand logos, and youth -targeted promotions

(CI, 2008; Powel et al., 2007; Story and French, 2004). However, of all the channels use to

market foods to children; the television advertising is the most effective method of reaching

the young children and it is also recognised to be the largest single source of media messages

about food to children and adolescents (Hawkes, 2007; CFAC, 2007; Story and French, 2004;

CSPI, 2003). Lury (2001) quoted Anne Shooter in an article entitled Pre-school children

have Bedroom TVs in the Daily Mail of 7th of May 1999 as:

They are not even old enough to go to school but an alarming number of young children

are being allowed to choose what they watch on television by parents who let them have a

set in their bedroom. (Lury, 2001: 49)

It was further stated by the Independent Television Commission in their survey of Nations

viewing habits that in the UK one in five children aged four and under have their own

television. CFAC (2007) outlined three reasons for this as: (i) television is the easiest and


25/57

18

most effective vehicle for reaching large numbers of children nationwide; (ii) it gives

marketing access to children at much earlier ages than print media; and (iii) much is known

about how children understand and are influenced by television. Consequently, Jefkins

(1994) stated that television has been the major advertising and marketing medium in Britain

since the 1950s.

Furthermore, Roberts and Pettigrew (2007) notes that while many homes are having more

than one television set very few homes are without a television set, therefore television is an

attractive medium of advertising and marketing as it takes the advertisements right into the

home where it will be seen by the prospective buyer such as; children in the household who

influence purchase. However, it has been argued that food and beverage companies have

been using television advertisement to communicate other forms of advertising media to their

potential buyers recently (CI, 2008; CI, 2004). Kelly et al. (2008) and CFAC (2007)

concurred that recent studies have shown that the use of persuasive marketing techniques,

including premium offers, such as; competitions and give- away and promotional or favourite

characters, such as; celebrities and cartoons are significantly higher during children television

programs compare with other viewing times. Consequently, children have been estimated to

watch an average of 17 hrs of television every week, majority of which is commercial;

(Ofcom, 2007; Ofcom, 2004). Consumers International points out that almost all categories

of youth are been targeted by television advertisements. The effective power of television

advertising to children and adolescents can be understood with the figure 3.1 below:


26/57

19

Figure3.1: The power of Television Advertising to children and

adolescents



27/57

20

3.3 The Internet

The internet has become another powerful tool for assembling data about children in the

recent years as it has consolidated itself as a platform for worldwide communication and

marketing for all ages (Montgomery and Chester, 2009; Lenhart et al., 2007). Following the

launch of the World Wide Web in the mid of 1990s. The advertising and marketing industry

has paid particular attention to the special relationship that exists between the adolescents and

the internet (Montgomery and Chester, 2009). Consequently, in the UK advertisers spend

more on internet advertising than on television advertising. For instance, STG1.75 billion

was estimated to have been spent on internet food advertising to children in the first six

months of 2009 (Sweney, 2009). Similarly, it was reported that in 1998 a federal

investigation of web sites aimed at children in the US found that 89% requested personal

information from kids; only 1% required that children obtain parental approval before

supplying the information (Schlosser, 2002).

In addition, studies shows that in 2001-2002 the number of childrens website with no

advertisements dropped drastically from 10% to just 2% with the boundaries between the

commercial and non commercial been blurred or absent. However, 55% of all childrens web

advertising was in the form of high-energy foods and graphic rich games (CFAC, 2007).

Similarly, in a survey carried out by the Pew internet and American Life Project in 2007, it

was revealed that 93% of teens use the internet and more of them than ever are treating it as a

venue for social interaction a place where they can share creations, tell stories and interact

with others. The survey further revealed that 55% of youth between the ages of 12 and 17

have created a profile on a social networking site such as Facebook and MySpace.

Consequently, Montgomery and Chester (2009) points out that a growing number of

advertising agencies, market research firms and trend analysis companies have been

monitoring how cyberteens are incorporating digital media into their daily lives and are

therefore developing marketing strategies tailored to key psychosocial needs of adolescent.

In a similar study conducted in 2002-2003, it was found out that; 72% of household with

children under the age of 15 in Australia have internet, 61% of children accessed the internet

at home on a weekly basis, while 14% access the internet from home every day. The majority

of brands that are advertised and marketed directly to children and adolescents on the

television are also been maintained extensively on children and adolescents targeted

marketing on the internet (Roberts and Pettigrew, 2007)


28/57

21

Similarly, Harris et al. (2009) points out that Millsbery.com and Postopia.com are among the

largest youth -targeted websites on the internet with content devoted to promoting their child

brands. They further revealed that on average of 767,000 young children spend 66 minutes

per month on the Millsbery.com website; 265,000 young children spend more than 30

minutes each month on the Postopia.com website, while Frosted Flakes and Cookie crisp also

attract up to 80,000 young children each month with entertaining brand content. However,

Consumer International (2008) argues that while children have been identified as an ideal

target group for internet-based advertisers and as marketing on the internet is relatively new;

its regulation is still at the developmental stage in most countries. Therefore, the main

difficulty lies in the fact that while many existing regulations in theory also apply to online

advertising, in practice it is not always feasible to transfer the existing rules to internet

marketing owning to the complex and interactive nature of the technologies involved

(Hawkes, 2007).

3.4 In -School Marketing/Advertising

It has been revealed that for the past decades, the use of public schools as advertising and

marketing venues has grown drastically (Story and French, 2004), thus food and beverages

industries are taking the advantage in marketing their products to children and adolescents in

schools, either through promotional gimmicks that offered students the chance to win gadgets

such as mobile phones or through organised games and activities with the special

participation of company mascots (CI, 2008). However, Hawkes, (2007) argued that the

marketing of food products to children in the school environment in form of direct

advertising or indirect advertising is second only to television in terms of the amount of

controversy generated recently.

Story and French (2004) identify the reasons for this as: the desire to increase sales and

generate product loyalty among the children; the ability to reach large numbers of children

and adolescents in a contained setting; and the financial vulnerability of schools due to

chronic funding shortages. They further outlined four activities in which food and beverage

industry use in in-school marketing to be: (i) product sales; (ii) direct advertising; (iii)

indirect advertising; and (iv) market research with students. However, these have been

observed to involved direct promotion to children of unhealthy products, which are high in

fat, sugar and/or salt (Harris et al., 2009). Furthermore, recent studies have shown that KFC

in Malaysia has a programme called Chicky goes to School, whereby children and teachers


29/57

22

are encouraged to invite Chicky and his friends over to their schools to organise games and

activities, KFC also organises the Chicky Carnival, a theme-based annual event featuring

contests, musical shows, games, and rides. Similarly, in the Philippines, in order to appeal to

school children; Nestl conducted a promotional gimmick called COOL Scratch-Cards

Promos that offered students the chance to win various gadgets, such as mobile phones ,

game boys, Discmans, and Nestl branded items, such as Koko Krunch. However, these

promotions have been launched by the company in hundreds of schools nationwide (CI,

2008).

3.5 Toys and Product with Brand logos

Majority of the food and beverage industries now partner with the toy manufacturers to create

and design toys that advertise their foods to the kids and young children thereby, promoting

brand awareness and preferences among the children as these will create an early and positive

relationship with the children and their product (Robinson et al., 2007; Story and French,

2004; CI, 2004). However, these toys are aggressively marketed to children to coincide with

movie releases, often for M rated movies that are not even suitable for children under the

age of fifteen. Consequently, these younger children who have been exposed to these

merchandising campaigns, or had the toys bought for them, are more likely to put pressure on

their parents to see these movies and these are often done with disturbing results (YMA,

2003a). Consumers International (2004) claims that one of the most effective ways of

reaching children and adolescents consumers is by offering free toys with their meals. The

study further revealed that in 1999 alone, Burger King endorsed a Telletubbies Burger King

promotion which featured fifty Million (50,000,000) Telletubbies doll, this promotion has

doubled the sales of Burger Kings Kids Club in the US.

Australian Council on Children and the media (ACCM, 2009) notes that toy advertisements

has the following effects on children and adolescents: limit creative play among children and

adolescents; encourage violent play; are linked to violent movies which are unsuitable for

children and adolescent, but nonetheless marketed to them; encourage girls to focus on their

appearance; including a range of highly sexualised dolls with skimpy clothing; unrealistic

body proportion; and provocative expressions. Similarly, Robinson et al, (2007) notes that

during McDonalds television advertisements food are not even mentioned at all only toy that

are available in the latest collecting offer are shown. They further revealed that many toys

that will aid childrens development and imaginative play are not those advertised on


30/57

23

television. Consequently, Dibb and Harris (1996) found that up to 20% of fast food adverts

mention a free toy in their advertisement. The classic example of Food Company exploiting

this to their advantage is McDonalds Happy Meals which offer free toys that tie -in with the

latest film release. They generally offer a collectible set, and run the promotion over a limited

time, this ensures that in order for the child to collect the whole set he/she must purchase the

meal over a number of weeks. This strategy creates almost a frenzy of purchasing (Hastings

et al., 2003).

3.6 Product Placement

This is also one of the channels of advertising and marketing foods to children. Due to the

effectiveness of product placement in advertising and marketing of food targeted at children,

CFAC (2007) referred to it as an embedded marketing strategy. Product placements has

been gaining more popularity and acceptance since 1982 when it was first reported in US to

have been effective in increasing the sales of the peanut butter candy by 65% (Story and

French, 2004). However, it involves paying some amount of money to integrate a commercial

product into a programme, film, event and incorporation of brands in movies in return for

money or promotional support, such fees or money are variable depending on the prominence

of the placement (CFAC, 2007; Story and French, 2004). Consequently, in the US the fee for

product placement ranges from US$50,000 to US$100,000 (Story and French, 2004).

Similarly, in Australia Coca-Cola are appearing in the popular childrens movie called

Madagascar; Burger king; Kelloggs Cornflakes; and Pepsi appearing in the Movie

Fantastic Four. However, it was reported that in the US from 1974-2004 all product

placement on television skyrocketed from US$71 million to US$1.88 billion (CFAC, 2007).

These amounts exclude product placements in films, games, the internet, books or music.

3.7 Promotion

Promotion can be defined as: A planned and implemented marketing activity that both

enhances product or services appeal and changes customer behaviour positively in return for

an additional benefit for purchase or participation (Yeshin, 2006: 7). Similarly, Lury (2001)

points out that promotion involves a range of tactical marketing techniques that fit within a

strategy and are intended to add value as part of the process of achieving specific marketing

objectives. These techniques may include; free samples coupons, free gifts, collection

schemes, competition and the notable BOGOF (Buy one get one free).


31/57

24

Consequently, many food and beverage industries has found promotion as a commonly used

advertising and marketing method that reach vast majority of the children and adolescents

they are targeting (Dorey and McCool, 2009). Promotion used in advertising and marketing

to children and adolescents includes the use of many other strategies such as; movie tie in,

cross-selling premium, sweepstakes prizes, competition and the use of celebrities (CI, 2008;

Story and French, 2004). However, CFAC (2007) identifies five types of promotions been

used by food and beverage industry to market to children and adolescents as: the use of

favourite characters; movie tiein; competition; give -away and the use of sporting activities.

Further study conducted on product placement directed at children in Australian

supermarkets by CFAC (2007) revealed that over 70 different food products carry promotion

for children and 82% of these product placements were used on unhealthy food compared

with only 18% of promotions on healthy food products. Similarly, in Malaysia, Nestl ran a

promotion that offered a free Koko Krunch cereal bowl in three designs to include: Koko,

the brand-owned cartoon character, with every purchase of a standard pack of cereal (CI,

2008). The alternative techniques or types of promotions used by food and beverages

industries have been proved to be effective in targeting the children and adolescents as

outlined by CFAC (2007). Therefore, these alternative techniques will be examined in details

in the subsequent section.

3.7.1Favourite Character/ Celebrity

Studies have shown that in understanding the persuasive intent of advertising (Valkenburg,

2000), food and beverage industries and the fast food company come together and focus on

their attention on the teenage market by linking up with the most attractive and popular

movie stars, pop singers, sports celebrities, pop idols and cartoon characters (CFAC, 2007;

CI, 2004). However, one technique of using this to their advantage involves using childrens

and adolescents loyalty to a well known and loved character and using that character in the

advertisements (Robinson et al., 2007; CI, 2004). Powell et al. (2007) concurred that

advertisers understand that children want what others, especially what those they look up to

have, so to influence purchases they use real life heroes/role models to endorse the product.

For instance, in the US Pepsi has teamed up with Beyonce Knowles, Pink and Britney Spears

while McDonalds with Justin Timberlake came up with Im lovin it campaign and more

recently with Yao Ming pro basketball star (CI, 2004). Marketers use more complex

concepts in influencing this segments purchases (Kopelman, et al., 2007).


32/57

25

Similarly, Consumers International (2008) found out that celebrities are popular with children

and considered to be role model for them, therefore both classic Pepsi Cola and Lays are

advertised on India Television using celebrities such as; Bollywood actors Shahrukh Khan,

Saif Ali Khan and John Abraham to advertised Pepsi, along with the Indian Cricket team.

The study further revealed that new young stars such as Deepika Padukone and Ranbir

Kapoor starred in Pepsi advertisements showing the image of a young new India called

Youngistan with a packet of Lays below carrying the message Chala Change Ka Chakkar

(Change your life). Sportsperson Mahinder Singh Dhoni (Indian Cricket Team Captain) is

shown and a chance to exchange ones life with him and/or other film stars, for one day, has

been promoted as a prize by these companies.

3.7.2 Movie -tiein.

This is one of the aggressive ways of marketing food to children and adolescents through

promotional techniques (CFAC, 2007). In a study conducted by Consumers International

(2008) it was revealed that in May, 2008, Kelloggs in Hong Kong and India offered a fun

pack with a free toy, such as glow-in-the -dark adventure spoon to coincide with the release

of the Film entitled Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull. Similarly, in

Malaysia it was found out that each of KFCs Chicky Meals comes with a toy with the type

and design of the toys varying in accordance to KFCs current marketing tie-ins with movies,

cartoon characters, or popular toy figures. The X-Meal for teens often comes with collectible

merchandise, such as key chains. The study further revealed that in the Philippines KFC has

used film tie-ins such as: Superman, Spiderman, and Scooby Doo to market its meals. These

film icons appear on packaging, tumblers, or as toys.

3.7.3 Competition/ Sporting Activities

Food and beverages industries have been noticed nowadays to engage in deliberate

association of their brands and unhealthy products with sports activities, both in terms of

sponsoring Sports-themed competition where sports-related prizes can be won and in

sponsoring schools sport event (CI, 2008; CFAC, 2007; Story and French, 2004). These have

been argued to give contradictory message to children and adolescents about what constitutes

healthy lifestyles (Robinson et al., 2007). Harris et al. (2009) and Consumers International

(2008) claims that Energy products add to this confusion, such as; MILO, which is

marketed as providing energy plus vitamins and minerals and yet is high in fat and sugar.


33/57

26

According to the study of the effects of food advertising and marketing to children conducted

by Consumers International (2008) in the Asia pacific. it was found out that in 2008 alone,

Coca-Cola and Sprite brands in Malaysia were promoting a lucky draw, offering a grand

prize of two tickets to watch the EURO 2008 final in Europe and they also offered other

prizes such as; a 32-inch LCD TV; sports bags and football shirts. The study further revealed

that children between the age of 12 years old and above were allowed to enter the

competition. Furthermore, it was reported that, McDonalds in conjunction with the 2008

Beijing Olympics, ran the McDonalds Champion Kids Challenge for children below the

age of 14 in many parts of Asia, including Thailand and Malaysia. It was stated that three of

the Contestants that compete in the challenge will be selected to represent their country at the

2008 Olympic Games in Beijing, China.

Consequently, Consumers International (2004) argue that food and beverage companies

sponsor some event through widespread branding of their high sugar classic with a

particular reference to Coca-Cola brand. In a related study it was revealed that Coca-Cola has

been the main sponsor of an athletic competition for about 120 secondary schools in Fiji

called the Coke Games for the last 25 years which has also been argue to give children

contradictory messages about what constitutes a healthy lifestyle (Harris et al., 2009; CI,

2008). Furthermore, McDonalds Malaysia has been reported to have a programme for young

children called Fitness Fun with Ronald McDonald, which is aimed to encourage young

Malaysian children to live a healthy and balanced lifestyle. Ronald McDonald is the central

character in the programme, teaching children about good nutrition and fitness. The "Fitness

Fun" show is performed free for lower primary schools and kindergarten premises.

3.7.4 Give- away

This has been recognised as a method of giving away free samples of products to introduce

what a company is selling to people or their customers (Jefkin, 1994). However, this allows

new and potential customers to sample before they purchase (Yeshin, 2006). Furthermore, a

give-away can be simple samples given to introduce customer to a product a company have,

or can be costly event that introduces everyone to all of their services for free (Wells et al.,

1998). Therefore, this is one of the promotion methods used by food and beverage industries

to gives numerous gift and novelties to people especially children and adolescents to

persuade them (CFAC, 2007). Although some of the gifts may have genuine usefulness and

may last long, such gifts and novelties include; pens, key-rings, wallets, bottle openers,


34/57

27

calculators, and drinking mugs (Jefkins, 1994). However, nowadays stickers, magnets and

DVDs were given as take away to children and adolescents in a collectible set so as to attract

them to the products (CFAC, 2007).

3.8 Summary

This chapter examined the various channels and techniques used by food and beverage

industry in advertising and marketing their products to the children and adolescents. The

television advertisement and the internet have been discovered to be the most powerful

techniques used by these industries in selling their products to the young consumers. Also the

alternative methods used in promotion have been outlined and they were found to be very

effective in targeting the children and adolescents both in school and at home e.g. the use of

favourite characters and competitions.


35/57

28

Chapter 4: Children and Adolescents Comprehension of Food Advertising

and Marketing.

4.1 Introduction

The previous chapter has shown the advertising and marketing channels or techniques used

by Food and beverage industries in targeting the children and adolescents but there are still

series of questions to be asked while talking about children understanding and comprehension

of all these food advertisements and marketing. The main questions surrounding the idea of

ethics in advertising and marketing to children and adolescents are: (i) how much do they

actually recognize and (ii) at what age do they begin to comprehend what advertisements andmarketing are trying to do? These questions have raised many differing viewpoints from

researchers, parents, academics and even among the food advertisers. This chapter seeks to

shed light on and discuss some conflicting viewpoints relating to this responsive issue.

4.2 Cognitive Development of Children and Adolescents

According to Warren et al. (2008) when talking about the children and adolescents cognitive

development the basic theory of it is the Piagets (1970) cognitive development theory. This

theory holds that children and adolescents development starts with the acquisition of sensory-

motor skills and is driven by direct experience. As children grow into adults and interact with

their environment, they gradually acquire logical and abstract reasoning skills. Cognitive

development is then driven by childrens failures to understand and act on their environment.

Adapting to such failures is a matter of learning to think abstractly about matters beyond a

Childs direct experience.

Similarly, Radley (2007) proposed that to understand the needs of the child it is necessary to

look at the eight individual areas of development, which constitute the whole child. However,

these areas are inter related and must not be thought of solely in isolation from each other. To

understand the content of food advertising and marketing in young children and adolescents

two important cognitive processing concepts have been outlined as: (i) children and

adolescents propensity for sensory- based processing and (ii) notion of centration (warren et

al., 2008). They further explain the first concepts as; children below the age of 7 years are

able to adopt cognitive processing strategies that enter on their immediate sensory


36/57

29

environment. Thus, young children are more attractive to salient perceptual cues such as

animation, lively music and auditory changes. The uses of these Audio/Visual cues are

especially helpful to recognition memory of products and brand names.

The second concept highlights that young children and adolescents processing skills only

focus on their attention on Audio/Visual cues but exclude verbal content. Hence, a child can

be distracted by perceptual cues presenting simultaneously with pertinent product

information. However, the cognitive development of young children involves the

development of perception, memory, language and the ability to differentiate and make sense

of the world which surrounds them (Radley, 2007). Consequently, marketers segment

children by the various levels of their cognitive development at different ages. Using this to

their advantage, they create adverts with different creative strategies to appeal to each age

group (Hastings et al., 2003), enabling them to address children in their own world (Dibb

and Harris, 1996). In general, advertisers use simple techniques for children advertising, like

saturating the advertisement with animation, fast-pace, action, music, catchy jingles, and

humour. However, Brownell et al. (2008) notes that food and beverage industry are not only

targeting the children with these techniques alone but also targeting the adolescents as they

now use various techniques that are specifically design based on their cognitive development.

4.3 Children and Adolescents Viewing Habits

It has been stated that through television advertisers can reach a whole spectrum of

consumers especially young children and adolescents (CI, 2004). Therefore, many studies

have been carried out on the relationship between viewing food advertisements and food

choices and consumption in children and adolescents (Department of Health, 2008; Ofcom,

2007; Hastings et al., 2003). Furthermore, studies have shown that children are exposed to an

overwhelming amounts of advertisements (CFAC, 2007) and these advertisements regularly

breach regulations on premium offer by devoting over 95% of the total advertisement time to

the premium offer (CI, 2004). Hence, product preferences always occur with as little as a

single commercial exposure and to strengthen with repeated exposures (CFAC, 2007;

Robinson et al., 2007; CI, 2004). Consequently, Powell et al. (2007) reported that in 2005

alone, both the children and the teens watched on average of 3 hours and 19 minutes of food

television advertising per day in the US, yielding a cumulative exposure of more than 1,000

hours annually. Consequently, this makes television one of the most effective vehicles to

deliver food marketing messages to children and adolescents (Stitt and Kunkel, 2008). In


37/57

30

Australia on the other hand children and adolescents on the average watch 2 hours 30 minutes

of television per day. But in terms of advertising, children watching commercial television

are likely to see 30 commercials per hour, 75 commercials per day and 23,000 commercials

per year (ACCM, 2009). Furthermore, recent study conducted in 6 countries by Consumers

International revealed that 30% of Malaysian children, 16% of Indonesia children, 10% of

India children, 18% of Philippines children and 10% of South Korean children respectively

watch over eight hours of television a day during holidays and are exposed to over two and

half hours of advertisements a day. Similarly, 73% of Pakistani children claim to love

television advertisements as compared to 68% of their Filipino counterpart (CI, 2004).

4.4 Children and Adolescent Perception of Food Advertising and Marketing

According to Rudd center for Food Policy and Obesity young children perceived the

unhealthy foods products advertisements shown to them to be cool, fun and exciting therefore

they follow the messages in these advertisements and pester their parents to buy the these

food products, consume the food products anytime and anywhere. Hastings et al. (2003)

stated that childrens perceptions of what foods are good and bad to eat, comprehension of

what constitutes as a well balanced diet, perceptions and knowledge of the nutritional value

of different food products, ability to understand the composition of processed foods, and

understanding of nutritional contents can be corrupted by food advertisements as children are

bombarded by enjoyable and memorable adverts for foods that are low in nutrition, with little

or no exposure to adverts promoting healthy, nutritious foods such as fruit or vegetables.

Similarly, branding of foods and beverages influences young children perception, since

branding is one of the goals of marketing to encourage children to recognise and differentiate

particular products and logos (Stitt and Kunkel, 2008). However, by 2 years of age children

may belief in specific brands and 2-6 years olds may be able to recognise familiar brand

names packaging, logos and characters and they should be able to associate them with

products (Robinson et al., 2007).

4.5 Regulations on Food Advertising and Marketing Targeted at Children.

Despite the recognition of the growing obesity problem, levels of unhealthy/non-core food

advertising and marketing on all the media have remained critically high and deliberately

targeted at children and adolescents (CI, 2008; Hawkes, 2007; Dibbs and Harris, 1996). The

lack of healthy food promotion to challenge the excessive advertising of unhealthy foods

provides children with a distorted perspective on healthy and normal food choices,


38/57

31

encouraging the selection of unhealthy options (Radley, 2007; CI, 2004). Since, many studies

have shown that the food advertised and marketed to children has influence on their health,

food consumption and food choice (DH, 2008; CI, 2008; Ofcom, 2007; CI, 2004).

Consequently, many countries have raised the issue about the need for imposing stricter

regulations and controls on food advertising and marketing to children and adolescents

(Hawkes, 2007; Ofcom, 2007; CI, 2004). However, there is wide disparity between countries

in their approach to the marketing and advertising to children and adolescents (CFAC, 2007).

while some have limited restrictions on advertising unhealthy food to children and

adolescents others have no statutory protection on any form of advertising and marketing at

all (CI, 2008). Hawkes (2007) notes that the regulation on non-traditional forms of marketing,

sponsorship, product placement and sales promotions can be described as patchy with regards

to children and adolescents. He further argued that while regulations on sponsorship and sales

promotions are fairly common, very few countries have regulations on these forms of

marketing that are specific to children, adolescents and /or food.

However, in the US there are currently few policies or standard for advertising and marketing

aimed at children and adolescents (Story and French, 2004). They further stated that in the

US advertising industry maintains self-regulatory policies established by the childrens

Advertising Review Unit (CARU) of the National Council of Better Business Bureaus.

However, it was further argue that the guidelines that (CARU) has can only apply to all forms

of children and adolescents advertisements but it has no legal authority over advertisers and

can only seek for voluntary compliance (Story and French, 2004). Similarly, in Australia the

statutory regulation is the responsibility of the Australian Communication and Media

Authority (ACMA). It oversees the implementation of the Childrens Television Standard

(CTS) (CFAC, 2007). In addition, several countries such as: Sweden, Norway, Belgium,

Denmark, Italy, Ireland and Canada (Quebec) has begun to take steps on reduction of food

promotion and advertising to children and adolescents through television programmes

(Hawkes, 2007; CFAC, 2007). In Sweden and Norway for instance, a ban has been put on

commercial advertising to children under 12 years of age (CFAC, 2007).

Furthermore, to ensure that children and adolescents are free from aggressive marketing and

advertising of unhealthy food products, the Consumers International (CI) and International

Obesity Task Force (IOTF) in their joint campaign of March 2008 against the marketing of

unhealthy foods to children and adolescents recommended that: there should be no promotion


39/57

32

of unhealthy foods in schools; there should be no inclusion of free gifts, toys or collectibles

items which appeal to children and adolescents to promote unhealthy foods; and there should

be a ban on radio or television adverts promoting unhealthy food between the children

viewing hours of 06.00 - 21.00. However, the UK advertising industry claims that:

it is only by exposing children to advertising in a responsible and sensible way that

they can learn how to make judgements in a commercial world, and that to prevent

children from seeing advertising is to deprive them of information to which they have

a legitimate right. (Hill and OSullivan, 2004: 319)

4.6 Summary

This chapter dealt with children and adolescent cognitive development in an effort to

understanding the age at which they can fully understand the content and intent of advertising

and marketing. Children and adolescents viewing habits were also reviewed in some in depth.

The chapter also discussed childrens and adolescents perception of advertising and

marketing as well as the various regulations embarked upon by various countries and

organisations on banning the activities of food and beverage industry in marketing the

unhealthy food to children and adolescents through the media of advertising and marketing.


40/57

33

Chapter 5: Effects of Food Advertising and Marketing on Children and

Adolescents

5.1 IntroductionThe previous three chapters have shown the serious impacts of food advertising and

marketing to children and adolescents. It is clear that the food and beverage industry are

spending more to target these young consumers through different persuasive and appealing

advertising and marketing techniques. Also the issues surrounding the unethical and

unregulated way the food and beverage industries advertised and marketed their food have

been discussed. The nutritional content of the food advertised and marketed to children and

adolescents, the health risks and diseases associated with the food marketed as well as itsinfluences on their food preferences, eating behaviour and parental purchases will be

discussed in this chapter.

5.2 Nutritional Content of Food Advertised and Marketed to Childrenand Adolescents

Most chronic diseases experienced by an individual in adulthood originate from nutritional

habits they form during childhood (Dietz, 2001). Therefore a healthy diet during childhood is

vital in preventing chronic diseases in adulthood (Story and French, 2004). CFAC (2007)

commented that children with unhealthy diets are also at greater risk of poor mental health,

and are more likely to suffer from behavioural problems. Despite this, children are currently

not eating in accordance with the healthy recommended dietary guidelines. Although The UK

Food Standards Agency (FSA) in January 2007, published standard criteria of nutritional

content of food and classified food as low, medium and high in fat, sugar and salt content (CI,

2008).

However, large majority of food products advertised and marketed to children and

adolescents (84.5%) are for items that are not appropriate as part of a regular diet and only a

very small fraction (3.1%) of them are healthy foods (Stitt and Kunkel, 2008). Dibb and

Harris (1996) found that 95% of all food advertised in the UK were foods high in calories,

saturated fat, refined sugar, and salt, and that 62% of food products advertised to children on

television were high fat, 61% high in salt, and 50% high in sugar. Similarly, in a study

conducted on the nutritional content of food advertised and marketed to children and

adolescents in the US by Powell et al. (2007), it was found that 97.8% and 89.4% of food


41/57

34

advertisements viewed by children between the ages of 2- 11 years and adolescent between

the ages of 12- 17 years respectively, were the food that is high in fat, sugar, or salt.

According to the study, almost all the beverages advertisements (99.5%) were for high-sugar

beverages while two third of advertised snacks were high in sugar with over one third being

high in fat and one quarter being high in saturated fat. In addition, sweets were found not to

be only high in sugar (88.6%), but almost one- half (47.4%) were high in saturated fat. The

study further revealed that on average, 46.1% and 47.1% of total calories among the products

advertised come from sugar in the advertisements seen by these respective age groups (2-11)

and (12-17). Similarly, it was noted that a total of 97.6% of cereal advertisements seen by

children between the ages of 2- 11 years were for high sugar cereals. Therefore, the study

concluded that majority of food advertisements seen on television by American children and

adolescents are of poor nutritional content. This is in line with previous studies of Story and

French (2004) which revealed that in the U.S, children now obtain over 50% of their calories

from fat or added sugar and that 65% of all cereal in take was for pre-sweetened cereals.

However, CSPI (2003) argues that only 2% of food advertising is for foods that should make

up the main part of a healthy diet, including fruit, vegetables and grains.

Similarly, in Australia the food advertised to children and adolescents were diametrically

opposed to foods recommended for children. For instance, of the total food advertised in

2007; 72.2 % were for food high in fat, sugar and salt (HFSS), while only 1.5% and 1.7%

were for vegetables and fruits respectively (Roberts and Pettigrew, 2007). In general these

foods that are of low nutritional value and particularly high in sugar, fat, and salt, are heavily

promoted while the recommended healthy diet gets very little if any promotion (CFAC,

2007). Powell et al. (2007) concludes that children and adolescents consume excessive

dietary fat and sugar whereas, fruits, vegetables and various micronutrients intake among

them is lower than recommended. The recommended nutritional content of food for children

and adolescents as published by Food Standards Agency (FSA) in 2007 and The Australian

National Health and Medical Research Councils (NHMRC) dietary guidelines to children

and adolescents are shown in table 5.1 and figure 5.1 below respectively:


42/57

35

Table: 5.1: UK Food Standards Agency Nutritional Content Classification (per100ml/100g


Low Medium High

Fat(per100g) 3g and

below

Between 3g and20g Over 20g

Fat(per100ml) 1.5g and

below

Between1.5gandbel

ow

Over 10g

Saturates(per100g) 1.5g and

below

Between1.5and 10g Over 5g

Saturates(per

100ml)

0.75g and

below

Between 0.75g and

2.5g

Over 2.5g

Total

sugars(per100g)

5g and

below

Between 5g and

15g

Over 15g

Total sugars(100ml) 2.5g and

below

Between 2.5g and

7.5 g

Over 7.5

Salt(100g/100ml) 0.3g and

below

0.3 g and1.5g Over 1.5g


43/57

36

Figure 5.1: The National Health and Medical Research Councils dietary guidelines

for Children and Adolescents in Australia.

(Source: Roberts and Pettigrew, 2007:3


44/57

37

5.3 Health Risks and Diseases associated with Food Advertising and Marketing.

Children and adolescents need good nutrition in order to grow and develop to their potential

and to be protected against chronic diseases (Dixon et al., 2006). However, few children and

adolescents eat the amount of fruits, vegetables, whole grains and calcium-rich foods as

recommended in the dietary guidelines for them (Story et al., 2009; CI, 2008). They are

enticed by the persuasive marketing of the unhealthy food advertised by food and beverage

Documents

Review on Food Adverts