REVIEW SHEET including EQUATIONS and CONSTANTS

ATOMIC STRUCTURE

MASS SPECTROMETRY

---------------------------------------------------------------- PERIODIC TRENDS IN PROPERTIES:

Periodic TrendsFor periodic trends consider: All periodic trends rely on Coulomb's law.

1. If the things being compared have the same number ofoccupied energy levels, depend on the # of protons.More protons=more pull. Go to the trend below.

2. If the things being compared have a different numberof occupied energy levels, the thing with more occupiedenergy levels has valence electrons farther from thenucleus so there is less pull on those electrons. Go tothe trend below.A. Ionization energy--Closer electrons, morepull=higher IE. More protons, more pull, morepull=higher IE.B. Radius (either atomic or ionic or both)--Less layersof electrons=smaller size. Same # of layers, moreprotons=smaller electron cloud/size.C. Electronegativity--the amount of pull or "lust" forelectrons in a bond. Less layers of electrons=closer tothe nucleus=greater electronegativity. Moreprotons=greater electronegativity.D. Electron affinity--energy released when an electronis added (opposite of ionization energy). More layersof electrons=farther away=less energy released. Moreprotons=more energy released.

Fr = largest & lowest IE (least Zeff, most shielding)

d orbitals Groups 3-12:

transition metals

smallest & highest ionization energy = He most electronegative & reactive = F

p orbitals

Group 17: halogens

Group 18: noble gases

Group 1: alkali Group 2: alkaline earth

s orbitals

↑at

trac

tion

(↓ s

hie

ldin

g)

↑attraction (↑ Zeff)

weighted average atomic mass = (mass1 · %) + (mass2 · %) + (mass3 · %) + …

BONDING & IMFs

Coulombic Attraction: F ∝ 𝑞1𝑞2

𝑟2

q = charge (more charge is more attraction) r = radius (more

distance is less attraction)

-------------------------------------------------------------------- LEWIS STRUCTURES

Count-------Connect-------Octet-------Octet-------Mult. Bonds (val e–’s) (bonds) (outer) central) (double or triple)

Formal Charge = val e – #lone e – #bondsWant a formal charge of 0 for all elements, but if any element is negative, it must be the most electronegative.

-------------------------------------------------------------------- IMFs• H-bonds a SUPER polar DP-DP. A H attached to F, O, or N is attracted

to a F, O, or N on another molecule.

• dipole-dipole int’s (polar ) (stronger with greater ∆electronegativity)

• dispersion forces, LDFs (nonpolar )(temporary dipoles)

(stronger with more e–’s , more polarizable) -------------------------------------------------------------------- ATTRACTIONS IN SOLIDS, LIQUIDS, & GASES Attractions in Solids, Liquids, & Solutions

Molecular

Covalent-Network

Ionic

Metallic

Soft

Low mp & bpPoor conductor

Very hard

Very high mpPoor conductor

Hard and brittle

High mpConducts as (aq) or (l)

Soft to very hard

Low to very high mp

Malleable, Ductile, Conductor

Ar I2 CO2 H2O C2H5OH C11H22O11

C(diamond)

SiO2

WC2

NaClCuSO4

All metals& alloys: Cu, Fe, K, Al,…

Covalent Bonds (network)C(diamond) , SiO2 (quartz) ,WC2 (tungsten carbide) , etc…

Ionic Bondscrystal lattice of charged ions

Intermolecular Attractions (IMAFs)London dispersion forces

Dipole-dipole interactions

Hydrogen bonds

Type Forces Between Particles Properties

d- d+

- +q1q2

d

(nonpolar)(polar)

(H with N, O, F)

Metallic Bonds+ metal ions indelocalized “sea” of e–’s

• harder and higher mp of solid (higher Hfusion)• higher bp of liquid (higher Hvaporization)• higher viscosity (resistance to flow)• lower vapor pressure (less vapor above a liquid)

Stronger Attractions cause…

Unit 1 Unit 2, 3a

MASS , COMPOSITION , STOICH , & SOLUTIONS

mass % = g part

g total sample × 100%

% yield = experimental

theoretical× 100%

% error = |experimental−theoretical|

theoretical× 100%

moles (n) = mass (g)

molar mass (MM)

Find EMPIRICAL & MOLECULAR FORMULA:

1) % to mass (g) (if %’s given, write as grams) 2) mass to mol (convert with molar mass) 3) ÷ by small (to get lowest ratio) 4) times ‘til whole (if necessary, x by 2 or 3)

molecular mass

empirical mass= multiple of empirical →

-------------------------------------------------------------------- STOICHIOMETRY ___ g A x 1 mol A x mol B x B = g A mol A mol B (molar mass) (mole ratio) -------------------------------------------------------------------- ELECTROLYTES: ionize or dissociate into charges (strong, weak, non) in solution conducting electricity

Always soluble ions: SNAP (Na+, NO3–, NH4

+, K+)

Concentration [ ] in Molarity, M = moles solute

L solution

M1V1 = M2V2 (dilution) 1000 mL = 1 L -------------------------------------------------------------------- SOLUTION FORMATION

Molecular Formula

6.022 x 1023 1 mole

Unit: g B , or L B , or particles B , etc.

Whatever unit of B asked for.

(if given grams A)

ACIDS & BASES

Acid: donates proton (H+)

HA + B → BH+ + A– (acid) (conjugate base)

Strong Acids (completely ionize) HNO3 , H2SO4 , HCl HBr HI , HClO4 ------------------------------------------------------------------- Base: accepts proton (H+)

HA + B → BH+ + A– (base)(conjugate acid)

Strong Bases (completely ionize) hydroxides (OH–) of Group 1 and CBS

LiOH NaOH KOH , Ca(OH)2 Ba(OH)2 Sr(OH)2

-------------------------------------------------------------------

REACTIONS Net Ionic Equations (NIE’s) Complete------Dissociate------Cross------Net------Bal (molecular) (strongs & SNAP) (spectators)

REDOX (OX#’s change) (elements have OX# 0)

half RED: O20(g) + 4 e– → 2 O2–(aq)

rxns OX: Mg0(s) → Mg2+(aq) + 2 e–

1) Synthesis 2 Mg0 + O20 → 2 MgO

2) Decomposition 2 H2O → 2 H20 + O2

0

3) Single Replacement(metal + acid)

Zn0 + 2 H+ → Zn2+ + H20(g)

Single Replacement(metal + metal ion)

2 Na0 + Fe2+ → 2 Na+ + Fe0

4) Combustion CH4 + O20 → CO2 + 2 H2O

NOT REDOX (same ions w/ same charges, just switch partners) 5) Double Rep.

(Precipitation)Ag+ + Cl– → AgCl(s)

Double Rep.(Acid-Base)

HC2H3O2 + OH– → C2H3O2– + H2O

Double Rep. (acid + carbonate)

MgCO3 + 2 H+ → Mg2+ + H2O + CO2(g)

BEER-LAMBERT LAW (LAB)

concentration determined by light absorbed thru solution

A = bc A = absorbance = molar absorptivity (M–1cm–1) b = path length (cm) c = concentration (M)

Greater A (absorbance) , Higher c (concentration)

Endo

solute-solute att’s break

Endo

solvent-solvent att’s break

Exo solute-solvent

att’s form

more soluble with more similarsolute-solvent att’s

(similar IMAFs or ion-dipole)

Unit 1, 3b, 3c, 4c

Unit 3d

Unit 4a

Unit 4c

if REDOX: O HE BAL U

(no spectator ions shown)

KINETICS

Rate of rxn depends on: 1) collision frequency2) collision energy (Eact)3) proper orientation of particles

↑ exposed surface area = more frequent collisions ↑ concentration = more frequent collisions ↑ Temp = more frequent collisions & more KECatalysts speed up rxns by lowering activation energy. The highest activation energy in a stepwise graph is the rate determining step. ---------------------------------------------------------------- Rate = k[A]m[B]n (general rate law) shows reactants in RDS (slow step) of mechanism ---------------------------------------------------------------------- [A]t = concentration of A after some amount of time[A]0 = initial concentration of A

0th order: rate law: ------------------------------------- ------------ -----Rate = k

integrated rate law: [A] t – [A]0 = –kt

----------------------------------------------------------- 1st order: rate law: Rate = k[A]1

integrated rate law: ln[A]t – ln[A]0 = –kt

1st order has constant half-life (t1/2)

t1/2 = 0.693

k

----------------------------------------------------------------------------

2nd order: rate law: Rate = k[A]2

integrated rate law: 1

[A]t−

1

[A]0 = kt

[A]

slope = –kt

time

time

ln[A

]

slope = –k

0th b/c A is not areactant in the

RDS (slow step)of mechanism

time

slope = k

1 [𝐴]

PE

catalyzed lower Eact

(intermediate:

Rate is M/t so: Rate = k M = ?

tunits of k: M·t–1 t is s OR min OR etc.

Rate is M/t so: Rate = k[A]1 M = ? · M

tunits of k: t–1 t is s OR min OR etc.

Rate is M/t so: Rate = k[A]2 M = ? · M2

tunits of k: M–1·t–1 t is s OR min OR etc.

produced then consumed)

activation energy GASES

PV = nRT (Ideal Gas Law)

P = pressure 1 atm = 760 mmHg = 760 torr V = volume (L) 1 L = 1000 mL n = moles

R = gas constant 0.08206 L∙atm

mol∙K𝑶𝑹 62.36

L∙torr

mol∙K

T = temperature (K) C + 273 = K ----------------------------------------------------------------

MM = mRT

PV (molar mass of a gas)

----------------------------------------------------------------

PA = Ptotal × XA mole fraction, XA = moles A

total molesPtotal = PA + PB + PC + …

----------------------------------------------------------------

STP = 273.15 K and 1.0 atm

22.4 L·mol–1 @ STP (volume of 1 mol of gas) ----------------------------------------------------------------

Density(D) = m

VMM =

DRT

P

KEmolecule = 1

2𝑚𝑣2

m = mass (or molecular mass) v = velocity

lower mass (↓m) , faster speed (↑v) higher Temp (↑KE) , faster speed (↑v)

---------------------------------------------------------------- IDEAL vs NON-IDEAL

Most ideal with weakest IMAFs and at:

• high Temp b/c IMAFs are negligible (high KE)

• low Pressure b/c particle volume is negligiblecompared to great total volume

lower Temp

higher Temp

Unit 3b Unit 5

THERMODYNAMICS

–H = exothermic(heat lost to surroundings so Temp)

+H = endothermic(heat absorbed from surroundings so Temp)------------------------------------------------------------If rxn is reverse, … then H is opposite (–H).

If rxn is multiplied by 2, ½, 3, etc…. …then H is multiplied by that number, too.

If rxn 1 is added to rxn 2, ... …then H1 is also added to H2 ------------------------------------------------------------

∆H= (bonds broken) – (bonds formed) ------------------------------------------------------------ CALORIMETRY (LAB)

q = mcT q = heat energy (J) m = mass (g) (if a solid is added to a solution, the mass is the total of the two) Put in the mass of the thing that changed temperature.

c = specific heat capacity (J

g∙℃) or (

J

g∙K)

T = change in temperature (℃) or (K)

Hsystem = –qsurroundings

convert J to kJ and ÷ by moles to get “molar heat of rxn” (Hrxn in kJ/mol)

c = specific heat capacity (J

g∙℃) or (

J

g∙K)

means the amount of heat energy lost OR gained to change 1 g of matter by 1oC.

----------------------------------------------------------------- HEATING CURVES

In Sections Q and S, added heat does not increase KE (Temp), but increases PE by overcoming attractions and separating particles to change phase.

solid

liquid

gas

Q: melting q = n · Hfusion

S: boiling q = n · Hvaporization

R: (q = m·c·T)

Unit 6 EQUILIBRIUM

aA + bB ⇌ cC + dD [ no (s) or (l) in K expressions ]

Kc = [C]c[D]d

[A]a[B]b (conc’s in M) (aq) OR (g)

Kp = (PC)c(PD)d

(PA)a(PB)b (P in atm) (g) ONLY

K > 1; more products than reactants @ equilibrium K < 1; more reactants than products @ equilibrium

------------------------------------------------------------------- If rxn is reverse, … then K is inverse (1/K OR K–1)

If rxn is multiplied by 2, ½, 3, etc…. …then K is raised to that power: K2 , K½ , K3, etc.

If rxn 1 is added to rxn 2, ... …then K1 is multiplied to K2 ------------------------------------------------------------------- Q (reaction quotient) K = Q ; at equilibrium K<Q ; too much product, shift left form reactant K>Q ; too much reactant, shift right form product-------------------------------------------------------------- AmBn(s) ⇆ mA+(aq) + nB–(aq)

Ksp = [A+]m[B–]n (solubility product constant)

K= Q; saturated K<Q ; saturated, shift left to precipitate solid K>Q ; unsaturated, shift right dissolve into ions

Common Ion Effect: shift left (less soluble) -------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Use RICE tables to track what changes during rxn: R eaction (shows mole ratios as coefficients) I nitial (write units! mol OR M OR atm) C hange E quilibrium (write units! mol OR M OR atm)

- Add R or P:

- Remove R or P:

- Volume: ↓V shifts to

↑V shifts to

- Temp.

↑T shifts

↓T shifts

- Catalyst or non-reactive gas (He, Ne, Ar):

shifts away from the additionshifts toward the removal

fewer mol of gas (↓ngas)

Le Châtelier’s Principle

more mol of gas (↑ngas)

no shift

(changes K)(Heat + R ↔P)(R ↔P + Heat)

(Ptotal)

in endo dir. to use up heat

in exo dir. to make more heat

System at equilibrium disturbed by change (affecting

collisions) will shift ( or →) to counteract the change.

Unit 7

Temp behaves like any reactant or product.