Review: Tea Tree (Melaleuca Alternifolia) As A New ... IPN KK 2015/21-39.pdf · Practically, the commercial tea tree oil is produced from Melaleuca alternifolia (Maiden and Betche)

Journal of Applied Science and Agriculture, 10(3) Special 2015, Pages: 21-39

AENSI Journals

Journal of Applied Science and Agriculture ISSN 1816-9112

Journal home page: www.aensiweb.com/JASA

Corresponding Author: Rodney, J., Faculty of Science and Natural Resources, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, 88400 Kota

Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia.

Review: Tea Tree (Melaleuca Alternifolia) As A New Material For Biocomposites

1,2

Rodney, J., 2Sahari, J.,

3Mohd Kamal Mohd Shah

1Faculty of Science and Natural Resources, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, 88400 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia. 2Knowledge and Technology Management Division, Sabah Economic Development & Investment Authority (SEDIA), 88873, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia. 3Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Sabah 88400, Kota Kinabalu, Malaysia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Article history:

Received 25 November 2014

Received in revised form 26 December 2014

Accepted 1 January 2015

Available online 10 January 2015

Keywords:

Tea tree Melaleuca alternifolia Biocomposites Agricultural waste

Melaleuca alternifolia or commonly known as tea tree is a tall shrub or small tree in the

plant genus Melaleuca. It is popular for its oil, which is tea tree oil where it has been

employed largely in various industries of its antimicrobial properties. Research works are still ongoing mainly focusing on the tea tree oil properties, ultimately almost none

of them investigating on the residue which is the leaves. Environmental issues become

the world major concern, which create awareness among industrial player to turn back to natural fibre in producing products. In recent time, productions of composites from

agro waste have received considerable attention. This paper aims to rationalize the

potential of tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia) leaves as a new source of natural fibres or material in order to become the potential filler or reinforcer in the development of a

new biocomposite.

© 2015 AENSI Publisher All rights reserved.

To Cite This Article: Rodney, J., Sahari, J., Mohd Kamal Mohd Shah., Review: Tea Tree (Melaleuca Alternifolia) As A New Material For

Biocomposites. J. Appl. Sci. & Agric., 10(3): 21-39, 2015

INTRODUCTION

Agricultural waste, or agro-wastes are by-products from agricultural activities, which can be husk, straw,

cobs or fiber (Abba et al., 2013). In recent time, industrial players have move towards green and sustainable

industry, as global warming and depletion of resources occurs every now and then, which lead to the

productions of composites from agro waste. Malaysia, a tropical country, blessed with varieties of plants and

trees, produces a massive amount of agricultural waste, which are 47,402 dry kilotonne/year (Goh et al., 2010)

and most of it contributed from palm oil industries (Sumathi et al., 2008). Natural fibres from non-wood

materials in the form of fibres and/or particles have received attention by different wood-based industries, as this

can reduce the large amount of wood used as feedstock by wood-based industries and would preserve and

maintain the environment without much destruction (Alwani et al.,2014). Table 1 shows the examples of agro

waste. As we are moving forward, every potential natural fibre, which derived from the agricultural wastes, will

be explored in order to have more options of natural fibres compared to ready existing natural fibres.

2.0 Tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia):

2.1 History of tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia):

Tea tree (Fig. 1 and Fig. 2) is native to Australia, where it is found from Queensland to north-east New

South Wales. The Australian abrorigines have long using the tea tree leaves to treat cuts and wounds. Crushed

leaves were applied directly to an injury, then held in place with a mud pack. This poultice helped fight infection

in the wound. The widespread usage of the tea tree oil started with the finding of Australian government chemist

named Arthur R. Penfold in 1922. He found out that the oil is an extremely powerful antiseptic, 12-times more

effective than phenol (carbolic acid) without doing any damage to the skin. He later presented his findings to the

Royal Society of New South Wales and England (Tenny, 1996).

Table 1: Examples of agro waste (Abba et al., 2013).

Type Examples References

Wheat Straw, Husk Wang and Sun, 2002

Rice Husk, Hull, Straw and Stalk Panthapulakkal et al., 2005

Sorghum Husk, Straws, Cobs, Stover, Leaves McGee, 2006

Millet Husk, Straws, Cobs, Stover, Leaves Choi et al.,2006

Coconut Fronds, Husk, Shells Maniruzzaman et al.,2012

22 Rodney, J. et al, 2015


Coffee Hull, Husk, Ground Azim, 2012

Cotton Stalks Aziz and Ansell, 2004

Peanut Shells Mwaikambo and Ansell, 2003

Sugarcane Bagasse Ismail et al., 2009

Nuts Hull, Shells Ndazi et al., 2006

Fig. 1: Tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia).

Fig. 2: Melaleuca alternifolia (Peter, 1991).

Although Australians use the name ‗tea tree‘ to refer to many Australian native species from the genera of

Leptospermum, Melaleuca and Neofabricia (family Myrtaceae) (Craven, 1999), it should be noted that the only

source of Australian tea tree oil is in the genus Melaleuca, particularly from the species Melaleuca alternifolia

(Maiden and Betche) Cheel. The term ―tea‖ should not be mistaken with the tea (Camellia sinensis). Southwell

and Lowe (1999) explained that the name tea tree arose when Captain James Cook, on his exploratory voyage of

Australia in 1770, encountered a myrtaceous shrub (possibly a Leptospermum) with leaves that were used in his

sailors as a substitute for tea (Camellia sinensis). Subsequently, these myrtaceous shrubs, now known as the

genera Leptospermum, Melaleuca, Kunzea and Baekea, were collectively known as ―tea tree‖. Weiss (1997)

however notes that this should not to be confused with the Maori or Samoan derived ―titree‖ or ―ti-palm‖, a

name to plants of the Cordyline genus.

2.2 Botanical Features and Description:

Melaleuca alternifolia or commonly known as tea tree is a tall shrub or small tree in the plant genus

Melaleuca (which contain of 230 species native to Australia (Craven, 1999)) and is in the family of Myrtaceae.



It is an evergreen tall shrub up to 7 meter high with a bushy crown and whitish papery bark. The leaves are

narrow, scattered to whorled and are 10-35mm long and 1 mm wide. The leaves are very rich in essential oil.

The flowers are white, solitary, each within a bract, and have petals 2-3 mm long. The stamens appear in bundle

of 30-60 and female part known as style in 3-4 mm long. The fruit has many seeds, is woody, cup-shaped

capsule and 2-3 mm in diameter (Peter, 1991).

Tea tree oil is extracted from the tree Melaleuca alternifolia that grows naturally in Australia, and has been

shown to have many beneficial medicinal uses as an antiseptic, antifungal and antibacterial agent (Carson et al.,

1995). Tea tree oil is considered to be a general treatment for acne, eczema, skin infections like herpes, wounds,

burns, insect bites and nail mycosis.

Practically, the commercial tea tree oil is produced from Melaleuca alternifolia (Maiden and Betche) Cheel.

The Melaleuca genus belongs to Myrtaceae family and roughly Melaleuca alternifolia can reach height

typically 5-8 metres if it is left to grow (Colton and Murtagh, 1999).

2.3 Requirements:

Melaleuca alternifolia is adaptable to a wide range of soil types, yet it requires specific climate and soil

conditions to produce a consistently high yield (Colton and Murtagh, 1999). A highly productive commercial

plantation can be achieved when it is planted on a site which mimics its natural conditions of damp soil in

humid, sub-tropical areas of northern New South Wales(Colton et al., 2000). The productivity of plantations

depends on the biomass yield and oil concentration in the leaves. The total production of biomass of Melaleuca

alternifolia is determined by various factors including temperature, water availability, plant density and month

of harvest (Murtagh, 1996). SEDIA (2007) had demonstrated that the propagation of tea tree can be done by

seedlings, cuttings and tissue culture.

a) Climate and rainfall:

Native to the wet sub-tropical area, the plant responds well to warm temperatures and a continuous supply

of moisture. According to Lowe and Murtagh (1997), high humidity is necessary as it is proven from research

that concentration of oil increases with humidity. Although tea tree needs ample moisture to grow, it can survive

in very dry conditions. In extreme drought, it will shed its leaves and will re-shoot after rain (Small, 1981b). The

best temperature for tea tree growth is between 18-34°C. The temperature can directly affect the growth rate and

oil concentration of tea tree. Tea tree requires abundant rainfall ranging from 1000mm-1600mm per year.

b) Soil management:

The plant grows well in deep sandy loam or friable loam due to its high water holding capacity. The

optimum soil pH for tea tree is between the ranges of 4.5-5.5 (Weiss, 1997). Tea tree does not grow well on

shallow light sandy soils, heavy clay soils and acid sulfate soils.

Some tea tree growers have reported growth responses from regular applications of commercial foliar

nutrient preparations as well. However, only the minimum quantities of fertilizers promoting high yields of

quality oil may be used. To limit groundwater contamination with nitrates and other nutrients, additions of

fertilizer must consider the soil texture and organic matter content of the soil. From studies done by MARDI, the

rate of 150-200kg N/ha, 50kg P2O3, 70kg K2O/ha is recommended (Nordin, 2005). This rate is equivalent to

1.125 t/ha of NPK fertilizer applied split into four applications per year. The usage of chemical can be reduced

substantially as soil organic matter content increases.

c) Plant spacing and population:

Studies in Australia shows that the highest yield is being obtained at the densest planting with optimum

population exceeding 27,000 trees/ha (Small, 1981b) and these high plant populations achieve full grown cover

more quickly after harvest and compete better with weeds by shading. A study done by Prastyono (2008)

discovered that trees planted in narrower spacing, 33,333 trees/ha had higher oil concentration than those at the

widest spacing, 16,667 trees/ha. SEDIA (2007) reported that in Sabah, Malaysia, they had successfully planted

approximately 10,000 trees/ha with planting density of 0.8m between rows and 0.6m within rows, where they

investigated that the higher planting density in the tea tree plantation resulted in less weeding and ultimately to

higher biomass per hectare.

2.4 Crop protection:

a) Weed control:

Weeds can reduce tea tree growth during both the initial establishment phase and in the annual regrowth

cycles. Newly planted tea tree seedlings have a very restricted root system of only 2.5cm diameter, and a shoot

height of 10-15cm. Their small size makes them poor competitors against rapidly growing weeds. Tea tree shoot

growth also declines quickly with increased shading. Weed shading is most likely in the first three months after



planting, when tea tree seedling and weeds are of similar height. Older tea tree seedlings of approximately

0.5cm in height are still at risk of shading by erect, broadleaf weeds and climbing weeds.

Tea tree will be prone to weed competition for water where the root systems interact where soil and water is

insufficient to meet both tree and weed needs. This is particularly likely in soils with low water holding

capacities (e.g. sandy loams) and/or which receive low rainfall. The majority of tree and weed roots occur in the

surface 30cm of soils (Bowen, 1985), giving the weeds advantage for water uptake. Thus young tea tree

seedlings with their shadow root system are very susceptible to moisture competition, and water stress results.

Such a mechanism of weed interface is very important for tree seedling and extreme water stress can cause

deaths (Nambiar and Zed, 1980).

b) Pest and disease:

Damage by pest to tea tree is still relatively low and the need to control is an unnecessary added cost. In

addition the use of chemicals at inappropriate rates can cause residues which affect the oil quality and price.

Nonetheless, the need to understand the biological cycle and development of pest outbreaks allow the generation

of a model that accounts for field behavior and action thresholds. Table 2 shows the insect damaging seedling of

tea tree, Table 3 shows the insect damaging foliar of establish plants and Table 4 shows the insect feeding on

wood and bark.

Table 2: Insect damaging seedling of tea tree (Campbell and Maddox, 1999).

Pest Activity

African black beetles Ring barks tea tree seedling at or below ground level which causes dehydration and death

Mole crickets Burrows and forages in horizontal tunnels in top 5cm of soil

causing damage to newly set of tea tree transplants by severing tea tree roots

Cut worms Attack seedlings, cutting near ground level and feeding on the

felled plants

2.5 Harvest:

Joseph et al. (2009) reported the plants can be harvested in about 9 months when they reach a height about

2m. It is cut at about 15 - 30cm above the ground level so that the stumps can regrow and can be subsequently

harvested. The best time to harvest the plant is in the dry season when the yield of oil is generally higher. The

oil is extracted from the twig and leaves. It has a pale green colour with the smell of champor. Tea tree crop is

ready to harvest once its canopy is fully developed and tea trees have reached maximum leaf yield. Once trees

have reached this stage they tend to start losing lower leaves and stems begin to thicken. The harvested trees

should be chopped into smaller portion to facilitate distillation of tea tree oil. Timing is crucial from point of

harvest to distillation as oil can vaporize and reduce yield. To minimize loss, the time frame given is less than

24 hours. It is best to harvest the trees during drier periods to minimize the loss of trees from fungal infection to

the cut stems. The choice of harvesting machineries or equipment will depend on farm size. Small scale farms

can use circular saw blade brush cutter or machete. Larger scale can opt for harvesting machine to reduce

harvesting time.

Table 3: Insect damaging foliar of establish plants (Campbell and Maddox, 1999).

Pest Activity

Chrysomelids Adult beetle feeds and lay eggs on expending flush growth

Scarabaeids (Pasture Scarabs) Causes extensive localized defoliation of tea tree. The beetles

feed and mate on trees then return to the soil to lay their eggs

Psyllids Causes pitting and some distortion of the leaves and shoots

Eriophyid Mites Distort new foliage and cause the leaf margins on the ventral surface to bend; cells on the leaf surface within the distorted area

bubble and become hairy. The mites live within the distorted area

Aphids Sucks on shoots of new flush encouraging black sooty mould

grows in the wounded area

Scale insects Attacks plants weakend by defoliating or sap-sucking insects

Leaf hopper Suck sap from the expanding shoots on flush growth. Feeding

causes the witting of the shoot which develops into a distinct

purple coloration

Sawflies Wasps insert eggs in rows into the leaf tissue of young follage.

Once hatched the larvae feeds on the leaves causing major

defoliation

Moth larvae (leaf roller) Feed on exposed leaves and shelters itself by forming pockets by weaving few leaves together



Table 4: Insect feeding on wood and bar (Campbell and Maddox, 1999).

Pest Activity

Cerambycidae (Longicorn beetles) Feed on wooding parts of the tea tree plant

weevil Feeds on bark of the stems within plantation causing death if

population is dense

Termites Enters the plant through the root system and continue to feed

within the stems

Stem-boring Lepidoptera Larvae chew the wood in the shoot down to the cambial layer

2.6 Postharvest:

a) Distillation:

Tea tree oil is obtained by passing steam through the oil-bearing parts of the plant which are the leaves and

terminal branchlets. According to Southwell and Lowe(1999), the main woody part of the plant does not contain

oil. Leaf oil content can range from 0.5-3 %, but yield from traditional design water distillation is 1%. SEDIA

(2007) reported that they had successfully gain 0.8% of tea tree oil from tea tree planted in Sabah, Malaysia.

Steam distillation is the appropriate method of extraction for tea tree oil, not only because it causes

minimum change to the composition of the oil extraction, but also because steam is readily available, cheap, not

hazardous (chemically), can be used at low pressure and can be recycled (Southwell and Lowe, 1999). Steam

distillation enables the aromatic oil to be extracted at a temperature which is constant and low enough as not to

cause any damage to the oil.

Tea tree oil from Melaleuca alternofilia is a mixture of various monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes and their

alcohols. The monoterpenes terpinen-4-ol, γ-terpinene, 1,8-cineol, p-cymen, α-terpineol, α-pinene, terpinolenes,

limonene and sabinene account for 80-90% of the oil. The chemical composition of tea tree oil is defined by

international standard ISO 4730 and the identical Australia Standard AS 2782-2009. The standard specifies that

the acceptable level of terpinen-4-ol is a minimum 30%, and a maximum content of 15% 1,8-cineole

(International Standards Organisation, 1996 ).

2.7 Tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia) oil – TTO:

2.7.1 Composition and chemistry:

Carson et al. (2005) have reviewed all literature related to tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia) up to 2005.

According to them, tea tree oil (TTO) is consisted of terpene hydrocarbons, mainly monoterpenes,

sesquiterpenes and their associated alcohols. Sharp (1983) discovered the terpenes are volatile, aromatic

hydrocarbons and may be considered as polymers of isoprene which has the formula C5H8.Series of finding on

the composition of tea tree oil have been reported. As early as Guenther (1968) claimed there are 12

components, later on Laakso (1965) cited in Altman (1988) said it contained 21 components, and 48

components was discovered by Swords and Hunter (1978). Then, Brophy et al. (1989) found out that there are

almost 100 components and their range concentrations after tested over 800 tea tree oil samples using gas

chromatography and gas chromatography mass spectrometry. Finally, international standard has regulated a

standard for TTO, which is ―Oil of Melaleuca –terpinen-4-ol type‖ which sets maxima and/or minima for 14

components of the oil (International Organisation for Standardisation, 1996).(See Table 5).

Terpinen-4-ol (Fig. 3) and 1,8-cineole (Fig. 4) are both most crucial compound in tea tree oil (Carson et al.,

2005; Joseph et al.,2009). As shown in the Table 5, Terpinen-4-ol is the major compound of tea tree oil, which

has long been considered as the main antimicrobial properties to TTO. This is the reason why to optimize the

antimicrobial activity; a lower limit of 30% has been set and no upper limit. However, for 1,8-cineole, there is

an upper limit, which is 15% and no lower limit has been set. This is due to cineole is considered as the skin and

mucous membrane irritant causes and has disinfectant effects. Subsequently, by this limitation of both terpinen-

4-ol and 1,8-cineole, this harmony of combination can give the optimise effects in treatments (Joseph et al.,

2009).

Fig. 3: Terpinene



Fig. 4: Cineole

Table 5: Composition of tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia) oil (Carson et al.,2005)

Component Compositon (%)

ISO 4730 Range1 Typical composition2

terpinen-4-ol ≥ 303 40.1

γ-terpinene 10 - 28 23.0

α-terpinene 5 – 13 10.4

1,8-cineole ≤ 153 5.1

terpinolene 1.5 - 5 3.1

ρ-cymene 0.5 - 12 2.9

α-pinene 1 – 6 2.6

α-terpineol 1.5 - 8 2.4

aromadendrene traces - 7 1.5

δ-cadinene traces - 8 1.3

limonene 0.5 - 4 1.0

sabinene traces – 3.5 0.2

globulol traces - 3 0.2

viridiflorol traces – 1.5 0.1

1 (International Standards Organisation. 1996), 2 (Brophy et al.,1989), 3 no upper or lower limit set

2.7.2 Commercial production:

The revolution of tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia) industry started when Penfold reported its medical

properties in 1920s and 1930s. Then TTO has attracted attention from stakeholders due to its value in economic

potential. At the early stage, the plant material was always hand-cut and usually distilled on the spot. During

World War II, tea tree oil was supplied as medical kits for the soldiers, as those who involved in the bush-cutters

can be exempted from national services (Carson and Riley, 1994). Productions are declining after World War II

as demands are not so strong and the development of antibiotics and other natural products. Eventually, the

industry of TTO starting to spark again in the 1970s and 1980s as natural products started to get attention, while

commercial plantation establishment in those years turn the industry to merchanise and make big and consistent

quantities of products (Joseph et al.,2009; Johns et al.,1992).

TTO was one of the success stories in Australian essential oil production during the early 90‘s with prices

topping AUD 65/kg. This attracted large numbers of new growers entering the industry until production

exceeded demand and prices tumbled to less than AUD 50/kg, especially in the late 90‘s (Davis, 1999). This has

shaken out the industry and the largest producers have all ceased production, leaving small and medium sized

producers to supply the market.

Prices have been on the increase again and are breaching the AUD 50/kg mark and are still increasing.

However, many large customers including some of the major European and US retails chain who carried the

product have discontinued demand, due to lack of confidence in future supply. Likewise, many major personal

care companies have also switched to other natural additive in their product ranges, leaving the task ahead for

tea tree producers to convince the cosmetic and retail industries to support the product. This unstable period has

opened the door for procedures in countries like China and other Asian countries to step up production and

compete with Australian producers.

Therefore, TTO is famous to be used in a wide range of products, either as formulated or pure oil into many

kinds of value-added products as a preservative, antiseptic, antibacterial, antifungal and even anti-pest agent.

Those are include shampoos, conditioners, soaps, bath oils, mouthwashes, toothpastes, deodorants, moiturisers,

face cleansings and washes, foot sprays and powders, shaving products, antiseptic creams, body lotions, sun

blocks, lip balms, post-waxing treatments, acne creams and many other health products and dog shampoos and

other veterinary care products (Southwell and Lowe, 1999; Colton et al., 2000; Wrigley and Fagg, 1993).



2.7.3 Antimicrobial activity of TTO:

Antimicrobial is the synonym word to describe TTO. The ethno botanical usage of TTO was first

discovered from Bundjalung Abrogines of Northern New South Wales. Tea tree leafs were crushed before

inhaled to treat coughs and colds, or was sprinkled on any wounds after applying poultice (Shemesh and Mayo,

1991). Apart from that, soaking tea tree leafs in order to make it as an infusion were made as reported by

Shemesh and Mayo (1991), and Low (1990), to treat skin ailments or sore throats. In 1925, Penfold and Grant

(1925) compared TTO and other oils with disinfectant carbolic acid or phenol, the gold standard of the day, in a

test known as the Rideal-Walker (RW) coefficient. TTO‘s activity was directly compared with that of phenol

and rated at 11 times as active. At that point, TTO was then promoted as a therapeutic agent (Anon, 1930; Anon

,1933; Anon, 1933b).

The answers of which component of TTO to act as the antimicrobial activities have yet to be found. Early

signs from RW coefficients were that much of activity can be attributed to terpinen-4-ol and α-terpineol

(Penfold and Grant, 1925), as supported by recent studies (Carson et al.,1995a; Raman et al.,1995; Hammer et

al., 2003). Of all components of TTO, they concluded that some possess some degree of antimcobial activity,

some considered less active and none are inactive. Cox et al. (2001a) demonstrated by in vitro that components

of TTO may experience synergistic or antagonistic effects on the overall antimicrobial activity, as it may has

interactions with other essential oil such as lavender (Cassella et al., 2002), and other essential oil such as β-

triketones from manuka oil (Christoph et al., 2001a; Christoph et al., 2001b). As such, more works need to be

done to answer this puzzles.

2.7.4 Antibacterial activity of TTO:

In 1955, Atkinson and Brice (1955) assessed plants of Myrtaceae family for antibacterial activity of TTO

by both agar and broth dilution assays. Antibacterial titres (% v/v) as determined by agar and broth dilution

assays were 0.63 and 0.31 respectively for Staphylococcus aureus, 1.25 and 0.24 for Salmonella typhi and 0.31

and 0.10 for Mycobacterium phlei. Low et al., (1974) were then examined the same agar dilution method by

Atkinson and Brice, and discovered MICs (% v/v) of 0.062for S. aureus and 0.031 for S. typhi. With TTO, S.

aureus could not be recovered whereas viable Pseudomonas aeruginosa were recovered (Low et al.,1974). The

susceptibility data for bacteria tested against TTO (% v/v) can be seen in Table 6. The range of minimum

inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) are between 00.6% - 1.0%.

Table 6: Susceptibility data for bacteria tested against M. alternifolia oil (% v/v) (Carson et al, 2005).

Bacterial species MIC, MICrange or MIC90 MBC, MBCrange or MBC90

Acinetobacter baumannii 1.08 1.08

Actinomyces viscosus 0.66 0.66

Actinomyces spp. 1.014 1.014

Bacillus cereus 0.32

Bacteroides spp. 0.061, 0.51 0.06-0.121

Corynebacterium sp. 0.2-0.32, 2.08 2.08

Enterococcus faecalis 0.5-0.752

Enterococcus faecalis (vancomycin R) 0.5-14, >810 0.5-14, >810

Escherichia coli 0.253, 7, 0.0811 0.253, 7

Fusobacterium nucleatum >0.66

Klebsiella pneumoniae 0.258, 0.32 0.258

Lactobacillus spp. 1.014, 2.01 2.01, 14

Micrococcus luteus 0.06-0.58 0.25-6.08

Peptostreptococcus anaerobius 0.26, 0.251 0.03-0.121

Porphyromonas endodentalis 0.025-0.114 0.025-0.114

Porphyromonas gingivalis 0.116

Prevotella spp. 0.031, 0.251 0.031

Prevotella intermedia 0.003-0.114 0.003-0.114

Propionibacterium acnes 0.052, 0.31-0.635 0.513

Proteus vulgaris 0.0811, 0.32, 2.010 4.010

Pseudomonas aeruginosa 1->2.02 ,1-810, 3.08 2->810, 3.08

Staphylococcus aureus 0.63-1.255, 0.57, 10 1.010, 2.07

Staphylococcus aureus (methicillin R) 0.0411, 0.254, 9 0.54, 0.59

Staphylococcus epidermidis 0.63-1.255, 1.08 4.08

Staphylococcus hominis 0.58 4.08

Streptococcus pyogenes 0.1212 0.2512

Veillonella spp. 0.016-1.014 0.03-1.014

1 Hammer et al., 1999a; 2 Griffin et al., 2000; 3 Gustafson et al., 1998; 4 Nelson, 1997; 5 Raman et al.,

1995; 6 Shapiro et al., 1994; 7 Carson et al., 1995b; 8 Hammer et al., 1996; 9 Carson et al., 1995a; 10 Banes-

Marshall et al., 2001; 11 Mann & Markham, 1998; 12 Carson et al., 1996; 13 Carson & Riley, 1994; 14

Hammer et al., 2003.



The mechanism of action of TTO against bacteria has been partly explained. Assumptions about its

mechanism of action were made on the basis of its hydrocarbon and lipophilicity. Carson et al. (2005) once

again were reviewing studies that had been done. They summarize that from the treatment of S. aureus against

TTO precipitates the leakage of potassium ions (Cox et al.,2000; Hada et al.,2003), and 260 nm-absorbing

materials (Carson et al.,2002), and it inhibits respiration (Cox et al.,2000). Carson et al. (2005) also reviewed

that TTO also produces morphological changes apparent under electron microscopy (Reichling et al.,2002) and

sensitizes previously tolerant cells to sodium chloride (Carson et al.,2002). But, there is no significant lysis of

whole cells was observed by spectrophotometrically (Carson et al.,2002) or electron microscopy (Reichling et

al.,2002), only modest uptake of propidium iodide was observed (Cox et al.,2001b) after treatment with TTO,

and no cytoplasmic membrane damage as evidenced by lactate dehydrogenase release could be detected

(Reichling et al.,2002).

In E. coli, a modest loss of 280 nm-absorbing materials has been reported (Cox et al.,2001b). The

detrimental effects on potassium homeostasis (Cox et al.,1998) , morphology (Gustafson et al.,1998), glucose-

dependent respiration (Cox et al.,1998) and ability to exclude propidium iodide have been discovered. In

contrast to the absence of whole cell lysis seen in S. aureus treated with TTO, lysis occurs in E. coli treated with

TTO (Gustafson et al.,1998). All in all, these observations confirm that TTO compromises the structural and

functional integrity of bacterial membranes.

2.7.5 Antifungal activity of TTO:

For C. albicans, by either the broth or agar dilution assay, the Individual MICs and MIC90s that have been

reported were 0.04% (Beylier, 1979), 0.2% (Griffin et al.,2000), 0.25% (Vazquez et al.,2000), 0.3% (Christoph

et al.,2000) and 0.44% (Nenoff et al.,1996). Studies done to investigate activity of TTO against filamentous

fungi found out that these fungi are susceptible, with a few exceptions. All isolates of Aspergillus niger,

Rhizopus oligosporus and Penicillium spp. showed zones of inhibition to either 20 μl or 35 μl oil on a paper disc

(Concha et al.,1998; Chao et al.,2000). MICs for the filamentous fungi, mostly obtained by the agar dilution

method, were in the range of 0.2 – 1.0% for isolates of A. flavus, A. niger, Penicillium spp., Rhizopus spp. and

Scopulariopsis spp. (Beylier, 1979; Bassett et al.,1990; Southwell,1993; Rushton et al.,1997; Christoph et

al.,2000; Griffin et al.,2000).

2.7.6 Antiviral activity of TTO:

Bishop (1995) was first shown the antiviral activity of TTO using tobacco mosaic virus and tobacco plants

with agricultural applications in mind. A field trial was conducted in which Nicotiniana glutinosa plants were

sprayed with 100, 250 or 500 ppm TTO or control solutions, and all plants were then experimentally infected

with tobacco mosaic virus. After10 days, there were significantly fewer lesions per cm2 of leaf of plants treated

with TTO as compared to controls.

In 2001, Schnitzler et al. (2001) investigated the activity of TTO and eucalyptus oils against herpes simplex

virus (HSV). Briefly, the activity of TTO was determined by incubating virus with varying concentrations of

TTO, and then using these treated viruses to infect cell monolayers. After 4days, the numbers of plaques formed

by virus treated with TTO, or untreated control virus, were determined and compared. The concentration of

TTO inhibiting 50% of plaque formation, as compared to controls, was 0.0009% for HSV1 and 0.0008% for

HSV2. These studies also showed that at the higher concentration of 0.003%, TTO reduced HSV1 titres by

98.2% and HSV2 titres by 93.0%. Also, by applying TTO at different stages in the virus replicative cycle, TTO

was shown to have the greatest effect on free virus (prior to infecting cells) although when TTO was applied

during the adsorption period a reduction in plaque formation was seen also.

2.7.7 Antiprotozoal activity of TTO:

Carson et al. (2005) mentioned that TTO caused a 50% reduction in growth (as compared to controls) of the

protozoa Leishmania major and Trypanosoma brucei at concentrations of 403 μg/ml and 0.5 μg/ml, respectively

(Mikus et al.,2000). Further investigation showed that terpinen-4-ol contributed significantly to this activity. In

a different study, TTO at 300 μg/ml killed all cells of Trichomonas vaginalis (Viollon et al.,1996). This

combined with anecdotal in vivo evidence that Trichomonas vaginalis infections may be successfully treated

with TTO suggested by Peña (1962) that further work is warranted.

2.7.8 Anti-inflammatory activity of TTO:

Over the last decade, Hart et al., (2000) has demonstrated that through in vitro work terpinen-4-ol can

inhibit the production of several inflammatory mediators (such as interleukins) by human peripheral blood

monocytes. This suggests a mechanism by which TTO may reduce the normal inflammatory response.

Terpinen-4-ol also suppresses superoxide production by agonist-stimulated monocytes, but not neutrophils

(Brand et al.,2001). By in vivo, the oedema associated with the efferent phase of a contact hypersensitivity

response has been modulated by applied TTO (Brand et al.,2002a). This activity was attributed primarily to



terpinen-4-ol and α-terpineol. In addition, topical TTO reduced histamine-induced skin oedema of the type that

is often associated with immediate type allergic hypersensitivities (Brand et al.,2002b). This kind of activity

also seems to be due mainly to terpinen-4-ol.

2.7.9 Anti-insect activity of TTO:

Essential oils (Fig. 5) merely related to insecticidal agents, even though only few investigated scientifically.

TTO has been evaluated in vitro against Pediculus humanus capitis (head lice) by Veal (1996) and Downs et al.,

(2000). In a pilot study of lice treatment by McCage et al., (2002) a shampoo containing several plants extracts

including TTO performed well. Scabies sarcopti (scabies) has also been tested with TTO in vitro and found to

be susceptible to the oil (Walton et al., 2000). However, in contrast, a natural mosquito repellent product

containing TTO provided almost no protection against Aedes aegypti by in vitro (Chou et al.,1997).

Fig. 5. Chemical structures of selected components of essential oils.

McDonald and Tovey (1993) demonstrated the activity of several essential oils (including TTO) against

house dust mites was compared to that of benzyl benzoate, a standard treatment. Oils of citronella and TTO

were as effective as 0.5% benzyl benzoate and TTO at a concentration of 0.8% killed 79% of mites after a 10

min exposure time. In the second study, TTO was the most effective at killing the house dust mite

Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus, when compared to lemon essential oils and lavender (Priestley et al.,1998).

TTO at a concentration of 10% caused 100% immobility after 30 min and100% mortality after 2 h.

According to Callander and James (2012), tea tree oil has insecticidal action against sheep blowfly (L.

cuprina) eggs and larvae, stimulating larvae to leave the wound and through antimicrobial andanti-inflammatory

properties that aid in wound healing. The study of Benelli et al. (2013) extends the number of effective essential

oils against the Mediterranean fruit fly and provides useful information for the development of new tephritid

control tools. They have shown tea tree oil cultivated in Italy to be toxic against the Mediterranean fruit fly, C.

capitata and its parasitoid, P. concolor. Through contact and fumigation assays, TTO showed lower LC50values

towards C. capitata over P. concolor. In ingestion formulation, the LD50 value was lower in C. capitata than in

P. concolor.

James and Callander (2012a) suggested that tea tree oil has potential for the development of tea tree oil-

based ovine lousicides, where they demonstrated that immersion of wool for 60s in formulations containing

concentrations of 1% tea tree oil and above can caused 100% mortality of adult lice and eggs. They both then

conducted another experiment at the same year which they discovered that immersion dipping of sheep shorn in

both 1% and 2%formulations had reduced lice to almost zero after 20 weeks of treatment. Second treatment of

sheep with 6 months wool by jetting (high pressure spraying into the fleece) also reduced louse numbers to

91%-94% with 1% tea tree oil formulations and 78%-84% with 2% tea tree oil formulations.

Tea tree oil has insecticidal effects as recorded by Williamson et al. (2007) and has repellent effects

(Canyon and Speare , 2007; Eamsobhana et al.,2009; Maguranyi et al.,2009). According to Callander and James

(2012), tea tree oil has insecticidal action against sheep blowfly (L. cuprina) eggs and larvae, stimulating larvae

to leave the wound and through antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory properties that aid in wound healing.



3.0 Under-utilize parts of tea tree (melaleuca alternifolia) as the potential natural fibre source:

Fig. 6: Tea tree leaf before and after grinded.

The plants (Fig. 6) can be harvested in about 9 months when they reach a height about 2m (Joseph et

al.,2009). According to Small (1981b), the first harvest of tea tree can reach 20t/ha (approximate 27,000

trees/hectare) of fresh biomass weight. In the second and third harvest, the trees are capable of producing fresh

biomass up to 25 t/ha and 30 t/ha respectively under good growing condition and management. Here, we can

simply calculate that in every hectare we can get grossly 20,000kg of harvested tea tree ready for distillation. A

study done by Prastyono (2008) demonstrated two types of spacing: 33,333 trees/ha (narrow) and 16,667

trees/ha (wide). He discovered that wide spacing give higher leafiness score, and lower oil concentration

compared to narrow spacing. Meanwhile, SEDIA (2007) had planted 10,000 trees/ha in their tea tree plantation

in Kimanis, Papar, Sabah. This evidence shows that tea tree can be planted almost everywhere in the world. Tea

tree oil is produced by steam distillation of the leaf, and the yield of oil is typically 0.5-3% of the wet weight of

the plant (Southwell and Lowe, 1999; Carson et al., 2005). Murtagh (1996) showed that the leaf yield of tea tree

was strongly correlated with the total yield of biomass (with a correlation coefficient of 0.94), yet, the

proportion of leaf in twig and proportion of twig in the total biomass also influenced the total yield of biomass.

Small stems also included in distillation as this plant is shrubs and not trees. Roy et al. (1990) stated that the

leaves and the small branches are about 35% dry weights. Eventually, there are a lot of left-over residue or

waste, which are the leaves after the distillation.

In normal practice, after distillation, the tea tree leaf will be burned or will be composted. Richard (2003)

mentioned that in Australia, there are some companies dry the residue leaf after distillation, and then universally

return it to the plantation as mulch. He also added that some companies also employ the dried residue leaf as a

boiler fuel, and only 15-30% of it required to fuel the boiler furnace for another distillation and this shows that it

is a fuel positive process. However, burning can cause environment pollution and the burning activities are

monitored by local authorities. Ahmed et al. (2002;2004) mentioned that decomposing and burning the leaves

in-situ will not contribute in improving plantation yield and other uses of these beneficial agricultural wastes

must therefore be found (Mohamed et al.,2009) in order to solve this problem. In addition, the residue which is

the leaf, may contain some remaining tea tree oil, as the consequences from the distillation process. Tea tree oil,

which contains antimicrobial properties in general, will make the leaves to take more time to be composted, as

the main agent in composting process are microbes it-self (Zhang et al.,2013). Based on these facts, it gives a

good consideration to use these left-over leaves which contain natural fibre as the reinforce of filler in

biocomposite.

As we are moving towards zero-waste and green technology nowadays, scientists and technologists tend to

enjoy discovering the future potential development of every parts of plant. Sahari et al. (2012) had investigated

the physical and chemical properties on every part of sugar palm tree, from the bunch, frond, trunk and black

sugar palm fibre or ijuk. Among all of the parts, the sugar palm frond exceeds others in term of tensile strength

which is 421.4 N/mm2, while tensile strength for sugar palm bunch (SPB), ijuk and sugar palm trunk (SPT) is

365.1, 276.6 and 198.3 N/mm2, respectively. The highest cellulose content was obtained from SPF (66.5%),

followed by SPB (61.8%), ijuk (52.3%), and SPT (40.6%). These discoveries were then extended to few

findings where they developed biocomposite with every different part of the sugar palm tree, with different

percentages of fibres and different tests in order to improvise the composites (Sahari et al., 2011a; Sahari et al.,

2011b; Sahari et al. 2013). Sugar palm tree parts such as bunch, frond, trunk, and ijuk, are considered wastes,

under-utilized and in an abundant source. However, these rubbishes have been converted into high value added

new green composite products. The same thing can be applied for the residue of tea tree leaf, which is

emphasized in this paper on its potential as the source of fibres.

It is good to take into consideration regarding the practicality and economic value of tea tree, from planting

to the process of getting the yield. Furthermore, it is advised to compare with other available and well known

natural fibres which have existed and survived long in global market. However, this paper aims to stress on the

potential of tea tree waste, the leaf, and to some extent, the branches and trunk too, in which most of the

industrial player have forgotten. As in Malaysia, which recognized as the largest producer in palm oil, rubber,



sugar, cocoa and other commodities, the issues of, can tea tree compete with those industry in the market, will

rise.

4.0 Agro waste: Fibre source in biocomposite:

There is a huge demand in using biofibre as reinforcer and/or biofibre in composite. Their highly specific

stiffness, flexibility during processing and low cost (on a volumetric basis) make them attractive to

manufacturers. The awareness regarding non-renewable resources is becoming insufficient for the demand has

increased as our unavoidable dependence on renewable resources has arisen. The main target of developing

natural fibre is to create a new type of composite that can replace the available composite derived from glass

fibre (Sain et al, 2005). The role of natural fibre reinforced composite is to become the alternative to replace the

material derived from metal, plastic and wood.

There are two categories of fibre, primary and secondary, depending on their utilization (Faruk et al.,2012).

Primary plants are those grown for their fibre content; such as jute, kenaf etc. while secondary plants are plants

in which the fibres are produced as a by-product; such as palm oil, pineapple etc. Six basic types of natural

fibres are: bastfibres (jute, flax, hemp, ramie and kenaf), leaf fibres (abaca, sisal, and pineapple), seed fibres

(coir, cotton and kapok), core fibres (kenaf, hemp and jute), grass and reed fibres (wheat, corn and rice) and all

other types (wood and roots).

Fig. 7: Classifications scheme for natural fibres (Mohanty et al., 2005b; Mueller and Krobjilowski,2003)

According to Mohanty et al. (2005b) natural fibres are derived from plants, animals, and inorganic material

as shown in Fig. 7 (Mueller and Krobjilowski,2003). Among the natural fibres, plant fibres are the main sources

of fibres that can be found in a large quantity. Rowell (1995) reported that plant fibres are classified according

to what part of the plant they come from. Different types of fibres provide different properties (see Table 7).

One of the key to know the plant fibre is by understanding the chemical composition, in which it is really

closely related and affecting its performance when applying it as composite material. Rowell (1998) reported

that plant fibre also referred as lignocellulosics, which comprise of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin. It is also

comprises of minor amounts of starch, proteins, sugar and other organic compounds. Reddy and Yang (2005)

mention that cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin are the three main components of any plant fibres and the

proportion of these component in a fibre depends the age, source of fibre and extraction (see Table 8). There are

many types of fibres can be taken from various types of plant. In this paper, we are focusing on natural fibres

which are derived from leaves.

Table 7: Some properties of plant and synthetic fibres (Bismarck et al.,2005).

Fibre Density

g/cm3

Diameter

(μm)

Tensile Strength

(MPa)

Young‘s

Modulus (GPa)

Elongation at

Break (%)

Flax 1.5 40-600 345-1500 27.6 2.7-3.2

Hemp 1.47 25-500 690 70 1.6

Jute 1.3-1.49 25-200 393-800 13-26.5 1.16-1.5

Kenaf - - 930 53 1.6

Ramie 1.55 - 400-938 61.4-128 1.2-3.8

Sisal 1.45 50-200 468-700 9.4-22 3-7

PALF - 20-80 413-1627 34.5-82.5 1.6

Abaca - - 430-760 - -

Oil palm EFB 0.7-1.55 150-500 248 3.2 25

Cotton 1.5-1.6 12-38 287-800 5.5-12.6 7-8

Coir 1.15-1.46 100-460 131-220 4-6 15-40



Table 8: Chemical composition and moisture content of plant fibres (Bismarck et al.,2005).

Fibre Cellulose

(wt%)

Hemicellulose

(wt%)

Lignin (wt%) Pectin (wt%) Moisture

Content (wt%)

Waxes (wt%)

Flax 71 18.6-20.6 2.2 2.3 8-12 1.7

Hemp 70-74 17.9-22.4 3.7-5.7 0.9 6.2-12 0.8

Jute 61-71.5 13.6-20.4 12-13 0.2 12.5-13.7 0.5

Kenaf 45-57 21.5 8-13 3-5 - -

Ramie 68.6-76.2 13.1-16.7 0.6-0.7 1.9 7.5-17 0.3

Sisal 66-78 10-14 10-14 10 10-22 2

PALF 70-82 - 5-12.7 - 11.8 -

Abaca 56-63 - 12-13 1 5-10 -

Oil palm EFB 65 - 19 - - -

Cotton 85-90 5.7 - 0-1 7.85-8.5 0.6

Coir 32-43 0.15-0.25 40-45 3-4 8 -

4.1 Sisal as biocomposite:

To name a few, there are many researches have been done by using leaf fibres as filler or reinforce in

biocomposite. Suppakarn and Jarukumjorn (2009) had added magnesium hydroxide and zinc borate into

sisal/PP composites as flame retardants. They had discovered that the addition of the flame retardants reduced

the burning rate and increased the thermal stability of the composite. Zhang et al. (2005) discovered

sisal/plasticized wood flour composites were fully biodegradable. Towo et al. (2008b) had prepared the treated

sisal fibre composites with an epoxy and polyester resin matrix, and performed tests on fatigue evaluation and

dynamic thermal analysis.composites containing alkali treated fibre had better mechanical properties than the

untreated. Sisal fibres also investigated with other matrices such as rubber (Jacob et al.,2007; Wongsorat et

al.,2010), bio polyurethane (Bakare et al.,2010), cellulose acetate (Peres de Paula et al.,2008), phenol

formaldehyde (Zhong et al.,2007) and polyethelene (Favaro et al.,2010) regarding their mechanical,

morphological, chemical and cure characteristic.

4.2 Abaca as biocomposite:

Bledzki et al. (2007; 2008) examined the mechanical properties of abaca fiber reinforced PP composites

regarding different fiber lengths (5, 25 and 40 mm) and different compounding processes (mixer-injection

molding, mixer compression molding and direct compression molding process). It was observed that, with

increasing fiber length (5–40 mm), the tensile and flexural properties showed an increasing tendency though not

a significant one. Among the three different compounding processes compared, the mixer-injection molding

process displayed a better mechanical performance (tensile strength is around 90%higher) than the other

processes. When abaca fiber PP composites were compared with jute and flax fiber PP composites, abaca fiber

composites had the best notched Charpy and falling weight impact properties. Abaca fiber composites also

showed higher odor concentration compared to jute and flax fiber composites. Abaca fibers have been

investigated with cement (SavastanoJr et al.,2009), polyurethane (El-Meligy et al.,2010), aliphatic polyester

resin (Teramoto et al.,2004), PP (Paul et al.,2008), urea formaldehyde (El-Meligy et al.,2004), PE (Ibrahim et

al.,2010), polyester (Gohil and Shaikh,2010), and polyvinyl alcohol (Sathasivam et al.,2010) as matrices, in

order to evaluate the composites properties.

4.3 Pineapple leaf fibre:

Pineapple leaf fiber was reinforced with polycarbonate to produce functional composites (Threepopnatkul

et al.,2008). The silane treated modified pineapple leaf fibers composite exhibited the highest tensile and impact

strengths. The thermo gravimetric analysis showed that the thermal stability of the composites is lower than that

of neat polycarbonate resin. In addition, the thermal stability decreased with increasing pineapple leaf fiber

content. On the other hand, Kengkhetkit and Amornsakchai (2014) had demonstrated whole ground pineapple

leaf (WGL), pineapple leaf fiber (PALF) and non-fibrous material (NFM) are examined as fillers for

polypropylene reinforcement. It was found that PALF provided the highest improvement in all mechanical

properties tested (tensile, flexural and impact tests) and also heat distortion temperature, followed by WGL and

NFM, respectively. NFM, although it provided only slightly improved tensile and flexural properties, could

maintain or even improve impact strength.

4.4 Research works related in Malaysia:

Various studies related to development of biocomposites reinforced by natural fibres had been done in

Malaysia. Apart from being a tropical rainforest country where natural fibres are available in abundant resource,

in fact Malaysia is also focusing on agriculture activities, and as a consequence, more and more agricultural

wastes are available too. From oil palm empty fruit brunch (EFB) (Abu Bakar and Hassan, 2009; Khalina et

al.,2009), oil palm stem plywood (Paridah et al.,2009), rubberwood (Nur Yuziah. 2009) and natural rubber

(Sahrim, and Hazleen. 2009), bamboo (Anuar et al.,2009), sugar palm tree (Sahari et al., 2011a; Sahari et al.,



2011b; Sahari et al. 2012; Sahari et al. 2013), and many more including banana pseudo-stem, coconut shell,

kenaf, rice husk, coir, sugarcane bagasse, roselle, and wood (Mohamad Awang et al., 2009). As mentioned

before, it is good to investigate more on tea tree as the source of fibres, and see how far it can compete with

existing natural fibre which some of them has been well established long ago.

Conclusion:

Melaleuca alternifolia is popular for its oil, which has been employed largely in various industries of its

antimicrobial properties. Research are still ongoing mainly focusing on the tea tree oil properties, however

almost none of them investigating on the residue which is the leaf. Though there are research works that

exploring on leaf as the source of fibres reported before, however studies on the tea tree as a new source of

natural fibres or material in order to become the potential filler or reinforcer have yet been reported elsewhere.

Furthermore, there is still no exploration on the development of any parts of tea tree, including its branch and

trunk, as value added products. The combination of tea tree leaves with any matrix to become a new

biocomposite is interesting from the view of both aspects of economy and environment, as what have been

reported before. Thus, since tea tree leaf remains largely unknown by many people and very little information is

available elsewhere, more studies need to be done to unveil its significance and to promote its usefulness for a

better tomorrow.

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Review: Tea Tree (Melaleuca Alternifolia) As A New ... IPN KK 2015/21-39.pdf · Practically, the commercial tea tree oil is produced from Melaleuca alternifolia (Maiden and Betche)