REVISED FIRST AID IN ENGLISH

Increase your vocabulary Get grammar right Spell and punctuate correctly Avoid common language errors Improve speech and writing 15 self-test sets of questions An Answer Book is available

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USIMJ THIS BOOK REVISED FIRST AID IN ENGLISH deals with more than 50 topics or aspects of the English language, which can be grouped into a number of main fields of study as follows:

Words — and their functions in sentences. Vocabulary — meanings of words, shades of meaning, relationships denoted

by words. Functions of parts and forms of words. Sentence structure — sentences, clauses, phrases. Special usages — of words, phrases, etc. Conventions of correct speech and writing.

Where a student's answer to a question shows up a possible weakness in a |wilii nlni topic, the student should refer or be referred to the relevant page of Revised iit\t Aul m English for further study, checking his answers with the Answer Book. In mltlilinii, il will often be helpful to select a kindred topic or topics from the same field in the y,inii|tiu>» M l out below, and check whether there is a weakness there too, which needs fuillin study,

DETAILED GROUPING OF TOPICS I'nflc No, in

Rev. I'A. inl'NOI.ISII WORDS and their Functions in Sentences Parts of Speech 6 Substitute words — pronouns 49 Relationship words — conjunctions and prepositions 52,55

VOCABULARY — Basic Tool in Human Communication Everyone speaking or writing, listening or reading, depends on a knowledge of words and their meaings. Some words are in everyday use. Others will be used more frequently by some people than by others because of their particular jobs or special interests, but many of these still have to be understood by anyone reading a book, a newspaper or a notice, using the telephone, attending a school or college, or listening to a radio or television programme. A good vocabulary is an essential basis for all human knowledge, thought and understanding, and man's principal means of communicating with his fellow men. Check that you are familiar with vocabulary of the following kinds:

Words for Things, Creatures, Activities, Happenings, Ideas. R e v F A jn^NG^jsH Masculine/feminine words 9 Members of families 11 Dwelling places 12 Names 13 Collections 15 Occupations 18 Work places 19 Receptacles and contents 20 Sounds and motions 21 Fastenings and equipment 20,82 Places, countries, cities, buildings, rivers, races 79-81

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Using this Book

Modifying words — adjectives, adverbs, comparatives and superlatives . . . . 44,45 Relativities expressed by conjunctions/prepositions 52,55 Classifications — things and creatures 2 * Analogies and correspondences 2 » Opposites ^ Words with similar meanings < 33 Shades of meaning 59 Small quantities "6

DIFFERENT PARTS AND FORMS OF WORDS — What they do In addition to knowing the meanings and shades of meaning of different words the good speaker or writer also understands the special contribution which different parts of some words make to their meaning (e.g. prefixes like import, export; bicycle, tricycle; roots like telephone, televise; and suffixes like useful, useless). He also makes correct use of different forms of some words for different purposes (e.g swim, swam, swum). Exercises designed to develop a mastery of this aspect of language are provided in the following pages:

RolesofPartsofWords Rev F A . i n E N G U S H

Roots and derivations 73-74 Prefixes 74-75 Suffixes (singular/plural, masculine/feminine, comparative/superlative) 7,9,45-46,75

Roles of Various Forms of Words Present/past tense forms of verbs, participles and infinitives 39 Possessive/objective forms of nouns/pronouns 49,64 Comparative/superlative forms of adjectives 45 Diminutives 66 Word building, compound words 36-38

SENTENCE STRUCTURES — Grouping words to express thoughts A single word, however clear its meaning, seldom conveys a complete message (though the command "Go!", for example, does just that). Normally, words are used in groups, which may have to be quite long and complicated if the thought which they express is complicated.

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Relationships denoted by words In addition to denoting particular things, ideas, qualities and actions as above, words also serve to describe special features of things and actions, their similarity and dissimilarity and their relations to one another in size, position, time, cause and effect and in many other ways. The speaker or writer armed with a good vocabulary has the basic equipment needed to express these relations and accurately distinguish between different shades of meaning. The following sections of Revised First Aid in English will show you your strengths and weaknesses:

Page No. in Rev. F.A. in ENGLISH

Using this Book Where the thought conveyed by the group of words is complete in itself, we have a sentence (a statement, a question, a command). Where a group of words does not form the complete statement, question or command intended by the speaker or writer, but has some meaning, it may be a phrase — for example a group of words or a complete s t a t e m e n t o r the answer to the question o r a s sweet as honey

If there is a verb in the group of words, it may be a clause — for example, "... when I tell you or "If I knew the answer..." or "I came, I saw, and I conquered.".

Notice that a clause in a sentence may be either a principal (main) clause or a subordinate clause. In the sentence "I came, I saw, and I conquered" there are three main or principal clauses. In the sentence "Sit down when I tell you." the clause "Sit down" is the main or principal clause and "when I tell you" is a subordinate clause. Check that you understand this by working the following exercises:

Page No. in Rev. F A . in ENGLISH

Sentences 57,62-63 Clauses 52-54 Simple and complex sentences 62-63 Phrases and equivalent clauses 62

SPECIAL USAGES — These are valuable aids to effective communication. Doubles for emphasis 27 Similes 17 Colloquial expressions 71-72 Popular phrases 73 Proverbs 67-69

CONVENTIONS OF SPEECH AND WRITING — What is accepted and understood. Grammatical speech and writing are more easily understood than ungrammatical speech and writing, and it is therefore a courtesy on the part of a speaker or writer to avoid bad grammar. In writing, correct spelling is a great help to the reader, ensuring that words can be immediately recognised. Good punctuation is another important aid, helping the reader to grasp the meaning of a sentence without having to re-read it. Weakness in these fields is frequently taken as a sign of ignorance or stupidity — often with good reason. Study of the following sections of Revised First Aid in English will enable mistakes in these fields to be avoided:

Page No. in Rev. F.A. in ENGLISH

Basic Grammar 7,8,39-44,46-48,55-57 Apostrophe, capitals, punctuation 64,65,66 Abbreviations and contractions 28-30 Spelling 7,83-86

CONTENTS PAGE

Parts of Speech 6

Number (Singular and Plural) 7

Gender (Masculine and Feminine) 9

Parents: Young • • • Homes (Person, Creature) 12 Names (Christian, Surnames) 13 Group Terms or Collections 15 Similes 1 7

Occupations 18 Places 1 9

Receptacles 20 Fastenings 20 Creature (Sound, Motion, Adjective) 21 Sounds (made by Objects) 23 Classification 24 Analogies 26 Doubles 27 Abbreviations and Contractions 28 Opposites 30 Similar Words (Meaning) 33 Homonyms 35 Formation of Nouns 36 Formation of Adjectives 37 Formation of Verbs 38 Formation of Adverbs 38 Formation of Compound Words 38

CORRECT USAGE The Verb and Adverb 39 Comparison of Adjectives 45 Concord (Agreement) 46 The Pronoun (Case) 4 9

Conjunctions 52 Prepositions 55 Correction of Sentences 57 The Right Word in the Right Place 59 Addition of Clauses 61 Sentences (Simple to Complex) 62 Alphabetical Order 63 The Apostrophe 64 Capital Letters 65 Punctuation 66 Diminutives and Small Quantities 66 For Reference 67 Proverbs 67 Colloquialisms 7 " Derivations (Roots, Prefixes, Suffixes) 7 3

General Knowledge 7 6 Useful Information 7 9

Countries (Peoples, Languages) 80 Countries (Capitals, Currencies) 81 Science 82 Spelling Lists 83 Tests 87

ENGLISH

The English Language, now in widespread use throughout the world, has developed over many centuries from the language of the Angles and Saxons from Denmark and Northern Germany who settled in England in the fifth and sixth centuries.

Although the majority of the words in English are of this Anglo-Saxon origin, the language today includes, as a result of cultural influences and commercial contacts, many other words derived from Latin, Greek, French, Celtic, Dutch, German and other languages.

The Parts of Speech. Each word in any sentence can be classified, according to its use in that particular sentence, as belonging to one of the eight parts of speech, which are:

The Noun. A noun is the name of a person, animal, place or thing, e.g. John, tiger, school, kettle.

The Verb. A verb may be said to be a "doing" word, e.g. run, swim, write.

The Pronoun.

A pronoun is a word which takes the place of a noun, e.g. he, she, it.

The Adjective.

An adjective describes a noun or a pronoun, e.g. good, fine, proud.

The Adverb.

An adverb generally modifies a verb, e.g. quietly, here, suddenly.

The Preposition. A preposition shows the relation between one thing and another, e.g. against, for, with.

The Conjunction. A conjunction is a word used for joining words and clauses, e.g. and, but.

The Exclamation or Interjection. An exclamation or interjection expresses sudden emotion, e.g. Oh! Hullo! Stop!

Note. A word may be one part of speech in one sentence and a different one in another — or even in the same sentence, e.g.

The Earth is round (adjective) and goes round (preposition) the Sun.

When we wish to express a thought, we use words grouped together in a certain order so that we convey a sensible, definite meaning. This combination of words is termed a sentence.

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NUMBER Most nouns have a Singular form used to denote ONE person or thing and a different Plural form denoting MORE than ONE. Pronouns and verbs also have different singular and plural forms.

Plural children feet geese men mice oxen teeth women

{brothers brethren

{cloths clothes {dies dice

{fishes fish

{geniuses genii

{peas pease {pennies pence {shots shot

brothers-in-law bye-laws by-ways coats-of-mai] cupfuls mouse-traps hangers-on passers-by maids-of-honour sons-in-law men-of-war spoonfuls

cod dozen salmon swine

Singular Plural Singular box boxes child brush brushes foot fox foxes goose gas gases man glass glasses mouse watch watches ox army armies tooth city cities woman fly flies lady ladies brother calf calves

brother

half halves knife knives cioin leaf leaves , .

life lives die loaf loaves ficK shelf shelves nsn thief thieves genius wolf wolves genius

chief chiefs pea dwarf dwarfs pea hoof hoofs, hooves reef reefs penny roof roofs shot cargo cargoes echo echoes hero heroes brother-in-law Negro Negroes bye-law potato potatoes by-way banjo banjos coat-of-mail day days cupful halo halos, haloes mouse-trap piano pianos hanger-on solo solos passer-by valley valleys maid-of-honour

son-in-law man-of-war spoonful

cannon cannon cod deer deer dozen grouse grouse salmon sheep sheep swine trout trout

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Number

EXERCISES

1. State the plural of: loaf, man-of-war, piano, sheep, foot, echo, penny, life, deer, ox.

2. Give the singular of: ladies, thieves, geese, clothes, trout, passers-by, mice, knives, teeth, boxes.

3. Fill in the appropriate singular or plural: army

roofs women

cupful swine dwarf

son-in-law cargo

halo

children flies

potatoes

4. Change all Singulars into Plurals. (1) I heard the echo in the cave. (2) The lady spoke to the child. (3) The boy went for a loaf. (4) The man fed the calf. (5) The mouse ran into a hole. (6) The knife was lying on the table. (7) The fisherman caught a trout. (8) The dwarf gave him a stick. (9) The ship struck the reef.

(10) My foot troubled me. (11) It was a man's boot.

5. Change all Singulars into Plurals and (1) The rabbit runs from the dog. (2) The girl wears a blue dress. (3) The sailor swims to his ship (4) The woman catches the goose. (5) The man shoots the deer. (6) The ox eats the potato. (7) The lady prefers the rose. (8) The sheep runs in the valley. (9) Her foot is badly cut.

(10) The thief steals the valuable bag.

(12) The burglar tried to rob my shop. (13) The prisoner says that he is

innocent. (14) The girl's hat was on the peg. (15) The boy robbed a bird's nest. (16) His tooth hurt him badly. (17) The fanner ploughs his field. (18) The horse is eating a raw carrot. (19) The child cried because he was

tired. (20) This is the house in which I stay.

Verbs into the Past Tense. (11) The child runs to the table. (12) He is a man of means. (13) I keep the bird in a cage. (14) He writes my name. (15) She tells me so. (16) He has a sharp knife. (17) She takes his pencil. (18) The old woman sits on that seat. (19) The man walks slowly to this job. (20) The mouse scampers from the cat.

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The following words have no singular: bellows, billiards, gallows, measles, pincers, pliers, scissors, shears, spectacles, thanks, tidings, tongs, trousers, tweezers, victuals.

GENDER Nouns and pronouns belong to one or another of four GENDERS in grammar. These are:

1. MASCULINE — words denoting male creatures, e.g. boy, king. 2. FEMININE — words denoting female creatures, e.g. girl, queen. 3. COMMON — words denoting creatures of either sex, e.g. child, owner. 4. NEUTER — words denoting things of neither sex, e.g. house, box.

Masculine Feminine Masculine Feminine abbot abbess bachelor spinster actor actress beau belle author authoress boy girl baron baroness brave squaw conductor conductress bridegroom bride count countess brother sister deacon deaconess Czar Czarina duke duchess don donna emperor empress earl countess enchanter enchantress executor executrix giant giantess father mother god goddess fianc6 fiancee heir heiress friar nun host hostess gentleman lady hunter huntress governor matron instructor instructress he she Jew Jewess hero heroine lion lioness him her manager manageress husband wife marquis marchioness king queen master mistress lad lass mayor mayoress lord lady murderer murderess male female negro negress man woman ogre ogress masseur masseuse patron patroness monk nun peer peeress Mr. Mrs. poet poetess nephew niece priest priestess papa mama prince princess proprietor proprietrix prophet prophetess sir madam shepherd shepherdess sloven slut sorcerer sorceress son daughter steward stewardess Sultan Sultana tailor tailoress tutor governess tiger tigress uncle aunt traitor traitress widower widow waiter waitress wizard witch

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Gender Masculine Feminine Masculine Feminine boar sow gander goose buck doe hound brach bull cow mallard wild-duck bullock heifer ram ewe cock hen sire dam colt filly stag hind cob (swan) pen stallion mare dog bitch steer heifer

billy-goat nanny-goat he-goat she-goat Boy Scout Girl Guide Jack-ass Jenny-ass buck-rabbit doe-rabbit landlord landlady bull-calf cow-calf male-child female-child cock-sparrow hen-sparrow manservant maidservant grandfather grandmother

COMMON GENDER words denote creatures of either sex and the same word may used both of male and of female, e.g.

animal, bird, child, friend, owner, pupil, singer, teacher, visitor.

NEUTER GENDER words denote things without life or sex, e.g. box, butter, chair, disease, happiness, honesty, language, river, school.

EXERCISES IN GENDER 1. Give the feminine of:

heir, monk, stallion, nephew, gander, waiter, sir, ram, hero, bachelor.

2. Give the masculine of: witch, filly, cow, maidservant, wife, duck, bride, vixen, duchess, aunt.

3. State the gender of: lion, cousin, jotter, mistress, friend, pencil, steward, sister, book, child.

4. Fill in blank spaces — masculine or feminine — as required: lion bull

lady grandfather governess hind

male widow actor tom-cat tailor slut

5. Change all Masculines into corresponding Feminines: (1) The bridegroom is my nephew. (2) The instructor ordered him to jump. (3) My landlord is a widower. (4) The wizard spoke to the prince.

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Gender (5) The bull attacked the milkman. (6) The Duke chatted to the man. (7) The heir to the estate is a bachelor. (8) "No, sir," he replied. (9) The waiter served his own brother.

(10) "He was indeed a hero," said the emperor. (11) The lion sprang at the colt. (12) The master gave instructions to the manservant. (13) "Well!" said his grandfather, "How are you, my little lad?" (14) The steward brought a glass of water to my uncle, who was seasick. (15) The conductor of the car directed the famous actor to the theatre. (16) The proprietor of the hotel was a wealthy earl. (17) The host was extremely puzzled by the twin brothers. (18) The son of a king is termed a prince. (19) The mayor talked to the father of the little boy. (20) The old man told his shepherd to search for the ram.

Parents Young

father mother baby or child king queen prince or princess man woman baby or child Red Indian squaw papoose uncle aunt nephew or niece

bear she-bear cub billy-goat nanny-goat kid boar (pig) sow porkling, piglet buck (deer) hind fawn buck (hare) doe leveret buck (rabbit) doe rack bull (cattle) cow calf bull (elephant) cow calf bull (seal) cow calf bull (whale) cow calf cob (swan) pen cygnet cock (fowl) hen chicken cock (pigeon) hen squab dog bitch pup dog (fox) vixen cub drake duck duckling eagle eagle eaglet gander goose gosling hawk bowess bowet hold (ferret) Jill hob leopard leopardess cub lion lioness cub

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Gender Parents Young

owl owl owlet ram (sheep) ewe lamb stag (red deer) hind fawn stallion mare foal tiercel (peregrine) falcon eyas tiger tigress cub tom-cat queen or tabby-cat kitten wolf she-wolf cub Adult Young Adult Young bee grub moth caterpillar bird nestling salmon pan-butterfly caterpillar toad tadpole eel elver trout fry frog tadpole wasp grub

EXERCISES 1. Name the young of:

fox, eagle, goose, sheep, pig, goat, cow, horse. 2. Name the parent of:

fawn, pup, cygnet, chicken, leveret, kitten, owlet, duckling. 3. Fill in the blank spaces — the name of parent or young — as required:

wolf kid foal bear

sow lamb gosling eagle

4. Give the names for: a young salmon, a young eel, a young cod, a young trout, a young bird.

TRADITIONAL HOMES Person Home Arab dowar Aborigine humpy convict prison Eskimo igloo gipsy caravan king palace lumberman log-cabin man house Maori whare minister manse monk monastery noble castle

Creature Home ape tree-nest badger sett, earth bear den, lair beaver lodge bee hive bird nest cow byre dog kennel eagle eyrie fowl coop fox earth, lair hare form

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Traditional Homes Person Home Creature Home nun convent horse stable parson parsonage lion lair, den pioneer wagon mole fortress priest (eastern) temple mouse hole, nest prisoner cell otter holt Red Indian wigwam, owl barn, tree Red Indian tepee P«g sty soldier barracks pigeon dove-cote soldier camp rabbit (tame) hutch Swiss (herdsman) chalet rabbit (wild) burrow, warren tinker tent sheep pen, fold vicar vicarage snail shell Zulu kraal spider web

squirrel drey tiger lair wasp nest, vespiary

EXERCISES 1. Name the traditional homes of:

gypsy, tinker, king, minister, Eskimo, cow, dog, eagle, bee, pig. 2. What creatures live in the following places?

dove-cot, hutch, pen, form, stable 3. Name the people who live or lived in the following:

convent, cell, wigwam, barracks.

NAMES Native English speakers have names which consist of (1) A First name, often called a Christian name, and sometimes a Given name. (2) A Surname, which is the family name of the person's father, and which is the last

word in the name. Many people also have a middle name or names.

SOME COMMON FIRST OR CHRISTIAN NAMES (with popular diminutives)

Male Female Albert (Bert, Bertie) Agnes (Aggie, Nessie, Senga) Alexander (Alick, Sandy) Alice (Elsie) Alfred (Alf) Ann (Annie, Nan, Nancy) Allan Barbara (Babs) Archibald (Archie, Baldy) Catherine (Kate, Cathie) Arthur Cecilia (Cis, Cissie) Charles (Charlie) Christina (Chrissie, Tina)

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Names

Male Colin Daniel (Dan, Danny) David (Dave) Donald (Donnie, Don) Duncan Edward (Ed, Ned, Ted) Francis (Frank) Frederick (Fred, Freddy) George (Geordie, Dod) Henry (Harry, Hal) Hugh (Hughie) James (Jem, Jim, Jimmy) John (Johnny, Jack, Jock) Joseph (Joe, Joey) Oliver (Nol, Nolly) Patrick (Pat, Paddy) Peter (Pete, Peterkin) Richard (Dick, Dicky) Robert (Bob, Bobby, Robin, Bert) Samuel (Sam, Sammy) Thomas (Tom, Tommy) William (Bill, Will, Willie)

Female Diana (Di) Dorothy (Dot, Dolly) Elizabeth (Bessie, Betty, Lizzie) Flora (Flo) Florence (Flo, Flossie) Grace (Gracie) Helen (Nell, Nellie) Jane (Janet, Jean) Jessie (Jess) Joan (Jo) Judith (Judy) Lilian (Lily) Mable (Mabs) Margaret (Marjory, Maggie, Peggy) Marion (Mamie) Mary (May, Molly) Rebecca (Beck, Becky) Rose (Rosie) Ruth Sarah (Sally, Sadie) Susan (Sue, Susie) Violet (Vi)

SURNAMES

Surnames are derived from many sources such as Christian names, occupations, places, animals, birds, colours and qualities of mind or body. From Christian names: Archibald, Charles, Francis, Patrick. A great many surnames are composed of a Christian name and a form of the word "son of" added, e.g. Adamson, Davidson, Donaldson, Neilson, Richardson, Williamson. In England and Ireland "son of" is sometimes shown by Fitz, e.g. Fitzgerald, Fitzpatrick, Fitzwilliam. In Wales "ap" or "ab" (in each case small letters) denotes "son of", e.g. Dafydd ab Edmund — David son of Edmund. In the Highlands of Scotland Mac (son of) is very common, e.g. Mac Arthur, Mac Donald, MacDougall, MacGregor, MacNeil, Mac William. In Ireland "son of" is generally shown by Mc and "grandson of" by O', e.g. McNeil, McWilliam, O'Donnell, O'Neil. In Kenya the word "arap" in a name means son of, e.g. the respected President of Kenya is named Daniel Toroitich arap Moi. Similarly in other districts the Kikuyu, Kamba, Meru and Embu tribes use "wa" meaning son of or daughter of.

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Names In Malaysia many names show an Arabic origin indicating the son or daughter status by the use of "bin" (boy) or "binte" (girl), e.g. Achmed bin Faued or Faridah binte Hussein. In Singapore Indian names would include S/O (Son of) or D/O (Daughter of), e.g. Selvarajoo S/O Velu or Saraswethy D/O Rajoo. In China names are written with the family name first, e.g. the Prime Minister of Singapore is the Honourable Lee Kuan Yew, Lee being the family name. An interesting fact about Chinese names is that the second name denotes the generation. As an example take the name Tan Wu Cheng. Tan is the family name, Wu the generation name and Cheng the personal name. Should Mr. Tan have a brother or brothers they will all bear the same family name, Tan, followed by the generation name Wu followed by their own personal name, Cheng or Ling or any other given name. In Iceland the boy or girl would, in addition to his/her own personal name, be given his/her father's name with the addition of son or daughter, e.g. Magnus' father was called John so Magnus Johnson would be the boy's name.

GROUP TERMS OR COLLECTIONS an army of soldiers a bale of cotton a bale of wood a band of musicians a batch of bread a bench of bishops a bench of magistrates a bevy of ladies a board of directors a bouquet of flowers a brood of chickens a building of rooks a bunch of grapes a bundle of rags a choir of singers a clump of trees a cluster of diamonds a cluster of stars a clutch of eggs a company of actors a covey of grouse a crew of sailors a drove of cattle a fleet of motor cars a fleet of ships a flight of aeroplanes a flight of steps

a flock of birds a flock of sheep a forest of trees a gaggle of geese a gang of labourers a gang of thieves a hedge of bushes a herd of buffaloes a herd of cattle a host of angels a library of books a litter of cubs a litter of pups a nest of rabbits a pack of rascals a pack of wolves a party of friends a plague of insects a plague of locusts a school of whales asetofgolf-clubs a set of tools a sheafofcorn a shoal of herring a stack of hay a staff of servants a stud of horses

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Group Terms or Collections a suit of clothes a suite of furniture a swarm of bees a swarm of insects a team of horses a team of players

a tribe of natives a troop of lions a troop of monkeys a troupe of dancers a troupe of minstrels

People

at a concert in church in the street

—audience —congregation

-crowd

in a riot —mob in a rowdy scene —rabble in an office —staff

Less Common Examples a bevy of quails a cast of hawks acoffleof slaves a field of runners a flight of swallows a gang of elk a hand of bananas a herd of antelopes a kindle of kittens a muster of peacocks a nest of machine-guns

a nide of pheasants a peal of bells a posse of sheriffs men a pride of lions a rope of pearls a sheaf of arrows a shock of wheat a skein of silk a skein of wool a truss of hay a wisp of snipe

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EXERCISES A number of sheep together is called a flock. What name is given to a number of:

singers, ships, wolves, trees, bees, whales, thieves, players, pups?

Of what are these collections? menagerie, mob, regiment, bundle, heap.

Supply the missing word: a of motor cars a of herring a of cattle a of angels a of grapes a of chickens a of books

a of servants a of directors a of monkeys

4. Insert the most suitable word in each of the following: a cluster of... a building of. a crew of

a litter of a stack of a plague of an army of

Give one word for a number of people: (1) at a concert; (3) in the street; (2) in church; (4) in a riot;

a band of a gaggle of... a bouquet of.

(5) in a rowdy scene (6) in an office

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SIMILES SIMILES show characteristics of creatures and special qualities of things — and used in everyday talk.

as agile as a monkey as bald as a coot as blind as a bat as brave as a lion as bright as a lark as busy as an ant as busy as a bee as calm as a cat as crafty as a fox as cunning as a fox as fast as a hare as fat as a pig as fierce as a lion as flat as a flounder as fleet as a gazelle as frisky as a lamb as frisky as a two-year-old as gentle as a dove as gentle as a lamb as graceful as a swan

as bitter as gall as black as coal as black as sin as bold as brass as bright as a button as brittle as glass as brown as a berry as clean as a new pin as clear as crystal as clear as day as cold as ice as cold as charity as cool as a cucumber as dead as a doornail as deaf as a doorpost as dry as a bone as dull as ditchwater as easy as ABC as easy as winking as fit as a fiddle

Creatures as hairy as a gorilla as happy as a king as happy as a lark as harmless as a dove as heavy as an elephant as hungry as a hunter as like as two herring as mad as a March hare as meek as a lamb as obstinate as a mule as old as Methuselah as patient as Job as playful as a kitten as pleased as Punch as plump as a partridge as poor as a church mouse as proud as a peacock as quiet as a mouse as red as a turkey-cock

Things as flat as a pancake as fresh as a daisy as good as gold as green as grass as hard as iron as hard as nails as heavy as lead as hot as a furnace as keen as mustard as large as life as light as a feather as like as two peas as old as the hills as pale as death as plain as a pikestaff as quick as lightning as right as rain as round as a barrel as round as an orange

as slippery as an eel as slow as a snail as slow as a tortoise as sober as a judge as strong as a horse as strong as an ox as swift as a deer as swift as a hare as swift as a hawk as tall as a giant as tender as a chicken as thick as thieves as timid as a mouse as timid as a rabbit as wise as an owl as wise as Solomon as white as a ghost as white as a sheet as white as snow

as safe as houses as sharp as a needle as sharp as a razor as silent as the grave as smooth as velvet as soft as down as sound as a bell as sour as vinegar as steady as a rock as stiff as a poker as straight as an arrow as straight as a ramrod as sturdy as an oak as sweet as honey as thin as a rake as tough as leather as true as gospel as true as steel as weak as water

Sometimes we refer to things as being: blood-red, bottle-green, brick-red, cinnamon-brown, coal-black, milk-white, nut-brown, pea-green, primrose-yellow, rose-pink, ruby-red, russet-brown, sea-green, shell-pink, sky-blue, slate-grey, snow-white.

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EXERCISES We say "As black as coal" As sharp as As keen as As sweet as As light as Complete the following: As as a monkey As as iron As as a chicken As as the hills Pick out (by underlining) the best simile in the following:

Example: As dry as (a tree, an egg, a bone, an apple). (1) As flat as (a kettle, a pancake, a loaf, a saucer). (2) As steady as (a rock, a book, a box, a table). (3) As fast as (a child, a tortoise, a herring, a deer). (4) As proud as (a lamb, a daisy, a peacock, a rabbit). (5) As happy as (a giraffe, a lark, a lobster, a serpent).

Complete the following sentences with suitable words: (1) The coward was trembling like a (2) His hands were as cold as (3) The man could swim like a (4) The baby was as good as

(5) The boy ran like the

OCCUPATIONS Describe in a sentence the occupations of the following: artist commercial glazier miner sculptor athlete traveller governess minister seamstress aviator conductor greengrocer navvy shepherd barber confectioner grocer newsagent slater blacksmith decorator hairdresser nurse soldier butcher dentist ironmonger optician stationer cabinet-maker detective jockey pedlar steeplejack caddie doctor joiner physician stoker caretaker draper journalist plumber surgeon carpenter drover judge poacher tailor cashier engineer lawyer policeman teacher chauffeur explorer locksmith porter tinker chemist farmer magistrate postman tinsmith clothier farrier mason reporter tourist clown florist matron saddler witness coastguard fruiterer mechanic sailor wright cobbler gamekeeper milliner sawyer

. Supply the missing words in the following: As slippery as As meek as As brave as As swift as As clear as As cold as

As as a rock As as a flounder As as Punch As as a new pin As as a rabbit As as a bee

Occupations With whom do you associate the following? anvil glasscutter mail rifle spectacles awl guide-book oath roofs telescope barrow gun pack safety-lamp thimble baton handcuffs palette saw ticket-punch brief-case harness plane scales trumpet cart hats plough sheep truncheon cleaver joy-stick prescription shovel ward forceps knife pulpit solder wig furnace lancet razor spanner

Name the chief persons connected with the following: army hospital Police Station school college navy Post Office ship committee newspaper prison team of players court of law orchestra railway station workshop

PLACES Worship

chapel, church, kirk, mosque, pagoda, synagogue, temple.

Business What are the places called where the following are made?

beer, bread, films, flour, iron goods, leather, money, paper, ships, whisky. Name particular places where the following are sold:

bread, clothes, dresses, fish, flowers, fruit, general foodstuffs, hats, meat, milk, newspapers, poultry, spectacles, stockings, sweetmeats, tobacco, vegetables, writing materials.

Sport Give particular names of the places where the following are played:

badminton, bowls, boxing, cricket, croquet, football, golf, hockey, putting, rugby, running, skating, sleighing, tennis, wrestling.

General Give the particular names of the

Where aeroplanes are kept bees are kept birds are kept bull-fighting is held chickens are hatched cooks prepare food criminals are kept crows build their nests

places connected with the following: Where historical relics are shown law is meted out motor cars are kept operations are performed orphans are kept people are buried people lunch for payment plays are shown

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Occupations Where doctors receive their patients films are shown fish are kept fruit trees grow gas is stored grain is stored grapes are grown

Where pupils are educated soldiers are stationed water is stored wild animals are kept young plants and flowers are reared young trees are grown

Explain the difference between: yacht — ferry, motor — aeroplane, river — canal, pen — pencil, shoes — boots, chair — sofa, pin — needle, tramcar — omnibus, shadow — reflection, clock — watch, ham — bacon, hay — straw.

RECEPTACLES Name the contents you would expect to find in the following: attache-case bunker cupboard handbag pocket-book tea-pot band-box butt decanter hogshead portfolio Thermos flask barrel caddy drum jar pot till basin can envelope jug punnet trunk basket canister ewer keg purse tub bath carafe flagon kettle safe tumbler bin cask flask kitbag satchel tun boiler cellar fob library scabbard urn bottle compact gasometer packet scuttle vase bowl creel goblet pan still vat box cruet grip pitcher tank wallet brief-case cup hamper phial tankard wardrobe

In what receptacles or containers would you expect to find the following? Example: tea — caddy.

money, water, sauce, jam, coal, hat, sword, flowers.

FASTENINGS Name the things fastened by the following: bar and hasp chain hawsers padlock staple belt clip hinge paste strap and buckle bolt cord hook and eye peg string braces fishplate lace pin strut brooch glue latch putty tack button gum lock rivet thread cable handcuffs mortar rope twine cement harness nail solder zip

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SOUNDS AND MOTIONS

All creatures make sound and move in a fashion peculiar to their species. Their outstanding characteristics are described by the common adjectives.

ape ass bear bee beetle bull cat cow deer dog donkey elephant frog horse hound hyena lamb lion monkey mouse person P'g rabbit serpent wolf

Sound gibbers brays growls hums drones bellows purrs lows bells barks brays trumpets croaks neighs bays screams bleats roars chatters squeaks talks grunts squeals hisses howls

Motion swings jogs lumbers flits crawls charges steals wanders bounds runs trots ambles leaps gallops bounds prowls frisks prowls climbs scampers walks trots leaps glides lopes

Common Adjective ungainly stupid clumsy busy horrid angry sleek stolid fallow faithful obstinate ponderous clammy noble gallant cunning gentle tawny agile timid average fat timid loathsome lean

bird cock crow curlew duck eagle hen lark owl parrot pigeon robin seagull sparrow swallow turkey wren

whistles crows caws pipes quacks screams cackles sings hoots screeches coos chirps screams chirps twitters gobbles warbles

flies struts flaps flits waddles swoops struts soars flits flits flutters hops glides flits dives struts hops

swift proud black lonely waddling proud domestic gentle tawny saucy gentle little tireless little swift plump tiny

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Sounds and Motions aquiline —like an eagle ferine — like a wild beast asinine —like an ass leonine — like a lion bovine —like a cow or ox lupine — like a wolf canine —like a dog ovine — like a sheep corvine —like a crow piscine — like a fish elephantine —like an elephant porcine — like a pig equine —like a horse tigrine — like a tiger feline —like a cat vulpine — like a fox

2.

EXERCISES Animals make different sounds, e.g. The dog barks. What sounds are made by the following animals?

donkey, elephant, horse, pig, wolf, monkey, deer, cow, bear, hyena. Write the names of the creatures:

The bays. The hisses. The crows. The bleats. The caws.

The croaks. The purrs. The gobbles. The roars. The quacks.

Describe the movements of the following, e.g. The horse gallops. The frog The duck The monkey The lamb The wolf The lark The seagull The bear

4. Apply the most fitting adjective: sleek, cunning, obstinate, fat, tireless, loathsome, gentle, faithful. The mule. The fox. The pig. The lamb. The dog. The cat. The serpent. The seagull.

5. Which creatures were the speakers thinking of when they said? (1 (2: (3; (4: (5; (6:

(9; (io: ( i i (12 (i3: (14 (15; (i6:

"The man bellowed with rage." "He has the hump today." "We were stung by his remarks." "Don't crow so loudly." "The officer barked an order." "The witch spoke in a croaky voice." "He grunted in reply." "The girls were chattering in the hall." "Why are you galloping along the corridor?" "The boy howled when he was caught." "The wicked old woman cackled loudly as she stirred the pot. "The lecturer's voice droned on and on." "The little girl screeched with delight." "The captain snorted in disgust." "The curious child prowled about the room." "Loud hooting interrupted the speech."

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Sounds and Motions 6. Explain the words underlined in the following sentences:

(1) He had an aquiline nose. (2) The burglar walked with a feline tread. (3) The yokel had a bovine loolf (4) He was scolded for his asinine conduct. (5) They had the appearance of sharp canine teeth.

7. What is meant by calling a person (1) an ape (6) a donkey (11) a hound (16) a sheep (2) an ass (7) an elephant (12) a lamb (17) a snail (3) a bear (8) a fox (13) a lion (18) a swine (4) a bull (9) a goat (14) a pig (19) a tortoise (5) a dog (10) ahorse (15) a rabbit (20) a viper

SOUNDS (Made by Objects)

beat of a drum jangling of chains shriek of a whistle blare of a trumpet jingle of coins shuffling of feet blast of an explosion lapping of water sighing of the wind booming of a gun patter of feet skirl of the bagpipes buzz of a saw pealing of bells slam of a door call of a bugle ping of a bullet swish of skirts chug of an engine popping of corks tick of a clock clang of an anvil purr of an engine tinkle of a bell clang of a bell rattling of dishes tinkle of glass clanking of chains report of a rifle throb of an engine clatter of hoofs ring of metal toot of a horn clink of a coin ring of a telephone tramp of feet crack of a whip ringing of bells twang of a bow crackling of wood rumble of a train wail of a siren creak of a hinge rustle of silk whack of a cane crinkle of paper rustling of leaves wheezing of bellows grinding of brakes scrape of a bow whirring of wings hissing of steam screeching of brakes Other Sound Names:

babble, bubble, fizz, gurgle, murmur, splutter, tinkle.

EXERCISES

1. Insert suitable words in the blank spaces: Example — The beat of a drum.

The of a hinge. The of a whip. The of brakes. The The of feet. The The of a bugle. The.. . .

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Sounds (Made by Objects) 2. Supply the missing words:

Example: The clatter of hoofs. The pealing of The booming of The crinkle of Theslamofa

The popping of. The skirl of the. The throb of an. Thetootofa

3. Use the right words in the following: A boiling kettle Thunder Frying fat in the pan. The rain on the window. Coins in the bag. I heard the

of a rifle. The heavy bar fell with a Suddenly we heard the of hoofs.

CLASSIFICATION All things on earth may be divided into two classes: (1) Animate (living things). (2) Inanimate (things having no life). 1. The animate or living things consist of creatures and plants. Creatures can eat, grow

and move about from place to place, e.g. animals including people, birds, fishes, insects, reptiles. Plants are fixed by means of roots and although they can absorb food and grow they cannot move about from place to place, e.g. trees, flowers, vegetables.

2. The inanimate or things having no life are fixed, cannot eat, cannot grow and cannot move about from place to place, e.g. stone, cloth, knife.

Every object can be placed in a certain general class either because of its resemblance to other things or because of its purpose or use. The following are general classes:

animals, birds, insects, fishes, reptiles, flowers, fruits, trees, vegetables, minerals, liquids, apparel, occupations, places, utensils, ships, games, vehicles, cereals, coins, instruments.

In the following list of words, one word seems out of place. Underline the word you consider is not in the same class.

(1) Rose, daffodil, tulip, cauliflower, carnation. (2) Hen, hare, duck, goose, turkey. (3) Beech, elm, oak, violet, ash. (4) Slate, gold, silver, iron, lead. (5) Potato, turnip, lemon, carrot, beetroot. (6) Granite, cement, limestone, marble, whinstone. (7) Oats, wheat, scone, barley, rye. (8) Salmon, whale, herring, mackerel, cod. (9) Diamond, emerald, pearl, ruby, sapphire.

(10) Athens, Glasgow, London, Paris, Rome.

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Classification (11) Ireland, Iceland, Malta, Spain, Sri Lanka. (12) Tea, coffee, biscuit, cocoa, Ovaltine. (13) Rain, sleet, snow, heat, hail. (14) Bacon, milk, cheese, butter, bread. (15) Shield, lance, dagger, gun, spear. (16) Omnibus, taxi, liner, train, tram. (17) Cottage, mansion, palace, bungalow, warehouse. (18) Tomatoes, journeys, excursions, voyages, trips. (19) Birch, maize, maple, chestnut, pine. (20) Man, boy, master, princess, uncle. (21) Rose, palm, orchid, lily, primrose. (22) John, Joseph, Jane, James, Jacob. (23) Cupboard, kitchen, scullery, bedroom, parlour. (24) Orange, potato, cherry, apple, banana. (25) Oil, milk, calico, wine, water. (26) Boy, wagon, kitten, girl, puppy. (27) Plate, cup, saucer, bowl, fork. (28) Radiator, violin, flute, piano, cornet. (29) France, Germany, London, Italy, Spain. (30) Elephant, tiger, giraffe, crocodile, horse.

Put a line under one of the same kind. (1) Cap,balmoral,hat (2) Jug, tea-pot, cup (3) Stork, hen, eagle (4) Tulip, daisy, violet (5) Eye, nose, mouth (6) Tin, copper, zinc (7) Tuna, whiting, mackerel (8) Chair, table, stool (9) Buffalo, monkey, squirrel

(10) Apple, banana, plum (11) Iron, lead, copper (12) Ant, earwig, moth (13) Lagos, London, New York (14) Steamer, yacht, submarine (15) Caramel, cake, ice-cream (16) Falcon, penguin, raven (17) Frock, jacket, coat (18) Motor, train, taxi (19) Salmon, flounder, haddock (20) Tennis, hockey, golf (21) Crocus, tulip, hyacinth (22) Cocoa, coffee, water (23) Violin, piano, harp (24) Cabbage, carrot, potato (25) Barber, florist, draper

1 is done for you. face, boot, turban, coat, hatchet, bowl, loaf, hammer, key, door, egg, butterfly, owl, nest, mouse, foot, cup, brush, rose, scissors, hand, leg, knee, arm, ear. basin, iron, marble, corn, carrot, gate, street, orange, ship, trout, sofa, pot, door, car, tub. wasp, herring, skunk, canary, peach, violet, onion, hawthorn, marble, coal, slate, zinc, rabbit, fly, poodle, snake. Kenya, Scotland, Nigeria, Nairobi, aeroplane, trawler, motor, train, book, pencil, toffee, ruler, grasshopper, maple, stoat, heron, blouse, curtain, sheet, carpet, bicycle, steamer, canoe, seaplane, vulture, snail, eel, setter, darts, cricket, boxing, whist, chestnut, turnip, lily, ruby, bread, soup, pepper, sugar, drum, bugle, guitar, trombone, lilac, beetroot, pine, pheasant, milliner, labourer, miner, pedlar.

No.

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ANALOGIES

Put in the suitable words in the spaces below:

Example: Little is to big as dwarf is to giant.

1. Spider is to fly as cat is to 2. Sheep is to mutton as pig is to 3. Steamer is to pier as train is to 4. Boy is to girl as is to woman. 5. June is to July as is to May. 6. High is to low as is to down. 7. North is to as east is to west. 8. Uncle is to as aunt is to niece. 9. Soldier is to as sailor is to navy.

10 is to donkey as neigh is to horse. 11 is to hand as toe is to foot. 12 are to birds as scales are to fish. 13. Tear is to sorrow as smile is to 14. Wrist is to arm as ankle is to 15. One is to dozen as dozen is to 16. Arrow is to bow as is to rifle. 17. Cat is to kitten as is to pup. 18. Foot is to man as is to horse. 19. Father is to as mother is to daughter. 20. Artist is to as author is to book. 21. Water is to as liquid is to solid. 22 is to cygnet as pig is to porkling. 23 is to herring as school is to whales. 24 is to hive as cow is to byre. 25. Wing is to bird as fin is to 26. Rich is to poor as ancient is to 27. One is to single as two is to 28. Flock is to sheep as is to cattle. 29. Here is to there as is to that. 30. Day is to week as is to year. 31. Eat is to as go is to went. 32. OD is to as tea is to caddy. 33. Steam is to as smoke is to Are. 34 is to sty as horse is to stable. 35 is to cold as seldom is to often. 36 is to fish as air is to animal.

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DOUBLES — Used in Speech to give greater emphasis

1. By repetition of actual word: again and again, by and by, neck and neck, out and out, over and over, round and round, so and so, such and such.

2. By repetition of meaning: beck and call, ways and means, far and away, puff and blow, null and void, stuff and nonsense, fast and furious, odds and ends, rant and rave, lean and lanky, out and away, hue and cry, bawl and shout, old and grey.

3. By alliteration (words beginning with the same letter): humming and hawing, kith and kin, might and main, part and parcel, safe and sound, hale and hearty, spick and span, alas and alack, time and tide, rack and ruin, rough and ready, one and only.

4. By opposites: this and that, thick and thin, on and off, great and small, in and out, high and low, come and go, give and take, one and all, ups and downs, here and there.

5. By words of similar sound: high and dry, fair and square, out and about, wear and tear.

6. By related words: heart and soul, hip and thigh, tooth and nail, body and soul, root and branch, lock and key, hammer and tongs, hole and corner, head and shoulders, hand and foot.

7. Other examples: all and sundry, fast and loose, fits and starts, hard and fast, free and easy, rough and tumble, habit and repute, over and above, touch and go, time and again.

EXERCISES

Place the following phrases in the most suitable sentences:

again and again, lock and key, spick and span, puff and blow, odds and ends.

1. The police placed the man under 2. He polished his boots until they were 3. She tried to do it 4. The child had gathered many 5. The stout man began to with exertion.

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ABBREVIATIONS An abbreviation is the shortening of a word to a few letters. These letters are used in place of a word for brevity. It is customary to mark all abbreviations with a full stop.

Abbreviation Word in FuU Meaning

A.A. Automobile Association A.B. Able-bodied seaman A.D. Anno Domini in the year of our Lord a.m. ante meridiem before noon Al first class (of ships) B.B. Boys' Brigade B.B.C. British Broadcasting Corporation B.C. Before Christ B.D. Bachelor of Divinity B R . British Rail B.Sc. Bachelor of Science C.A. Chartered Accountant C.I.D. Criminal Investigation Department Co. Company or County C.O.D. Cash on Delivery Cr. Credit curt. current this month do. ditto the same Dr. Doctor D.V. Deo volente God willing e.g. exempli gratia for example E.R. Elizabeth Regina Queen Elizabeth Esq. Esquire etc. etcetera and the other things G.P.O. General Post Office

and the other things

H.M. Her Majesty H.M.S. Her Majesty's Ship h.p. horse-power H.R.H. His (or Her) Royal Highness i.e. orie id est that is inst. instant this month I.O.U. I owe you J.P. Justice of the Peace Lat. Latitude lbw leg before wicket Ltd. Limited M.A. Master of Arts Messrs. Messieurs gentlemen M.P. Member of Parliament Mr. Mister Mrs. Mistress

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Abbreviations

Abbreviation Word in Full Meaning

N.B. nota bene note well N.B. North Britain No. Numero Number O.H.M.S. On Her Majesty's Service O.K. all correct p.c. post card per cent per centum in each hundred P.C. Police constable, p.m. post meridiem after noon P.O. Post Office or Postal Order prox. proximo next month P.S. post scriptum written after P.T.O Please turn over R.A.C. Royal Automobile Club R.A.F. Royal Air Force R.C. Roman Catholic R.I.P. Requiescat in pace May he (or she) rest in peace R.N. Royal Navy R.N.R. Royal Naval Reserve R.S.V.P. Repondez s'il vous plait Reply if you please S.A. Salvation Army S.S. Steam-ship or Sailing-ship T.A. Territorial Army T.U.C. Trades Union Congress U.K. United Kingdom ult. ultimo last month U.S.A. United States of America V versus against viz. videlicet namely W.P. weather permitting Y.M.C.A. Young Men's Christian Association Y.W.C.A. Young Women's Christian Association

Ave. Cres. Dr. Gdns.

- Avenue - Crescent -Drive - Gardens

ABBREVIATIONS Mans. —Mansions PI. —Place Rd. — Road

Sq. —Square St. — Street Terr. — Terrace

auto bus exam gym

- automobile - omnibus - examination - gymnasium

CONTRACTIONS mag — magazine phone — telephone photo —photograph plane —aeroplane

pram — perambulator prom —promenade specs — spectacles

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Abbreviations all's — all is I'll — I will there's — there is can't — cannot I'd — I would they'll —they will couldn't — could not I'm — I am we'll — we will 'cross — across isn't — is not we've — we have didn't — did not it's — it is whate'er — whatever doesn't — does not I've — I have where'er — wherever don't — do not o'clock — of the clock whosoe'er — whosoever hasn't — has not o'er — over who've — who have haven't — have not shan't — shall not won't — will not he'd — he would she'll — she will wouldn't — would not he'll — he will shouldn't — should not you'll — you will he's — he is that's — that is you're — you are

EXERCISES 1. Insert the apostrophe where it should be:

tis, neednt, youll, Halloween, souwester, Ive, twas, neer, oclock, dont.

2. What do the following abbreviations mean? J.P., B.B.C., C.O.D., M.P., G.P.O., B.C., M.A., H.R.H., lbw, B.R.

3. Often abbreviations are used in letter-writing. Give the meaning of the following: a.m., inst., prox., ult., Esq., Rd., Mr., W.P., p.m., St.

OPPOSITES 1. Give the words opposite in meaning to the following:

abroad black confirm drunk false absence bless contract dry familiar accept bold correct dull famous adult bottom coward dwarf fancy alive bow curse early far ancestor bright damp east fat ancient broad dark easy feeble answer buy day ebb fertile arrive captive defeat educated few asleep captivity defend empty first assemble cheap deep enemy flow back chubby deny entrance foe backward clean depart evening foolish bad clever depth ever foreign barren coarse die everywhere found beautiful cold difficult exit free bent come dirty expand freedom better conceal disperse failure friend big condemn divide faint front bitter confined down fair-play

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Opposites frown late numerous sadness sweet full lean often safety take future liberty old seldom tall gaunt light opaque selfish tame generous live open sell temporary giant long out senior there go lost past shallow these good loud peace short those guilty love pedestrian show timid hard low permanent shut tiny hate mad plain singular top heavy maximum pleasant slovenly transparent height merry plural slow truth hell minimum polite small ugly here minority poor smart unite hero miser poverty smooth vacant heroic miserable powerful sober vague hide modern praise soft valley high morning present solid victory hollow motorist private south wane home mountain prosperity sour war honest moving proud spacious wax hot multiply purchase spendthrift weak humble narrow question stale wealth ignorant native quiet stationary west immense near rapid steep wet inferior never refuse stern white innocent new retire straight wild join night retreat strong wise junior noise reveal stupid worse juvenile none rich success wrong land north right summer young last nowhere rude superior youth

2. Give the words opposite in meaning to the following: (a) By Adding Prefix advantage direct legible order safe approve essential like patient sane audible fair lock perfect screw aware famous loyal pleasure selfish behave fire modest poisonous sense comfortable happy moral polite tidy common human mortal possible transitive connect just necessary proper trust content kind noble pure twist convenient known normal regular visible correct legal obey reverent wise

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Opposites

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(b) By Changing the Prefix Ascend, encourage, export, exterior, external, increase, inside.

(c) By Changing the Suffix Careful, cheerful, joyful, merciful, pitiful, useful.

3. The following may be said to be opposites: doctor — patient, parent — child, teacher — pupil, king — subject, shopkeeper — customer, employer — employee, leader — follower, speaker — listener, host — guest, lawyer — client, gamekeeper — poacher, captor — prisoner, borrower — lender, buyer — seller, hound — quarry, attacker — defender, guardian — ward.

EXERCISES 1. Write words opposite in meaning to:

success, visible, praise, transparent, fair-play, arrive, nowhere, barren, ancient, wise.

2. Give the opposites (by prefix) of the following: audible, behave, known, legible, modest, noble, obedient, regular, sense, pleasant.

3. In the spaces provided write the opposites of each of the following: north possible entrance often rough enemy pedestrian bitter guilty senior

4. Give the opposites of the following phrases: a bright boy a bright colour a bright light a stormy day a stormy sea a stormy meeting a wild boy a wild horse a wild flower

5. State the opposites of: an armed man a false gift a soft answer I am sorry a heavy load a mighty army to keep step to sing in tune she was dark

6. In the spaces provided write the opposites of the words underlined: Example: The ball was solid — hollow

(1) It was a beautiful dress. (2) Tuesday was a very sunny day. (3) The ascent of the hill took two hours. (4) He has a temporary post. (5) She purchased the toy. (6) He is a lazy fellow.

Opposites

(7) There was an abundance of fruit. (8) He gave an intelligent answer. (9) The sea was rough.

(10) It was very fertile land. 7. Fill in the blanks in the following sentences with a word which is the opposite of

the word underlined. (a) Read the question and then write your (b) The Polar bear which escaped from the zoo was soon (c) Last year the well was empty, but this year it is (d) A polite boy is much thought of: there is nothing to be gained by being (e) I suddenly remembered that I had my spectacles.

abandon leave abode dwelling abundant plentiful accused blamed acute sharp adhere stick affectionate loving aid help ally friend amazement wonder ancient old assemble gather astonish surprise asunder apart besieged surrounded blank empty bright shining broad wide caution care circular round coarse rough commence begin comprehend understand conceal hide constable policeman conversation talk courage bravery cunning sly curb control custom habit

deceive cheat difficult hard disaster calamity dusk twilight elude escape emperor king enemy foe enormous gigantic extended enlarged exterior outside fall drop famous noted fatigue weariness feeble weak gap hole glance look gravely sternly greeted saluted grope feel gruff harsh halt stop heroic brave hoax trick imitate copy insolent rude intention purpose interior inside join unite lament grieve lean thin

SIMILAR WORDS lofty high loyal true mad insane malady disease margin edge mariner sailor marsh swamp maximum most meagre scanty minimum least moan groan modern new moisture dampness mute dumb myth fable nimble active noisy rowdy odour smell omen sign option choice peculiar choice persuade coax plume feather profit gain prohibit forbid prompt quick powerful strong promised avowed protect guard puny weak

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Similar Words purchase buy quaint odd quantity amount queer peculiar raiment clothes ramble roam rank position rapid quick regret sorrow remedy cure request desire residence dwelling reveal show roam wander

robust strong scene sight shrine tomb sleek smooth slender slim small little squirming wriggling steed horse stern strict stubborn obstinate sturdy strong surrender yield suspended hung terror fear

tested tried thrust pushed tranquil peaceful transparent clear unite join vacant empty valour bravery vanquish defeat wealth riches wicked sinful withdraw retire wrath anger wretched miserable yearly annually

EXERCISES

1. Give words similar in meaning to the following: comprehend, empty, sufficient, vicinity, attempted, enemies, risky, purchase, perceive, modern.

2. In the spaces provided write words similar in meaning: bright peculiar convenient lofty disappear unite hoax margin valour wrath

3. Place the words in their proper positions in the sentence: (handsome — pretty) The girl admired the prince. (proud — vain) The king laughed at the little girl. (fat — stout) A woman should not eat meat. (feeble — weak) tea will not refresh the old lady. (hot — sultry) On a day don't drink liquids. (old — antique) The man was fond of furniture. (loving — tender) Her hands had prepared a chicken. (sad — dull) The day was and we felt quite

4. Give short sentences, one for each word, showing the correct use of the following:

learn, teach, mad, angry, invent, discover, possible, probable, accept, except.

5. Use similar words in place of the words underlined: (a) The pail dropped into the well. (b) "Don't conceal your real feelings." (c) I was astonished to find the house vacant. (d) He alters his plans annually.

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HOMONYMS HOMONYMS are words which have the same sound or the same spelling, or both, but different meanings. If they are spelt the same they may be called HOMOGRAPHS. If they are spelt differently, but sound the same, as in the following examples, they may be called HOMOPHONES. air heir hail hale raise rays,raze aisle isle, I'll hair hare read reed allowed aloud hear here real reel ant aunt heard herd right rite ate eight him hymn right wright bad bade hoard horde right write bail bale hole whole ring wring ball bawl holy wholly road rode, rowed bare bear hour our root route beach beech key quay rose rows bell belle knew new rye wry blew blue knight night sail sale boar bore knot not scene seen board bored lair layer scent sent, cent bough bow leak leek sea see boy buoy loan lone seam seem buy by, bye loot lute sew so, sow ceiling sealing made maid sight site cellar seller mail male soar sore cereal serial main mane sole soul cheap cheep meat meet son sun check cheque medal meddle stair stare coarse course missed mist stake steak core corps more mower stationary stationery council counsel muscle mussel steal steel crews cruise none nun stile style currant current oar o'er, ore tail tale dear deer pail pale tares tears desert dessert pain pane tears tiers die dye pair pare, pear their there draft draught pause paws threw through ewe you, yew peace piece throne thrown faint feint peal peel tide tied fair fare peer pier time thyme feat feet place plaice to too, two flew flue plain plane told tolled flour flower plum plumb vain vane, vein foul fowl pores pours vale veil gait gate practice practise waist waste gamble gambol praise prays, preys wait weight gilt guilt principal principle weak week grate great profit prophet won one groan grown rains reigns, reins wood would

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Homonyms EXERCISES

1. Make short sentences, one for each word, showing the correct use of the following:

bear, bare, fool, full, flower, flour, too, two, ate, eight, write, right. 2. Score out the wrong words:

She bought some (steak, stake). The bicycle was for (sail, sale). We have found a (hoard, horde) of candles. The (hole, whole) army marched into the town. The boy broke a (pane, pain) of glass. We walked to the golf (coarse, course). (Their, There) books are on the desks. The girl had to (wait, weight) till four o'clock. The wounded soldier uttered a loud (grown, groan). The joiner (bored, board) a small (whole, hole) in the (wood, would).

3. Give sentences showing clearly the meaning of each of the following words: collar, caller, steal, steel, heard, herd, reign, rain, their, there.

4. Insert the words in their proper places: (allowed — aloud) It is not to speak in class. (maid — made) The admitted that she had a mistake. (piece — peace) He will give no until he receives a

of cake. (scent — sent) "Did you get the I you?" (stair — stare) I saw him at the man on the (waist — waste) " not, want not," said the woman with the

thin 5. Medal, horde, gambol, guilt, prophet, gamble, meddle, profit, gilt, hoard.

From the above list insert the correct words in the following sentences: A of coins was found under the floor. The business man made a large on the deal. He was told not to with the toys. I saw the lambs in the field. His name was printed in large letters.

WORD BUILDING Form Nouns from: able advertise attend absent amuse attract abundant angry bag accurate anxious beautiful acquaint appear beg act applaud begin admire apply behave adopt approve bitter

boy conclude decent brave content decide bright create deep cash credit depart child cruel describe civilise curious destroy clean dark develop compare deceive discover

36

Word Building

divide grand like oppose satisfy tell do great live persuade school think encourage grow listen please scientific thrive enjoy hate long profess secure typical equal hero lose prosper see vain exhaust high loyal proud select visit expect holy magic prove serene war explain imagine manly pursue shade warm faithful imitate marry ready sick weak false injure merry real simple weary famous interfere mission rebel speak weigh favourite introduce mock receive steal wide feed invent moral recognise stream wise fragrant judge mountain reveal strike worthy free just move revive strong young friend know music sad succeed gay learn occupy

Form Adjectives from: accident coward fortune mine quarrel tide adventure craft France mischief rag tire affection credit friend mountain reason trouble angel crime giant mourn science truth anger critic girl music sense value anxiety cruelty gold mystery shadow vanity athlete custom grace nation shower variety attract danger grief nature silk victory autumn decide hate neglect silver voice beauty describe heat noise sister volcano bible disaster height north skill Wales boy distance hero notice sorrow war brass duty hope obey south water breath energy iron occasion spire wave Britain expression Italy ornament spirit weary care faith joy parent star west caution fame law patience stop winter change fashion length peace study wisdom charity father life peril strength wit child fault love person success wood choir favour luxury picture sun wool circle fire man pity storm worth colony five marvel please sympathy wretch comfort fool meddle poet talk year continent force melody poison terror youth courage forget mercy pride thirst

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Word Building Form Verbs from: able colony fertile horror pleasure soft actor composition fine joy proof solution banishment courage food just provision song bath creator force knee pure spark beauty critic friend knowledge relief speech blood custom frost large resident strong bright dark full life resolution success broad deed glass long rich terror camp description glory magnet roll thought circle dictation gold moisture sharp tight circulation education grass nation shelf tomb civil false grief obedience short trial clean fat growth peril simple wide cloth

Form Adverbs from: ability happy joy sweet thought weary critic heavy pure terror true wide faith horror simple

COMPOUND WORDS A word in its simplest form is called a Primary Word, e.g. table, board, egg. If we combine two Primary Words to form one word we get a Compound Word, e.g. tablecloth, blackboard, eggcup. Form Compound Words from the following: ache day heart mat school ball door house milk stone black dust ink mill strong board egg jam pick table boot fire lamp piece time church fly light pond tomb cloth foot maid post tooth coal gentle man pot wife cup gun master room yard

EXERCISES 1. Make a noun corresponding to each of the following words:

please, prove, know, proud, choose, encourage, strong, real, just, give. 2. Give nouns formed from:

gay, select, grow, bag, act, receive, invite, succeed, repent, divide. 3. Make an adjective corresponding to each of the following words:

Britain, heat, expense, anger, faith, height, fashion, boy, vanity, sense.

38

Word Building

4. Give adjectives from: decide, bible, talk, circle, attract, mystery, voice, nation, winter, peril.

5. Give a verb corresponding to each of the following words: Example: solution — solve,

knee, strong, description, gold, custom, tight, grief, large, glory, food.

6. Give verbs from: obedient, sweet, education, fat, life, composition, civil, tomb, bath, pure.

7. Complete a table of nouns and verbs corresponding to the adjectives: long, strong, broad, glad, able, wide, e.g.: Adjective Noun Verb long length (to) lengthen

CORRECT USAGE

THE VERB

One of the most common errors in speech and writing is the use of the wrong form of the verb for the past tense or the past participle, e.g. I seen you; Have you broke it? The two parts are often the same but there are many exceptions.

Most verbs form these two parts in the same way, by adding '-ed', '-d' or '-t' to the basic form of the verb, (the infinitive) thus:

Infinitive Past Tense Past Participle (to) work (I) work-ed (I have) work-ed (to) live (I) live-d (I have) live-d (to) deal (I) deal-t (I have) deal-t

Some verbs which form these parts by adding '-t' to the infinitive also have an alternative form, ending in '-ed', e.g. dream-t or dream-ed; lean-t or lean-ed; spoil-t or spoil-ed.

In some cases the spelling of the infinitive (or a vowel sound in it) is changed before the ending is added, e.g. cap, capp-ed; transfer, transferr-ed; spell, spel-t; flee, fled; pay, pai-d; say, sai-d; hear, hear-d; lean, lean-t; fight, fought-t; teach, taugh-t.

A few verbs which end in '-d' (in the infinitive) change the 'd ' t o ' t ' to form both the past tense and the past participle, e.g. bend, bent; build, built; so also lend, rend, send, spend.

In addition there are several verbs which simply use the same form for the infinitive, the past tense and the past participle — burst, cast, cost, cut, hit, hurt, spread.

39

Correct Usage There are, however, some very common verbs (about 300) which have other ways of forming these parts, and which in many cases form the two parts differently, giving rise to the errors mentioned above.

Infinitive Past Past Tense Participle

(to) (I) (I have) In some cases the past tenses or the past come came come participles, or both, are formed by changing become became become a vowel sound in the infinitive without adding run ran run any ending. hold held held

sing sang sung meet met met read read read

In some cases the past participle is formed beat beat beaten with the ending -en, or -n, or -ne added to show showed shown the infinitive. do did done

go (went) gone

In some cases there is a vowel change in the eat ate eaten past tense, and the past participle is formed grow grew grown with the ending -en, or -n, or -ne either with see saw seen or without the same vowel change. bear bore borne *

* but bom in being born at birth.

The following lists show further examples of all the above variants. These do not obey any fixed rules, but simply have to be learned. Infinitive Past Past Infinitive Past Past

Tense Participle Tense Participle (to) (I) (I have) (to) (I) (I have) flee fled fled dwell dwelt* dwelt* lay laid laid leap leapt* leapt* shoe shod shod leave left left sell sold sold lose lost lost tell told told creep crept crept bring brought brought feel felt felt buy bought bought keep kept kept catch caught caught kneel knelt knelt seek sought sought sleep slept slept think thought thought sweep swept swept work wrought* wrought* weep wept wept * or worked; dwelled; leaped.

bend bent bent send sent sent lend lent lent spend spent spent rend rent rent build built built

40

Correct Usage

Infinitive Past Past Infinitive Past Past Tense Participle Tense Participle

(to) (I) (I have) (to) (I) (I have) cling clung clung bleed bled bled fling flung flung breed bred bred sling slung slung speed sped* sped* sting stung stung lead led led string strung strung dig dug dug swing swung swung light lit* lit* wring wrung wrung shine shone shone hang hung* hung* shoot shot shot slink slunk slunk sit sat sat spin spun spun stand stood stood stick stuck stuck win won won strike struck struck bind bound bound find found found grind ground ground wind wound wound * or speeded; lighted; hanged (as a punishment).

begin began begun sink sank sunk drink drank drunk spring sprang sprung ring rang rung stink stank stunk shrink shrank shrunk swim swam swum

arise arose arisen fall fell fallen drive drove driven bid bade bidden ride rode ridden forbid forbade forbidden rise rose risen give gave given smite smote smitten forgive forgave forgiven stride strode stridden take took taken strive strove striven mistake mistook mistaken write wrote written forsake forsook forsaken

shake shook shaken

blow blew blown know knew known draw drew drawn throw threw thrown break broke broken slay slew slain choose chose chosen swear swore sworn freeze froze frozen tear tore torn speak spoke spoken wear wore worn steal stole stolen bite bit bitten wake woke * woken * forget forgot forgotten

or waked or waked tread trod trodden

41

Correct Usage

Other cases where normal usage is worthy of special attention are: Infinitive Past Past Infinitive Past Past

Tense Participle Tense Participle (to) (I) (I have) (to) (I) (I have) mow mowed mown show showed shown saw sawed sawn strew strewed strewn sew sewed sewn crow crew crowed sow sowed sown dare durst dared make made made or dared can could (none) shall should (none) may might (none) will would (none be was, were been lay laid laid (in the sense of set down) lie lay lain (as in to lie down) lie lied lied (in the sense of telling lies) go went gone (went is the otherwise obsolete past tense

the verb to wend, adopted as the past tense the verb to go, but not as the past participle)

Finally, some easy ones: bet bet bet rid rid rid burst burst burst set set set cast cast cast shed shed shed cost cost cost shut shut shut cut cut cut slit slit slit hit hit hit split split split hurt hurt hurt spread spread spread let let let thrust thrust thrust put put put As can be seen from these examples, these verbs do not follow any fixed rules, b simply have to be learned. One way to attune your ear to the correct usage is to give the past tense a subject (e.g. I sang, Tom sang) and say it aloud; then put / have, or Tom has in front of the past participle (e.g. I have sung, Tom has sung) and say this aloud.

EXERCISES

1. Give the past tense of: arise, break, cut, fall, keep, say, shake, drink, bite, choose.

2. Give the past participle of: bear, drive, fly, give, hurt, ride, sell, speak, come, swim.

3. Give the present tense of: ate, beaten, froze, hidden, blew, spoken, awoke, sold, lost.

4. Give the present infinitive of: burn, speak, stand, sweep, drive.

42

Correct Usage

43

5. Give the past tense and past participle of: am, do, forget, grow, write, sing, tear, hide, go, begin.

6. Complete the following table: Present Tense Past Tense Past Participle I rise I rose I have risen I forget I I have I cut I sing I blow

7. Fill in each space correctly with one of these words: rise, rose, raise, risen, raised.

(a) When he met the lady he his hat. (b) Yesterday the boy at five o'clock. (c) I saw him from his seat. (d) She tried to the lid. (e) The sun had in the sky.

8. Use the correct part of the verbs in the blank spaces: (go) She had for a walk. (see) He his uncle yesterday. (fall) The old man asleep in his chair. (awake) He was by the noise. (dream) The boy was about pirates.

In each of the sentences below there are groups of two words within brackets. One of the two words is correct, the other wrong. Which is the correct word?

1. We (drank, drunk) our tea before we (sung, sang) the carol. 2. After he had (ran, run) about 5 kilometres, he (sank, sunk) to the ground. 3. Cloth is (wove, woven) from wool which has (grown, grew) on sheep. 4. He had (gave, given) me the parcel before he was (took, taken) a prisoner. 5. The timid creature was (drove, driven) into a narrow valley where it was soon

(slew, slain) by the cruel tiger. 6. The vessel (sank, sunk) before they had (swam, swum) a great distance. 7. The tree had (fell, fallen) across the road and many of its branches were (broke,

broken). 8. By the time the sun had (rose, risen) the aeroplane had (flown, flew) across the

sea. 9. No sooner had he (spoke, spoken) than a deer (sprang, sprung) into our path.

10. He (began, begun) to look for the toy which he had (gave, given) to his brother. 11. The man had (threw, thrown) away the purse which was (stole, stolen) from the

lady. 12. I have (knew, known) him since he has (came, come) to this village.

Correct Usage

Verbs Adverbs acted quickly, suddenly, warily. answered correctly, immediately, tartly. ate greedily, hungrily, quickly, slowly. bled freely, profusely, slightly. bowed humbly, respectfully, stiffly. caressed fondly, gently, lovingly. charged bravely, desperately, furiously. chuckled artfully, gleefully, happily. crept quietly, silently, softly, stealthily. decided carefully, eventually, immediately. explained briefly, clearly, concisely, vaguely. fell heavily, quickly, suddenly. flogged brutally, cruelly, unmercifully. fought bravely, furiously, gamely. frowned angrily, sulkily, worriedly. injured accidentally, fatally, seriously, slightly. left hurriedly, quietly, suddenly. listened anxiously, attentively, carefully. lost badly, heavily, sportingly. mumbled angrily, inaudibly, indistinctly. pondered deeply, seriously, thoughtfully. pulled hastily, strongly, vigorously. ran hurriedly, quickly, rapidly, slowly. remembered . . . clearly, distinctly, faintly, slightly. sang loudly, softly, sweetly, tunefully. shone brightly, brilliantly, clearly, dimly. shouted frantically, joyfully, jubilantly, loudly, suddenly. slept fitfully, lightly, soundly. smiled broadly, happily, ruefully. sneered insolently, impudently, tauntingly. spent foolishly, freely, recklessly, sparingly. spoke clearly, distinctly, earnestly, loudly, plainly, slowly. sprang hurriedly, lightly, quickly, suddenly.

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13. The jacket had been well (wore, worn) and the cloth had (shrank, shrunk). 14. After we had (ate, eaten) our supper we went to the pond which was (froze,

frozen) over. 15. The picture was (drawn, drew) by a famous and wealthy artist who had (rose,

risen) from poverty. 16. They had just (went, gone) when we were (saw, seen) by our friends. 17. A nest had (fell, fallen) to the ground, where it had been (blew, blown) by the

wind. 18. The bell (rang, rung) just after I had (wrote, written) the letter.

SOME COMMON VERBS WITH SUITABLE ADVERBS

Correct Usage

Verbs Adverbs staggered awkwardly, drunkenly, weakly. strove bravely, desperately, manfully. stuttered excitedly, haltingly, painfully. trembled fearfully, frightfully, visibly. waited patiently, anxiously. walked clumsily, haltingly, quickly, slouchingly, slowly, smartly. wept bitterly, distractedly, sadly, touchingly. whispered . . . . audibly, quietly, softly, yielded stubbornly, weakly, willingly.

EXERCISES

1. In the spaces provided, place the following adverbs: heavily, furiously, silently, soundly, immediately, sparingly, broadly, patiently.

He charged He decided He slept He crept He spent He fell He smiled He waited

2. Add any suitable adverb to the following sentences: The girl sings The clerk wrote The lion roars The river flows The artist paints The stars shine The child sleeps The horse gallops The cat walks The man frowns

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES

The Positive is the simple form of the adjective used when speaking of or describing an object, e.g. short, big. The Comparative is used when comparing two objects and is formed by adding -er to the Positive or -r if the Positive ends in -e, e.g. shorter, bigger, braver. The Superlative is used when speaking of more than two objects and is formed by adding -est or -st to the Positive, e.g. shortest, biggest, bravest. Generally to compare adjectives of two or more syllables more is used comparatively, and most is used superlatively, e.g. careful, more careful, most careful. Positive Comparative Superlative Positive Comparative Superlative big bigger biggest long longer longest fast faster fastest small smaller smallest gay gayer gayest tall taller tallest great greater greatest thin thinner thinnest late later latest Note. A single syllable adjective ending in a single consonant other than w, x or y which is preceded by a single vowel, doubles the consonant in the Comparative and Superlative, e.g. fatter—but laxer, lower, cooler.

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Comparison of Adjectives Positive Comparative bad worse far farther good better little less Positive beautiful brilliant cautious comfortable generous gracious handsome ignorant

Superlative worst farthest best least

Comparative more beautiful more brilliant more cautious more comfortable more generous more gracious more handsome more ignorant

Positive Comparative Superlative many more most much more most old older oldest

Superlative most beautiful most brilliant most cautious most comfortable most generous most gracious most handsome most ignorant

2.

3.

EXERCISES Give the comparatives and superlatives of:

many, hot, bad, famous, little. Write down the comparatives of:

fast, good, gracious, tall, beautiful. Write the superlatives of:

thin, much, comfortable, gay, handsome. Draw up a table showing the Positive, Comparative and Superlative of:

long, far, good, generous, late, cautious. State whether the following words are Positive, Comparative or Superlative:

nearest, better, far, more certain, surest, larger, most wonderful, bad, shorter, biggest.

CONCORD

CONCORD means agreement or harmony. In grammar it means agreement between subject and verb, which must both have the same person and number. Person and number. A pronoun subject (see page 49) is either First Person (I, we) or Second Person (thou, you) or Third Person (he, she, it, they): a noun subject is Third Person. Most verbs have a Third Person Singular form in the Simple Present Tense (ending in -s or -es, e.g. he look-s; she watch-es; the cat jump-s). In the verb to be, and in the continuous tenses of other verbs formed with parts of the verb to be, there are different forms for First, Second and Third Person singular; the plural forms are the same for the three persons, thus: Singular I am, was looking; thou art, wert looking; he is, was looking

you are, were looking Plural We are, were looking; you are, were looking; they are, were looking.

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Concord Rules of Concord (a) When the subject is singular, the verb is singular, e.g.

(1) He writes. (2) She swims. (3) The baby cries. (b) When the subject is plural, the verb is plural, e.g.

(1) We write. (2) They swim. (3) The babies cry. (c) Expressions such as "each of", "one of", "neither of", "every one of", "not one

of" and words such as "each", "every", "none", "anybody", "everybody" and "nobody" must be followed by verbs in the singular, e.g. (1) Each of the boys has a toy. (4) Either of the knives cuts well. (2) One of the ladies is married. (5) Every one of us knows that. (3) Neither of the brothers was present. (6) Not one of the girls has come

(d) A singular subject with attached phrases introduced by "with" or "like" or "as well as" is followed by a singular verb, e.g. (1) The boy, with several others, was late for school. (2) Alice, like Rose, is tall for her age. (3) Tom, as well as Fred, rises early in the morning.

(e) When a verb has two singular subjects connected by "and", the verb is plural, e.g. (1) The cat and the dog were great friends. (2) The farmer and his wife are jolly people.

(f) When a verb has one or more plural subjects connected by "and", the verb is plural, e.g. (1) The officer and his men were crossing the field. (2) The boys and the girls are sure of their work.

(g) Two singular subjects separated by "either or", "neither nor" take a singular verb, e.g. (l)Either Tom or Dick has lied (2) Neither he nor she writes well.

(h) Plural subjects separated by "either or", "neither nor", "both and", also "all but", take a plural verb, e.g. (1) Either the boys or the girls are to blame. (2) Both Hugh and Ian were to play. (3) All but James have failed. (4) All of them but Grace are correct.

(i) When one of the subjects connected by "either or", "neither nor", etc. is singular and the other plural, the plural subject is placed next to the verb, which is made plural.

Neither the teacher nor the pupils are ready. (j) When subjects connected by "either or", "neither nor", etc. are

of different Person, the verb can be made to agree with the subject mentioned last: Either Mary or you are to be in the team.

It is better, however, to repeat the verb: Either Mary is to be in the team or you are.

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Concord EXERCISES

In each of the sentences below there are groups of two words within brackets. One of the two words is correct, the other wrong. Underline the correct word:

Each of the boys (is, are) going on holiday so each of them (has, have) gone to bed early. Everybody (was, were) pleased as each of them (was, were) treated alike. Neither he nor she (want, wants) to go. (Wasn't, Weren't) we sorry when we heard you (was, were) going? All but Tom (has, have) been lazy so all but Tom (loses, lose) marks. James as well as John (rise, rises) at eight, so James like John (is, are) early for work. Neither of the singers (was, were) present. The miller and his wife (is, are) a happy couple. Neither of them (has, have) paid as both of them (is, are) poor. The girl with several others (was, were) going to school. Both Agnes and Albert (is, are) here tonight. John like James (is, are) smaller than Peter. All of you but Andrew (is, are) good, so all of you but Andrew (get, gets) a reward. Each of the ladies (is, are) delighted as each of the ladies (receive, receives) a prize. Anybody (is, are) allowed to enter. Nobody (is, are) grumpy at the camp because nobody (is, are) allowed to feel lonely. Arthur as well as Donald (is, are) clever so Arthur as well as Donald (has, have) succeeded. The gentlemen and the ladies (was, were) wearing evening dress. Either one or the other (is, are) wealthy as either one or the other (has, have) plenty of money. All of us but David (was, were) on holiday so all of us but David (is, are) sun­tanned. (Wasn't, Weren't) they pleased when they heard we (was, were) coming? Cecil as well as Annie (like, likes) spelling and Cecil as well as Annie (hate, hates) arithmetic. Why (do, does) every one of them do that, when every one of them (know, knows) the arrangements? Neither the soldiers nor their officer (was were) afraid. Either you or your brother (has, have) to take the blame.

48

THE PRONOUN Personal Pronouns:

Person Nominative Objective Possessive Reflexive XdjectivcO First (Sing.) I me mine myself (my), (mine*) Second (Sing.) thou* thee* thine* thyself* (thy*), (thine*)

you you yours yourself (your) Third (Sing.) he him his himself (his)

she her hers herself (her) it it its itself (its)

First (Plur.) we us ours ourselves (our) Second (Plur.) you you yours yourselves (your) Third (Plur.) they them theirs themselves (their)

* These forms are little used in modern English.

Relative Pronouns: which which whose who whom whose that that what what It should be noted that the pronouns thou, thee, thy, thine and thyself are not used in modern English.

Pronouns used as subjects must be in the nominative case, e.g. I bought some apples. We saw a large cave. You will catch a cold. They shouted with joy. He caught a fish. She sang a song. Who saw the man?

Even the best of us are apt to make mistakes in the use of the double nominative. Study the following examples carefully and note that the pronouns acting as subjects are in the nominative case: He and I bought some apples. James and you will catch cold. She and I sang a song. They and I will go.

Pronouns used as objects must be in the objective case, e.g. The play bored me. The guards pushed you. The boys will follow him. The lady watched her. The man cannot tell whom. The children left us. The answer decided them.

Many mistakes are made in the use of the double objective. Note that the pronouns acting as objects are in the objective case: The play bored both him and me. The guards pushed you and him. The lady watched Mary and her. The children left Sam and us. The answer decided the captain and them.

49

The Pronoun Pronouns used after prepositions must be in the objective case, e.g. The animal stared at me. The girl will listen to you. We know nothing about him. A crowd gathered round us. The policemen ran after them. Here again the double objective must be watched carefully: The animal stared at her and me. We know nothing about either him or her. The girl will listen to you or me. The policemen ran after both us and them. A crowd gathered round Fred and us. Between you and me I think he is wrong.

There are a few verbs which are followed by pronouns in the nominative case where we should normally find the objective. Study them carefully as they often cause difficulty.

First let us understand why these verbs are followed by the nominative. It is because all such verbs make the following nouns and pronouns act in the same way as subjects. For example all forms of the verb to be, when used by themselves (am, is, are, was, were, have, been, will be, etc.), control the following pronouns: It is I (Universal practice allows "It is me" to be accepted.) It is she (not It is her). It is he (not // is him). It is we (not It is us). It is they (not It is them). From this we gather that the following are the correct forms: That was he. Those were they. Who was she? Who are they?

Included with the verb to be are expressions such as is believed to be, is said to be, is supposed to be, is thought to be, etc. The boy is believed to be he (not him). The lady is said to be she (not her). It appears to be she (not her). It seems to be they (not them). The man who won is supposed to be he (not him). At the concert we were thought to be they (not them).

Common Errors: (a) after as and than:

He is as tall as me (wrong). He is as tall as I (am) (correct). His brother is older than him (wrong). His brother is older than he (is) (correct).

The reason is that as and than are conjunctions (not prepositions). (b) after let:

Let you and I go (wrong). Let you and me go (correct).

The reason is that let is the same as the transitive verb allow.

(c) after between: Between you and I (wrong). Between you and me (correct).

The reason is that between is a preposition governing both pronouns.

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The Pronoun EXERCISES

In each of the sentences below there are groups of two words within brackets. One of the two words is correct, the other wrong. Underline the correct word: (He, Him) and (I, me) went for a walk. It was (he, him) (who, whom) we saw in the shop. No one believes it was (she, her); everyone thinks it was (I, me). Between (he, him) and (I, me) we ate the whole cake. (She, Her) and (I, me) can go, but you and (he him) cannot. Jack is not as clever as (he, him) or (I, me). It seems to be (they, them). Between you and (I, me), be careful what you say to Annie or (she, her). (Her, She) and you sang very well together. Let you and (I, me) go to the shore. John is much brighter than (he, him). Those are (they, them). This discovery must remain a secret between you and (I, me). Jean and (her, she) ran to the house. It was (he, him) who knew the right answer. James is older than (me, I), but his brothers are younger than (us, we). The dog pursued Frank and (I, me). (Who, Whom) are (they, them)? We were busy when (he, him) and his brother appeared. Let him and (I, me) fetch the small table. (Us, We) lads were at the cinema. Between you and (I, me), I know all about Sue and (she, her). He is almost as big as (me, I). Her sisters are smaller than (us, we) but she is taller than (I, me). You and (he, him), if you played together, would become friends. The wild creature snarled at my sister and (I, me). They will choose either (he, him) or (she, her). You and (I, me), if we try, would manage it, but you and (he, him) couldn't. It appears to be (he, him). (She, Her) and (I, me) are twelve years of age. Her cousin is younger than (she, her). Was it (I, me) you saw there? (Who, Whom) did it? (Me, I). I spoke to (he, him) and (she, her). We saw the book but it was (they, them) who tore it. The dress becomes her better than (I, me). We are certain it was not (he, him). It is not (she, her) that I am angry with. (He, Him) I can excuse, but not (they, them). Was it (he, him) or (she, her) who found the purse? (Who, Whom) do you think we met? Is that (he, him) at the door?

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THE CONJUNCTION A Conjunction joins words, phrases or sentences together.

There are two main kinds of conjunction:

(a) Conjunctions which join similar parts of speech and clauses of equal value, e.g. and, both, but, for, therefore, either... . or, neither.... nor, whereas.

Examples: (1) The boy and the girl hurried home. (2) The dog was delighted with the bone and wagged his tail. (3) Both he and his wife went on holiday. (4) Both the driver and the man, who was hurt, were questioned. (5) He was poor but honest. (6) She could write well, but she could not do her sums. (7) I am surprised at him for he should know better. (8) It was foggy therefore miserable. (9) He was a good man therefore he was respected.

(10) Either my brother or his chum knows the place. (11) Either my nephew goes with me or he stays at home. (12) Neither James nor Mary wants to go. (13) Neither did he come nor did he send any excuse.

(b) Conjunctions which join principal clauses to subordinate clauses. (Included are many adverbs which act as connecting words and therefore become conjunctions.) In order to distinguish the various types of conjunction in this class they are grouped under the appropriate headings below:

TIME Conjunctions are: after, before, now, since until, till, when, whenever, while. Examples:

(1) After the lady opened the door she switched on the light. (2) The man ate a sandwich before he boarded the bus. (3) Now the weather has changed the farmers can expect good crops. (4) Since I have known her we have been firm friends. (5) We will wait here until the next train arrives. (6) I cannot say definitely till I hear from him. (7) The boys were going to school when we saw them. (8) Whenever it is possible we shall visit her. (9) While there is life there is hope.

PLACE Conjunctions are: whence, where, wherein, wherever. Examples:

(1) The city whence the travellers had come was rich. (2) That is the house where my father was born. (3) They saw no place wherein he could hide. (4) The brooch must be found wherever it is.

52

The Conjunction

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CAUSE or REASON Conjunctions are: as, because, lest, since. Examples:

(1) As he was in a hurry I did not speak to him. (2) We know he was to blame because we saw the accident. (3) I was afraid lest he should fall. (4) Do not say anything since she is frightened.

CONCESSION Conjunctions are: although, as, even if, however, though, whether, while. Examples:

(1) Although I have written twice, he has not replied. (2) I would not go even if I were invited. (3) Though the boy had faults I could not but like him. (4) It is the truth whether you believe it or not. (5) While we should condemn vice, we should praise virtue. (6) He could not get the answer, clever as he was.

CONDITION Conjunctions are: as, except that, if, unless. Examples:

(1) Except that she is a trifle slow, she writes well. (2) Send me word if you wish to go. (3) That rascal will do nothing unless he is compelled.

MANNER or DEGREE Conjunctions are: as, as .... as, as if, as though, so as, than. Examples:

(1) He remained at home as he had been ordered. (2) The house is vacant as far as we know. (3) He speaks as if he knows all about it. (4) The animal lay as though it were dead. (5) James does not read so well as Robert. (6) He is taller than I am.

PURPOSE Conjunctions are: in order that, lest, so that, that. Examples:

(1) They worked hard in order that they might finish in time. (2) Take care, lest you are hurt. (3) I sent him a letter so that he would know. (4) You come to school that you may learn.

The Conjunction CONSEQUENCE

Conjunctions are: so that, so .... that. Examples:

(1) He spoke loudly so that we heard him. (2) She is so dull that she can learn nothing.

EXERCISES

In the following exercises there are sentences with groups of two words within brackets. One of the two words is correct, the other wrong. Underline the correct word:

TIME (1) Wait there (how, till) I have finished. (2) He left (before, that) darkness fell. (3) We haVe remained here (whether, since) you left. (4) (After, Unless) they arrived, they sat down. (5) I can call (however, whenever) it is convenient to you. (6) The exercise will be corrected (before, when) it is finished. (7) His brother waited (except, until) James returned. (8) She read a book (that, while) I wrote a letter.

PLACE (1) The place (whence, when) the stranger came was not on the map. (2) The faithful dog followed his master (lest, wherever) he went. (3) The old man pointed out the place (since, where) he lived. (4) We will go (whither, unless) our fancy takes us.

CAUSE or REASON (1) (As, Where) we left early, we did not see him. (2) I was afraid to speak (lest, however) he should tell. (3) You ask him (since, than) you are friends. (4) My uncle was angry (where, because) he was deceived.

CONCESSION (1) The boy is strong and healthy (though, since) he is not tall. (2) (While, Unless) I trust him, I dislike his companions. (3) We will go (how, even if) it rains. (4) (Whether, Where) you like it or not, he will invite you. (5) My cold is much worse (although, whence) I have tried to cure it.

CONDITION (1) He could not win (as, unless) he was given a start. (2) I'll lend you an umbrella (unless, if) it rains. (3) She will go (than, if) you ask her. (4) You cannot obtain admission (unless, since) you pay.

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The Conjunction

MANNER or DEGREE

(1) You are quite right (while, as far as) I can see. (2) The dog lifted his paw (as though, how) he understood me. (3) She is older (than, since) I am. (4) They did not play (while, so well as) their opponents. (5) The man looked (when, as if) he was a foreigner. (6) I cannot work (as, whence) he can.

PURPOSE

(1) The man put on the light (so that, since) he could read. (2) (In order that, When) they might be in time, they left early. (3) The boy ran quickly (why, lest) he should be left behind. (4) You should go (that, how) you may be cured.

CONSEQUENCE

(1) It was so misty (that, as) the search was called off. (2) The dog ran so fast (that, while) he caught the hare.

THE PREPOSITION

The preposition is placed before a noun or a pronoun. It is somewhat like a conjunction as it shows the relationship between nouns and pronouns in the same sentence.

The following list contains the most common prepositions:

about, above, across, after, against, along, amid, amidst, among, amongst, around, at, before, behind, below, beneath, beside, between, betwixt, beyond, by, down, during, except, for, from, in, into, near, of, off, on, over, round, since, through, till, to, towards, under, underneath, until, unto, up, upon, with, within, without.

1. Use the correct prepositions in the blank spaces: (1) The boy must apologise the lady. (2) That man is an authority flowers. (3) The mother was proud her son's success. (4) He placed the bat the wall. (5) My cousin put the book the drawer. (6) It is an exception the rule. (7) His opinion differs mine. (8) The man ran the path. (9) She takes great pride her appearance.

(10) The ball went the window.

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The Preposition

(1) The pencil lay the desk.

(2) The man rowed the river.

(3) The lady sat the chairman.

3. Underline the prepositions in the following sentences: (1) I stood on the bridge of the ship. (2) Above me, I saw a cloudy sky. (3) The dog leaped over the wall after a ball. (4) We chased him through a field of hay. (5) With that ticket you can obtain admission to the show. (6) My brother received a letter from him. (7) The fanner stored his hay in a large barn. (8) Beside the boxes lay several boulders. (9) The careless boy ran behind the car.

(10) During the year many people were injured in street accidents.

Many people find it difficult to choose the correct prepositions. The following should be read carefully and revised from time to time:

according to disappointed with (somebody) afflict with disgusted at (something) agree to (something) disgusted with (somebody) agree with (somebody) dislike for aim at divide among (many) angry with divide between (two) ashamed of equal to attack on filled with blame for full of change for (something) good for change with (somebody) guilty of comment on indignant at (something) complain of indignant with (somebody) confer with inspired by conscious of interfere with defiance of invasion of despair of meddle with die of opposite to differ from (opinion) part from (somebody) differ with (somebody) part with (something) disagree with prevail on disappointed in (something) protest against

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2. Supply three suitable prepositions in each sentence:

The Preposition

tired of (something) tired with (action)

pursuit of recoil from regard for rely on similar to suffer from

thirst for (or after) vexed at (something) vexed with (somebody) victim of wait for (person, thing) wait upon (somebody) write about (something) write to (somebody)

CORRECTION OF SENTENCES There are errors in the following sentences. Rewrite them correctly.

1. She was the oldest of the two sisters. 2. Who did you see at the party? 3. Neither John or James were present. 4. She is not as old as me. 5. The best team won the football match. 6. The books what we read were interesting. 7. Being a fine day I went to the seashore. 8. Who can it be for? 9. He was angry at me for leaving.

10. I am your's truly. 11. I cannot run no farther. 12. John has broke his leg. 13. Hurrah shouted the man. 14. The letter was sent to Mr. John Brown, Esq. 15. The parcel was returned back to the sender. 16. I left home at | to 7. 17. The girl said that she done it herself. 18. He returned home as quick as he could. 19. I have forgot to post the letter. 20. "Where is my boots?" 21. She hurted her leg. 22. She got a bad accident. 23. There is four books on the table. 24. He went for to get up. 25. The lady bought a comb for the baby with plastic teeth. 26. Between you and I, he is quite wrong. 27. They sung the same song twice. 28. This jacket is wore out. 29. It's no use me working. 30. I intended to have written. 31. I was that tired I could hardly of spoken. 32. The fishermen saw a flock of herring in the sea. 33. Everyone in the class knows they could do better. 34. Between you and me we seen many people.

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Correction of Sentences 35. I saw a dog with his master which had a long tail. 36. We found the ring belonging to the lady made of gold. 37. A piano was sold to a lady with carved legs. 38. We seen the rascal who stole were ball. 39. There is five books on the table. 40. A man was at the corner and his dog. 41. She and her husband am going. 42. His hair needs cutting badly. 43. Neither of them are tall. 44. Someone's left their books behind. 45. Him and his sister went to the pictures. 46. Me and my friend went to buy a coat for ourselves. 47. It was him you saw. 48. They have did it again. 49. She could not come no quicker. 50. We have never seen none of them. 51. He couldn't remember nothing. 52. He done his work correctly. 53. Is he the tallest of the two? 54. Each of the boys had their books. 55. It was me that broke the window. 56. Which is the cleverest, John or Mary? 57. A more kinder man never lived. 58. I was that breathless I could hardly speak. 59. The animal did not take no notice. 60. Neither of them have been lucky. 61. Me and him went together to the pictures. 62. He took the biggest half. 63. It was a remarkable fine picture. 64. He is worse than me. 65. I seen him go to the theatre. 66. One of the horses were tired. 67. Of the two, I like James best. 68. Give me them oranges. 69. He don't speak very clear. 70. We are quite sure he done it. 71. She sent it to you and I. 72. The man learnt him to swim. 73. That answer is different than mine. 74. Neither one or the other is right. 75. She will not stay, I do not think. 76. The lady sings quite nice. 77. He did not except the gift. 78. To who does this belong? 79. Whom do you think that can be? 80. The two brothers divided the apple among them.

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THE RIGHT WORD IN THE RIGHT PLACE Place the following words in the sentences best suited to their use:

closed, finished, stopped, completed, concluded, ended. (1) His watch at six o'clock. (2) I remember how the story (3) I have my lessons. (4) They have the alterations. (5) The meeting with the National Anthem. (6) Having enough money they the fund.

Use the following words (instead of "nice") to describe: agreeable, beautiful, convenient, delicious, enjoyable, fine, good, interesting, pleasant, pretty.

a garden a bonnet a cake a walk a house an man a day a train an concert an book

Place the following words in their sentences: frowned, mumbled, sang, chuckled, bowed, whispered, listened, smiled.

He tunefully He gleefully He angrily He broadly He humbly He attentively He indistinctly He softly

Place the following words in the sentences best suited to their use: exclaimed, muttered, answered, said, shouted, explained, whispered, pleaded.

He that he would come He with joy He why he was late "Look!" he He for mercy He under his breath He quietly to his "That is so," he

neighbour

Place the following words in the sentences best suited to them: caressed, ate, pulled, charged, slept, bled, crept, strove.

He furiously. He greedily. He profusely. He soundly. He vigorously. He manfully. He fondly. He stealthily.

Always avoid use of the word "got". There is usually another word which can be used to better effect. Substitute a better word in each of the following sentences: He got up at eight o'clock. He got a penny from his mother. He got his breakfast early. He got a bad cold yesterday. He got to the station in time. He got married last year.

The Right Word in the Right Place

7. Write in the most suitable word: A man who digs for coal is a I switched on the light. The holiday is in December. They sang a Christmas He was so ill he went to bed. The postman the letters. He avoided accidents because he drove very

8. Place the right words of who, whom, whose, which in the following sentences: (1) That is the boy broke the window. (2) That is the stone broke the window. (3) That is the man window was broken. (4) That is the boy I saw breaking the window. (5) That is the boy told me that he broke the window.

9. Words ending in "-able": (1) A piece of furniture. (6) A telegram from overseas. (2) A horse's home. (7) Helpless. (3) Written by /Esop. (8) Land under cultivation. (4) Can be carried. (9) A carrot. (5) Diamonds are. (10) Glass things are.

10. Give a single word for each of the following: (1) go away, (2) go back, (3) go down, (4) go forward, (5) go into, (6) go on hands and knees, (7) go out of, (8) go quickly, (9) go slowly,

(10) go up.

11. The following may be said to be the right action at the right time. Tell what immediate action you would take and suggest a cure (if necessary). What would you do?

(1) If you burned your foot. (2) If you lost your way. (3) If you sprained your ankle. (4) If your nose started to bleed. (5) If you noticed an escape of gas in the house. (6) If your sister's dress caught fire. (7) If you found a pocket-book in the street. (8) If your brother's hand was cut. (9) If you saw smoke coming from a closed shop.

(10) If your cousin was stung in the arm.

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ADDITION OF CLAUSES

Add a clause to the following and name the kind of clause you add:

I saw the lady The little boy said The girl ran quickly

when they reached home. I noticed when he rose to speak. We stood on the very spot

if you cannot swim. The dog barked loudly The lady was my sister. "Will you let me know ?" The dog saved the child. We saw the train I hope

while they listened. The boy hurt himself badly The man was caught by the police. I saw She bought an umbrella

as she spoke. The messenger arrived I watched the man I do not know As the girl approached the house We saw when we returned.

if you are ill. "Come to my house " I know the child When I came here

which cost very little. My father scolded me The crowd rushed forward The soldiers were trapped in the wood. The unhappy scholar said

if you do not send word. The boy lifted the box The man waved frantically

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PHRASES TO CLAUSES Change the underlined phrases into clauses:

1. He failed through carelessness. 2. On the completion of his task the boy went out to play. 3. He told me of his coming. 4. A man in high position has many responsibilities. 5. She lived in a cottage near the sea. 6. On entering I saw several pictures. 7. The police recovered the stolen property. 8. We do not know his hiding place.

Change the underlined clauses into phrases: 1. I am convinced that he is sincere. 2. The child was in bed before the sun had set. 3. His action showed how brave he was. 4. I am certain that you will help me. 5. As I approached I heard a great noise.

SENTENCES SIMPLE TO COMPLEX

Make each pair of simple sentences into one complex sentence and retain the meaning as far as possible.

(Do not use "and" or "but" or "so".)

1. (a) I have a dog. (b) I am very fond of it. 2. (a) That is the man. (b) He stole my purse. 3. (a) I was travelling in a bus. (b) It collided with a taxi. 4. (a) The boy did not pass. (b) His work was badly done. 5. (a) I was gazing out of the window. (b) I saw a crowd. 6. (a) The boy was riding a horse. (b) It looked tired. 7. (a) The man could hardly walk. (b) He carried such a heavy load. 8. (a) The book belongs to Jack. (b) It is a red one. 9. (a) The girl went for the doctor. (b) The doctor stayed next door.

10. (a) The house was destroyed. (b) It was built by Tom's father. 11. (a) He works hard at his lessons. (b) He wishes to succeed. 12. (a) The men were walking quickly. (b) The men saw me. 13. (a) He heard the strains of music. (b) He was passing a church. 14. (a) The lady lost the book. (b) She was going to the library. 15. (a) The man stood at the door. (b) The door was open. 16. (a) The boy caught a rabbit. (b) He took it home. 17. (a) The girl fell heavily. (b) The girl hurt herself. 18. (a) He opened the cupboard. (b) He saw many books. 19. (a) The lady was careless. (b) She lost her purse. 20. (a) Mary entered the room. (b) The room was brightly decorated.

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Sentences 21. (a) A loud peal of thunder came. 22. (a) Tom made mistakes in reading. 23. (a) The teacher praised the boys. 24. (a) The horse fell. 25. (a) The man caught a salmon. 26. (a) The boy has hurt his foot. 27. (a) The lady sat in a coach. 28. (a) The tourist climbed the hill. 29. (a) My sister has a good voice. 30. (a) The girl found a brooch. 31. (a) I found a lady's purse. 32. (a) The girl wore a red dress. 33. (a) I visited the little cottage. 34. (a) The woman was selling flowers.

(b) The children were frightened. (b) He could not see well. (b) They had worked well. (b) It was pulling a heavy load. (b) He took it home. (b) The boy cannot walk. (b) Four horses drew it. (b) The hill was steep. (b) She sings in the choir. (b) She took it to her mother. (b) It contained two coins. (b) She sat next to me. (b) I was born in it. (b) She stood at the comer of the

35. (a) I went to see my cousin. 36. (a) The man was poorly clad.

street. (b) His home was in the country. (b) I gave him money.

Change Complex Sentences into Simple Sentences:

1. He is a man who is very intelligent. 2. We heard the news that he was saved. 3. I can tell you how old he is. 4. The woman lives in a house which is very big. 5. He spoke to the soldier who was wounded. 6. The boy lost his ticket because he was careless. 7. I shall speak to him when he arrives. 8. The child found a ring which was very valuable.

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

Practically all books containing lists have the words arranged in the order of the letters of the alphabet: 1. By the first letters of the words. 2. When the first letters are the same, the words are arranged according to the

second letters. 3. When the first two letters are the same, the words are arranged according to the

third letters,

ALPHABETICAL ORDER The Alphabet (twenty-six letters)

and so on.

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Alphabetical Order Examples: 1. By the first letter:

amount, bicycle, height, machine, physical, seized, vehicle, Wednesday. 2. When the first letters are the same:

absence, acquaintance, aeroplane, ancient, attention, autumn, awkward. 3. When the first two letters are the same:

thatch, their, thimble, though, through, thumb, thyself.

EXERCISES 1. Place the following in alphabetical order:

vegetable, official, judgment, colonel, extremely, humorous, necessary, language.

2. Re-arrange the following words in dictionary order: pain, pale, pane, pail, prey, pore, pray, pour.

THE APOSTROPHE The Possessive Case of a Noun is shown by a mark (') known as an Apostrophe. In the Singular it is shown by 's , e.g. Mary's bag, the animal's foot. In the Plural it is shown by an apostrophe after the plural ending, e.g. the men's hats, the ladies' coats, the bees' stings.

Singular Possessive Plural Possessive the girl's dress the girls' dresses the lady's bag the ladies' bags the boy's pencil the boys' pencils a day's work seven days' work the man's pipe the men's pipes the woman's glove the women's gloves the child's clothes the children's clothes

EXERCISES 1. Insert the apostrophe in the following sentences:

(1) The boys pencil lay on the floor. (2) The ladies coats were in the cloakroom. (3) My cousins hand was badly hurt. (4) The mens boots were covered with mud. (5) The childs doll fell into the pond.

2. Correct by putting in the apostrophe: (1) The childrens books were left in my uncles house. (2) The maids dress was torn by a neighbours dog. (3) My fathers wallet was discovered in the thieves den. (4) A ducks egg is generally cheaper than a hens. (5) Mr. Smiths watch is five minutes slower than Mr. Browns.

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CAPITAL LETTERS Capital letters are used: 1. To begin sentences. 2. To begin special names. 3. To begin direct speech. 4. To begin words in titles. 5. To begin lines of poetry. 6. To begin words of exclamation. 7. To begin words He, Him, His, if they refer to God or Christ. 8. To write word "I".

Examples illustrating the use of capital letters.

1. Beginning Sentences. One day a girl was playing on a busy street. Her ball rolled into the middle of the road and she ran after it. At that moment a motor-car came dashing round the corner. A passer-by saw the girl's danger and ran quickly to her aid. Fortunately he saved her from serious injury.

2. Special Names. Jean Miller and her brother David are expected to arrive by Concorde from New York on Tuesday, November 30th, St. Andrew's Day.

3. Direct Speech. A man said to his friend, "If you manage to solve the puzzle, send me the answer." His companion replied, "You will have my solution before the end of the week."

4. Titles. The famous collection of Indian animal stories called The Jungle Book was written by Rudyard Kipling.

5. Lines of Poetry. I wandered lonely as a cloud

That floats on high o'er vales and hills, When all at once I saw a crowd,

A host of golden daffodils, Beside the lake, beneath the trees, Fluttering and dancing in the breeze.

6. Exclamation. "Oh!" shouted the boy, "I have hurt my finger." "Indeed!" exclaimed his father, "You are lucky to get off so lightly."

7. Reference to God and Christ. After Jesus had preached to the multitude He proceeded on His way to Jerusalem.

8. The Pronoun "I". He advised me to travel by 'bus but I told him that I preferred to travel by rail.

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PUNCTUATION

By correct punctuation we mean the proper use of: capital letters, comma (,), period (.), quotation marks (" "), exclamation mark (!), question mark (?), and apostrophe (').

Punctuate the following sentences: 1. What time is it asked the traveller 2. His father said where is your brothers knife 3. My friends exclaimed what a lovely view 4. He has gone to school said his sister in a quiet voice 5. The child suddenly shouted look 6. Oh cried the boy i have hurt my finger 7. Come here said his mother all right replied the boy 8. The man asked have you seen the hammer yes replied his companion it is on the

table 9. A boy said to his chum are you going to the pictures no replied the other im on

my way home 10. When i return said the girl to her father will you tell me the story of the shipwreck

very well he answered but dont be too long at your aunts

DIMINUTIVES

booklet rivulet epaulette cubicle codling circlet streamlet kitchenette icicle duckling coronet cygnet rosette particle gosling fillet eaglet damsel chicken nestling latchet leveret morsel kitten porkling leaflet owlet satchel maiden seedling locket bannerette globule lambkin bullock pamphlet cigarette molecule mannikin hillock

SMALL QUANTITIES

an ounce of energy a breath of air a chip of wood a crumb of bread a drop of any liquid a glimmer of light a grain of sand a lock of hair

a morsel of food a particle of dust, matter a pat of butter a pinch of salt, snuff a posy of flowers a puff of wind a scrap of paper, food

a sip of water a spot of rain a smut of soot a speck of dirt a touch of colour a whiff of air a wisp of straw

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FOR REFERENCE

To Find Look at 1. the address of a person directory 2. the meaning of a word dictionary 3. the day and date of the month calendar 4. the position of a place atlas 5. a list of priced goods or books catalogue 6. a telephone number telephone directory 7. the time of a train or bus time-table 8. record of a ship's progress at sea log 9. record of attendance register

10. record of personal daily events diary 11. collection of photos and autographs album 12. extracts from books and papers scrap-book 13. record of events of previous day newspaper 14. facts regarding days of the year almanac 15. a fictitious tale novel 16. a life story . biography 17. facts about living creatures book on zoology 18. facts about plants book on botany 19. facts about the stars book on astronomy 20. facts about the Earth's crust, minerals book on geology

PROVERBS

Proverbs are popular sayings expressed in a clever, brief manner. 1. A bad workman quarrels with his tools. 2. Absence makes the heart grow fonder. 3. A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush. 4. A cat may look at a king. 5. A drowning man will clutch at a straw. 6. A fair exchange is no robbery. 7. A fool and his money are soon parted. 8. A friend in need is a friend indeed. 9. A hungry man is an angry man.

10. All's well that ends well. 11. An apple a day keeps the doctor away. 12. Any time means no time. 13. A miss is as good as a mile. 14. A penny saved is a penny gained. 15. A pet lamb is a cross ram. 16. A rolling stone gathers no moss. 17. A stitch in time saves nine. 18. As well be hanged for a sheep as a lamb. 19. A small leak will sink a great ship. 20. As the twig is bent so the tree's inclined. 21. As you make your bed so must you lie in it.

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Proverbs

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22. A wild goose never laid a tame egg. 23. Better half a loaf than no bread. 24. Better late than never. 25. Birds of a feather flock together. 26. Charity begins at home. 27. Cut your coat according to your cloth. 28. Discretion is the better part of valour. 29. Don't carry all your eggs in one basket. 30. Don't count your chickens before they are hatched. 31. Ducks lay eggs, geese lay wagers. 32. Early to bed — early to rise, etc. 33. Empty vessels make most noise, sound. 34. Enough is as good as a feast. 35. Every cloud has a silver lining. 36. Every dog has its day. 37. Every tide has its ebb. 38. Evil weeds grow apace. 39. Example is better than precept. 40. Experience teacheth fools. 41. Faint heart never won fair lady. 42. Far from court far from care. 43. Fine feathers make fine birds. 44. Fine words butter no parsnips. 45. Fire is a good servant but a bad master. 46. First come, first served. 47. Forbidden fruit tastes sweetest. 48. Fortune knocks once at every man's door. 49. Good wine needs no bush. 50. Grasp all, lose all. 51. Great minds think alike. 52. Great oaks from little acorns grow. 53. Habit is second nature. 54. Half a loaf is better than none. 55. Hard work is the best appetiser. 56. He laughs best who laughs last. 57. He pays the piper who calls the tune. 58. He goes a-sorrowing who goes a-borrowing. 59. Hunger is the best sauce. 60. Imitation is the sincerest form of flattery. 61. In for a penny, in for a pound. 62. It's a long lane that has no turning. 63. It's an ill wind that blows nobody any good. 64. Laugh and grow fat. 65. Leave well alone. 66. Let not the pot call the kettle black. 67. Let sleeping dogs lie. 68. Listeners hear no good of themselves.

Proverbs

69. Little boys should be seen and not heard. 70. Little pitchers have long ears. 71. Look after the pence, and the pounds will look after themselves. 72. Look before you leap. 73. Love laughs at locksmiths. 74. Make hay while the sun shines. 75. Misery makes strange bedfellows. 76. More haste, less speed. 77. Necessity is the mother of invention. 78. New brooms sweep clean. 79. No cross no crown. 80. None but the brave deserve the fair. 81. None so deaf as those who will not hear. 82. No news is good news. 83. No smoke without fire. 84. Once bitten twice shy. 85. One good turn deserves another. 86. One man's meat is another man's poison. 87. One swallow does not make a summer. 88. Out of sight, out of mind. 89. Out of the frying pan into the fire. 90. Penny wise, pound foolish. 91. Pride goeth before a fall. 92. Robbing Peter to pay Paul. 93. Sauce for the goose is sauce for the gander. 94. Set a thief to catch a thief. 95. Shoemakers' wives are worst shod. 96. Silence gives consent. 97. Spare the rod and spoil the child. 98. Speech is silvern, silence is golden. 99. Still waters run deep.

100. The least said the soonest mended. 101. The early bird catches the worm. 102. Too many cooks spoil the broth. 103. Truth will out. 104. Two heads are better than one. 105. Union is strength. 106. We never miss the water till the well runs dry. 107. Where there's a will there's a way. 108. When the cat's away the mice will play.

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COLLOQUIALISMS

Colloquialisms are expressions used in common conversation.

A person may be said to be: The apple of one's eye . . . Armed to the teeth A wet blanket Dead beat In the same boat Carried away A chip of the old block . . . Off his chump Under a cloud Down in the mouth Down on one's luck . . . . All ears At a loose end A queer fish Good for nothing A son of a gun Hard of hearing Hard up Hard hit In evil case Ill-used Lion-hearted At loggerheads with someone The man in the street . . . . Up to the mark An old salt A peppery individual . . . . A pocket Hercules At rest A rough diamond Silver-tongued Golden-voiced Purse-proud Out of sorts On the square Stuck up Thick in the head Beside oneself Heavy-eyed

somebody specially dear, completely armed, a discouraging person, exhausted. in same circumstances. highly excited. very like father. off his head. in trouble or disfavour. in low spirits. in ill-luck. paying close attention, having nothing to do. an odd person, useless, a rascal, almost deaf, short of money, seriously troubled, poor. badly treated. of great courage. quarrelling. an ordinary man. good enough. an experienced sailor. a cranky person. small but strong. dead. a well-liked person of rough plausible and eloquent. pleasing to hear. conceited about money. not well. honest. conceited. stupid. angry, distraught, sleepy.

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GENERAL COLLOQUIAL EXPRESSIONS . . to lift the anchor. . . to maintain an outward show. . . to be obsessed with an idea. . . to do best possible. . . to take all.

1 o make no bones about it to be plain and outspoken. . . to overdo work and play.

To have one's heart in one's boots . . . . to be in terror. To have one's heart in one's mouth . . . . to be frightened.

. . to make peace. to find that something doesn't exist.

. . to tell incredible stories.

. . to confess. to have something to be proud of.

. . to try to captivate.

. . to give up. , , to give up. . . to reproach.

to escape by running. . . to stop suddenly.

' (b wait till the clouds roll by to await better circumstances. . . to change one's principles. . . to give tit for tat.

To give the cold shoulder to show indifference or ignore. . . to discourage.

I'o have a crow to pluck with to have something to settle. . to be very showy.

. . to delude. lb lead up the garden path to deceive by hiding real intentions. 1 b keep a thing dark to hide something. 1 o keep one's distance , , to stay aloof.

to have a wretched life. to refuse to exceed some limit. to be ready or prepared.

. . to deceive. lb make both ends meet . . to manage financially.

. to meet the worst. to avoid taking sides. to cause embarrassment by word or action.

. . to come against. , to get into trouble.

to go without permission. . . to act fairly.

to act unfairly. , to keep silent.

. . to boast. 1 o hit the nail on the head . . to be right.

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General Colloquial Expressions

To kick up a dust to create a row. To bite the dust To fall to the ground. To kick over the traces To throw off control. To knock on the head To stop suddenly. To turn over a new leaf To conduct oneself better. To pull someone's leg to hoax someone. To go through the mill to undergo suffering. To put the cart before the horse to start at the wrong end. To make the mouth water to cause to desire. To sling mud to slander. To nip in the bud to stop at an early stage. To send one packing to dismiss quickly. To pad the hoof to walk. To play fast and loose to act carelessly. To keep the pot boiling to keep an activity going. To rain cats and dogs to rain very heavily. To raise one's dander to anger. To mind your p's and q's to be careful about your behaviour. To raise the wind to obtain money. To smell a rat to be suspicious. To take a rise out of to fool. To rub the wrong way to irritate by opposing. To get into hot water to get into trouble. To turn the tables to reverse a result. To give back chat to make impertinent remarks. To ride the high horse to be snobbish, arrogant. To let the cat out of the bag to tell what should be kept secret. To send to Coventry to ignore as a punishment. To haul over the coals to scold or punish. To take the bull by the horns to act despite risks. To strike while the iron is hot to act without delay. To take forty winks to sleep. To chew the fat to argue. To act the goat to behave foolishly. To live from hand to mouth to live in hardship. To hang one's head to feel ashamed. To turn up one's nose to scorn deliberately. To play with fire to tempt serious trouble. To swing the lead to avoid work purposely. To blaze the trail to lead the way. To come a cropper to fail or to fall to earth. To go on all fours to travel on hands and knees. Tell that to the Marines only the gullible would believe that.

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POPULAR PHRASES Explain what is meant by the following phrases:

horse play from pillar to post as the crow flies no flies on him a red letter day a dead cert a far cry a fly in the ointment on the nail bats in the belfry

back to the wall a fine kettle of fish a busman's holiday a white elephant not worth the candle a cat on hot bricks with flying colours every man Jack not a patch on a storm in a teacup

for a lark a bird's eye view a stiff upper lip a blind alley a hen on a hot girdle a cock and bull story a flash in the pan the lion's share pins and needles by hook or by crook

DERIVATIONS A Root is a word in its first and simplest form. A word may be built up or have its meaning changed by an addition at either end. The addition at the beginning is known as a Prefix, e.g. DIS-agree. The addition at the end is known as a Suffix, e.g. paint-ER.

ROOTS Word Meaning Examples aqua water . . . aquatic, aqueduct audio . . I hear . . . audible, audience, audit capio . . I take . . . capable, captive, capture centum . . a hundred . . centenarian, century clamo . . I shout . . . clamour, proclaim, exclaim creo . . . create . . . creation, creature curro I run . . . courier, current, excursion decern . . ten . . . . December, decimal dico . . . I say . . . . edict, dictation, verdict, dictator duco . . . Head . . . introduce, produce, reduce facio . . . I make . . . fact, factory, perfect finis . . . an end . . . final, infinite fortis . . strong . . . fort, fortify homo . . a man . . . homicide, human Impero . . I command empire, emperor, imperial liber . . . free . . . . liberal, liberty inalus . . bad . . . . malady, malice, maltreat manus . . hand . . . manual, manufacture, manuscript initto . . I send . . . missile, mission, remittance navis . . a ship . . . navigate, navy octo . . . eight . . . octagon, octave, October pcllo . . . I drive expel, propel, repel IH'ndeo . . I hang . . . depend, pendant, suspend pedis . . the foot . . . pedal, pedestrian, quadruped planus . . level . . . . plain, plan, plane

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Derivations plus . . . more . . plural, surplus porto . . . I carry . . export, import, porter, transport poto . . . I drink . . poison, potion primus . . . first . . primer, primitive, Prime Minister pro . . . before . . prophet, prologue pro . . . instead of pronoun rego . . . I rule . . regal, regent, regiment rota . . . a wheel . . rotate, rote, rotund ruptum . . . break . . eruption, interruption, rupture scribo . . . I write . . scripture, describe, manuscript specio . . . I see aspect, prospect, spectacles teneo . . . I hold . . contain, retain, tentacles unus . . . one . . unit, unity, union vanus . . . empty . . vanish, vanity, vain venio . , . I come . . adventure, prevent, venture video . . . I see . . provident, visible, vision vinco . . . I overcome convince, victory voco . . . I call . . revoke, vocal, voice volvo . . . I roll . . evolve, revolve, volume

PREFIXES Prefix Meaning Examples a . . . on . . afloat, ashore, aloft a-, ab-, abs- away, from avert, absolve, abstract ad-, ac-, ar- (etc.) to . . adhere, accept, arrive, assume, attract ante- . . . before . . antecedent, anteroom bi-, bis- . . . two, twice . bicycle, biped, bisect, biscuit circum- . . . round . . circumference, circuit com- . . . together comparison, competition contra- . . . against . . contrary, contraband, contradiction de- . . . down . . depress, descend, describe dif-, dis- . . apart, not different, disagree, disappear ex- . . . out of . . exhale, export, extract fore- . . . before . . forecast, forenoon, foretell, foresee im-, in- . . . in,into . . import, include in- . . . not . . . incapable, inhuman inter- . . . between international, interrupt, interval mis- . . . wrong . . misdeed, misjudge, mistake ob- . . . against . . object, obstruction post- . . . after . . postpone, postscript, post-war pre- . . . before . . predict, prepare, pre-war pro- . . . forth . . proceed, produce re- . . . back . . retake, return, retrace sub- . . . under . . submarine, subway trans- . . . across . . transfer, transport, transpose un- . . . not, without unfit, unknown, unpaid, unsafe vice- . . . instead . . vice-captain, viceroy

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Derivations SUFFIXES

Suffix Meaning Examples -able, -ible . . capable of being movable, eatable, incredible -ain, -an . . one connected chaplain, publican -ance, -ence state of . . . repentance, existence -ant . . . one who . . . assistant, servant •el, -et, -ette little . . . satchel, locket, cigarette -er, -eer, -ier one who . . . baker, engineer, furrier -ess . . . the female . . . goddess, princess, waitress -fy to make . . . glorify, purify, simplify •icle, -sel . . little . . . particle, morsel -less . . . without . . . careless, guiltless, merciless ling . . . little . . . codling, gosling, darling

-ment . . . state of being . . merriment, enjoyment -ock . . . little . . . hillock, bittock oon,-on . . large . . . saloon, balloon, flagon

-ory . . . a place for . . . dormitory, factory "OUS . . . full of . . . famous, glorious, momentous

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GENERAL KNOWLEDGE In the following list many questions can be answered by do so.

1. A boy who frightens weaker boys. 2. The men who work on a ship. 3. A man who protects sheep. 4. A ship which travels below the surface of the sea. 5. A place for storing a motor car. 6. A small leaf. 7. A field in which fruit trees grow. 8. An instrument for measuring time. 9. From what do we make butter?

10. A man who makes furniture. 11. A fertile place in the desert. 12. A stream which flows into a river. 13. A hundred years. 14. Name instrument for telling direction. 15. What are the steps of a ladder called? 16. Name two spotted animals. 17. A doctor who performs operations. 18. What is the front part of a ship called? 19. What is daybreak sometimes termed? 20. A man who draws and paints. 21. A shallow crossing in a river. 22. Two creatures which see well in the dark. 23. What do we call the breaking of a bone? 24. What is the flesh of a sheep called? 25. Name of metal container for oil. 26. A place where people are buried. 27. Name three "string" instruments. 28. Name imaginary line round middle of earth. 29. An instrument which measures heat and cold. 30. From what do we make cheese? 31. Name the five human senses. 32. Name two striped animals. 33. A place where birds are kept. 34. The air surrounding the earth. 35. A person who saves and hoards money. 36. How does a fish breathe in water? 37. Name the colours of the rainbow. 38. What is the small top room of a house? 39. What is the national dress of Scotland? 40. A three-sided figure. 41. Meaning of "The Seven Seas". 42. A room on board a ship. 43. A soldier with three stripes on each arm. 44. How many legs has a fly? 45. A place where iron goods are made. 46. Name three animals living mostly in water. 47. Water which has turned into gas.

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48. What is the flesh of a pig called? 49. A place where leather is made. 50. Another name for a donkey. § 1. Machine which makes electricity. §2. Who is a Jack Tar? 53. What is a tripod? 54. What is the flesh of the deer called? 55. Name for smuggled goods. 56. What is an astronaut? §7. What are the primary colours? 58. What is the Milky Way? 59. What is the Crow's Nest to a sailor? 60. Explain lbw. 61. What is a boneshaker? 62. Which is the lightest common metal? 63. Where is the longest wall in the world? 64. A place where fish are kept. 65. What is a mimic? 66. Give common name for the spine. 67. What is a planet? 68. What is a grotto? 69. Name three "wind" instruments. 70. A place where you can lunch for payment. f I. What is a rookery? 72. What is the basin of a river? 73. What is capital punishment? ^ 74. What side is starboard? 75. What is meant by "crossing the line"? 76. What is a fleece of wool? 77. Name two "percussion" instruments. 78. What is a song for two called? 79. What is a centenarian? HO. Instrument used for drawing circles. HI. Which insect makes honey? 82. Name any animal covered with spines. H3. When is signal"S.O.S" used? 84. When is Christmas Day? HS. How many teeth has an adult person? H6. What do we call water when solid? H7. Name any "pouched" animals. H8, What is a fishplate? H9. An instrument for seeing tiny objects. W. Which month contains the shortest day? VI. What is a storey? WJ0 Which animal is called the "King of Beasts"? '1.1. Another name for an airman. <M„ What is a burnous? W. What is a bed on board a ship called? *>r»„ What kind of person is a dude?

What is a gamp?

General Knowledge 98. Which animal covers great distances without water? 99. What is a rickshaw?

100. Name gas which supports life and flame. 101. What is a weather satellite? 102. Name insect which carries malaria fever. 103. What is the yellow part of an egg called? 104. Who was Mars? 105. When is a person said to be myopic? 106. Name given to a sailor's map. 107. What is the skin of the orange called? 108. Name given to a barrel cork. 109. Another word meaning remedy. 110. Soldiers on horseback. 111. What is meant by a bird's-eye view? 112. Who is a sheik? 113. What is used for making tea? 114. How is bronze made? 115. Another name for a learner. 116. What is the Aurora Borealis? 117. American dog used to pull sledges. 118. Stone bowl used to make flour. 119. Way out sign above door. 120. The top of a hill or mountain. 121. What is coral? 122. What is a banshee? 123. Name given to soldiers on foot. 124. A place from which stone or slate is obtained. 125. What is the white of an egg called? 126. Give another word meaning salary. 127. What is meant by walking abreast? 128. From what do we obtain coffee? 129. What is a cog wheel? 130. Name an animal which chews the cud. 131. What is a cataract? 132. Which letters are vowels? 133. Name any beast of prey. 134. What is a Lunar Probe? 135. What is a life-buoy? 136. From what tree would you expect acorns to fall? 137. Which animal has a tail called a brush? 138. What is a gondola? 139. From what do we make cider? 140. What is a carnivorous creature? 141. What is meant by "The Sign of the Three Brass Balls 142. What is the hand-rail for a stair called? 143. What is meant by "The Dark Continent"? 144. Where is the "New World"? 145. Name an animal with a very long neck. 146. What is veal? 147. What is a nightmare?

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USEFUL INFORMATION The Races of Mankind differ in a number of inherited features, e.g. skin colour; shape of nose, eyes, lips; type and colour of hair. They are:

Mongolian. "Yellow". Most numerous. Yellow, copper skin; fairly broad nose, low bridge; slanting eyes; black coarse hair. Chinese, Japanese, Siberian and South-East Asians, Eskimos, American Indians, Laplanders.

Caucasian. "Whites". Pink, olive, light brown skin; high narrow nose; eyes light, more recessed; hair fair, wavy or straight, more beard. Europeans and their American descendants, South-West Asians, Indians, other South Asians and some Pacific islanders.

Negro. "Blacks". Black or dark brown skin; broad nose, thick lips; black, brown woolly hair, less beard. African peoples and American descendants, Papuans and some other Pacific islanders.

The Principal Languages of the World are as follows (arranged according to the number speaking each): Chinese, English, Russian, Western Hindi, Spanish, German, French, Japanese, Portuguese and Italian.

The Continents are: Europe, Asia, Africa, America and Australia.

The Oceans are: Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, Arctic and Antarctic.

The Largest Islands (other than the continents) are: Greenland, New Guinea, Borneo, Madagascar and Baffin Land.

The Greatest Lakes are: Caspian Sea (U.S.S.R.), Lake Superior (North America), Victoria Nyanza (Central Africa), Aral Sea (U.S.S.R.), Lake Huron (North America) and Lake Michigan (North America).

The Highest Mountains of the World are all in the Himalayan Mountain Range in Northern India. They are: Mt. Everest, Mt. Godwin-Austin, Mt. Kangchenjunga, Mt. Nanga Parbat and Mt. Kamet.

The Longest Rivers are: Missouri-Mississippi (United States), Amazon (Brazil), Nile (Egypt), Yangtse (China), Lena (U.S.S.R), Zaire (Central Africa), Niger (West Africa) and Yenesei (U.S.S.R.).

The Largest Cities of the World are: London (England), New York (U S.A.), Tokyo (Japan), Berlin (Germany), Chicago (U.S.A.), Shanghai (China), Paris (France) and Moscow (U.S.S.R.).

The following were the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World: 1. The Pyramids. 2. The Hanging Gardens of Babylon. 3. The Tomb of Mausolus at Halicarnassus. 4. The Temple of Diana at Ephesus. 5. The Colossus at Rhodes. 6. The Statue of Zeus at Olympia. 7. The Pharos Lighthouse at Alexandria.

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Useful Information

VARIOUS COUNTRIES — THE PEOPLES — THEIR LANGUAGE

Country People Language Australia Australians English Belgium Belgians Flemish, French Bulgaria Bulgarians Bulgarian Canada Canadians English, French Chinese People's Republic Chinese Chinese Czechoslovakia Czechs, Slovaks Czech Denmark Danes Danish Egypt Egyptians Arabic England English English Finland Finns Finnish France French French Germany Germans German Greece Greeks Greek Holland Dutch Dutch Hungary Hungarians Magyar India Indians Hindustani Iran Iranians Persian Ireland (Eire) Irish English, Gaelic Israel Jews, Arabs Hebrew, Arabic Italy Italians Italian Japan Japanese Japanese Kenya Kenyan Swahili, English Mexico Mexicans Spanish

New Zealand < f New Zealanders L Maoris

English Maori

Nigeria Nigerians Yoruba, Hausa, Ibo Poland Poles Polish Portugal Portuguese Portuguese Saudi Arabia Arabs Arabic Scotland Scots English, Gaelic South Africa South Africans English, Afrikaans Spain Spaniards Spanish Switzerland Swiss French, German, Italian Turkey Turks Turkish United States Americans English *U.S.S.R. Russians Russian Wales Welsh English, Cymric

* The people of the Soviet Union are commonly called the "Russians", but this vast country comprises many peoples other than true Russians, speaking many languages other than Russian.

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Useful Information

< 'ountry Capital Country Capital Albania Tirana Italy Rome Argentine Buenos Aires Japan Tokyo Australia Canberra Kenya Nairobi Belgium Brussels New Zealand Wellington Itrazil Brasilia Nigeria Lagos Bulgaria Sofia Norway Oslo Canada Ottawa Pakistan Islamabad ('hinese People's Poland Warsaw

Republic Beijing (Peking) Portugal Lisbon (V.cchoslovakia Prague Rumania Bucharest Denmark Copenhagen Scotland Edinburgh Hfjypt Cairo Spain Madrid Hire Dublin Sri Lanka Colombo 1 England London Sweden Stockholm 1''ranee Paris Switzerland Berne t icrmany (West) Bonn Turkey Ankara (icrmany (East) East Berlin Republic of (ireece Athens South Africa Cape Town Holland Amsterdam United States Washington 1 lungary Budapest U.S.S.R. Moscow India New Delhi Yugoslavia Belgrade

CURRENCIES OF VARIOUS COUNTRIES

Argentine peso, centavo Japan yen Australia dollar, cent Kenya shilling, cent Belgium franc, centime Mexico peso, centavo < anada dollar, cent New Zealand dollar, cent t 'hinese People's Nigeria naira, kobo

Republic yuan Poland zloty, grosz Denmark krone, ore Portugal escudo, centavo

pound, piastre Republic of Fiance franc, centime South Africa rand t iarmany Deutsche Mark Spain peseta, centimo t ireece drachma, lepton Switzerland franc Holland guilder, cent Turkey lira, juru India rupee, paisa United States dollar, cent Ilsily lira, centesimo U.S.S.R. rouble, kopeck

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VARIOUS COUNTRIES AND THEIR CAPITALS

Useful Information

SCIENCE

1. doctor's "listening" instrument stethoscope 2. magnifies tiny objects microscope 3. makes distant objects look bigger, nearer telescope 4. measures heat and cold thermometer 5. measures heat of the body clinical thermometer 6. indicates the weather barometer 7. measures gas or electricity used meter 8. helps the voice to carry megaphone 9. picks up sound for sending out again microphone

10. carries messages by wire telephone 11. carries sound without use of wires radio 12. carries messages by wire across the sea cable 13. takes photographs camera 14. takes photographs through the body X-rays 15. glasses used for bettering the eyesight spectacles 16. pocket instrument used for telling time watch 17. tells if a thing is horizontal spirit-level 18. tells if a thing is vertical plumb-line 19. gives direction compass 20. a sailor's map chart 21. a ship which can travel below the water submarine 22. attracts iron magnet 23. makes electricity dynamo 24. ship's engine which works by steam turbine 25. a machine for measuring time clock 26. measures angles in surveying theodolite 27. instrument for drawing circles compasses 28. releases over-pressure of steam safety-valve 29. machine used in business for letter-writing typewriter 30. causes the spark in motor engine magneto/distributor

Sound travels 1-6 km in 5 seconds. Light travels approximately 300,000 km in 1 second. Light takes 8 minutes to reach the Earth from the Sun. 36 km per hour is equal to 10 m per second. 1 litre of water weighs 1 kg. 1 nautical mile is 1-85 km.

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SPELLING LISTS

Home People Body Food uttic adult ankles bacon bolster ancestors arteries biscuits cullar aunt exercise bread chimney babies forehead butter curtains children heart cheese cushion comrade knees chocolate detergent cousin knuckles cocoa hearth friend limbs coffee kitchen guest lungs margarine lobby hostess muscles marmalade mattress maiden nostrils mutton meter nephew shoulder porridge mirror niece skeleton pudding parlour orphan skull sago pillow parents stomach salmon poker relation thigh sandwich 'luucer uncle throat sausages Ncullery visitor tongue steak towel widower veins sugar (umbler youth wrist venison

Clothing Trades Travel (1) Travel (2) braid butcher aeroplane passengers cloak carpenter airship pedals costume chemist balloon pier cotton clothier bicycle platform flnnnel doctor brakes purser gabardine draper carriage saloon flurments druggist coach seaplane liicket engineer cruise signal linen grocer electricity skis lingerie journalist engine sledge muslin lawyer express sleigh petticoat mason fares steerage j.ilin mechanic gangway steward .locking plumber guard tourist nousers purveyor label tramway tweed riveter locomotive traveller velour sawyer luggage tunnel velvet sculptor machine vehicle wiiistcoat tailor omnibus wagons woollen wright parcel whistles

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Spelling Lists

Land Sea cape billows cliff breakers continent breakwater country channel headland crest hillock fiord island harbour marsh inlet mound lagoon mountain lake pampas loch peninsula ocean plain river prairie rivulet precipice sea summit streamlet tundra torrent valley tributary veldt trough volcano waves

Time Sport ancient badminton annual bowls August boxing autumn cricket century fencing Christmas football dawn golf Easter hockey era polo February putting gloaming release January rounders minutes rugby modern shinty punctual skating Saturday sleighing September sprinting Thursday tennis Tuesday wrestling Wednesday yachting

Sky Coast altitude bathing astronomy beach atmosphere billows cloudy breeze comet cliffs creation cockles crescent costume dawn diving eclipse herring hazy lobster heavens mussels horizon pier midnight rowing planet seaweed solar shingle sunset swimmer telescope view twilight whelks universe winkles zenith wreck

School Hospital calendar accident ceiling casualty chalk chloroform composition disease copies doctor cupboard fever dictation infection easel massage grammar medicine history ointment hymns operation interval paralysis partition physician pastels plaster pencil poison picture sterilize poetry surgeon pupil thermometer scholar tonic teacher ward

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Spelling Lists

Animals (1) Animals (2) Animals (3) Dogs ape goat otter Airedale armadillo gorilla ox Alsatian badger hare panther bloodhound hat hedgehog P'g bulldog bear hippopotamus porcupine borzoi beaver horse puma collie buffalo hyena rabbit dachshund bull jackass rat Dalmatian camel jaguar reindeer greyhound cat kangaroo seal Newfoundland cow leopard sheep Pekinese deer lion skunk pointer dog llama squirrel Pomeranian donkey lynx stoat poodle dromedary mole tiger retriever elephant mongoose walrus Saint Bernard ferret monkey weasel setter fox moose whale sheepdog gazelle mouse yak spaniel giraffe mule zebra terrier

Birds (1) Birds (2) Birds (3) Fish albatross hawk redshank cod blackbird heron robin dogfish budgerigar jackdaw rook eel canary kingfisher sandpiper flounder chaffinch lapwing seagull flying-fish cormorant magpie skylark goldfish corncrake moorhen snipe haddock crane nightingale sparrow halibut crow owl starling herring cuckoo oyster-catcher stork mackerel curlew parrot swallow pike dipper partridge swan plaice duck peewit swift roach eagle pelican tern salmon la Icon penguin thrush shark linch pheasant turkey skate flamingo pigeon vulture sole punnet plover wagtail swordfish p,oose puffin woodpecker trout guillemot raven wren whiting

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Spelling Lists

Trees Flowers (1) apple aster ash bluebell beech buttercup birch carnation cedar chrysanthemum chestnut crocus elm daffodil fir dahlia hawthorn daisy larch dandelion lime forget-me-not maple foxglove oak geranium olive gladiolus palm honeysuckle pine hyacinth poplar iris rowan lilac sycamore lily yew lily-of-the-valley

Fruit Vegetables apple bean apricot beetroot banana cabbage blackcurrant carrot bramble cauliflower cherry celery currant cucumber damson garlic gooseberry leek grape lettuce lemon onion melon parsley orange parsnip peach pea pear potato pineapple radish plum rhubarb raspberry sprout strawberry tomato tomato turnip

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Flowers (2) Insects lotus ant lupin bee marigold beetle narcissus bug orchid butterfly pansy centipede peony cricket poppy daddy-long-legs primrose dragonfly queen-of-the-meadow earwig rhododendron flea rose fly snowdrop gnat sunflower grasshopper sweet pea locust thistle louse tulip midge violet mosquito wall-flower moth water-lily wasp

Minerals Liquids aluminium acid brass alcohol bronze beer coal brine copper cider gold cocoa granite coffee iron lemonade lead milk marble oil mercury paraffin nickel petrol platinum port radium sherry silver tea slate turpentine steel vinegar sulphur water tin whisky zinc wine

GENERAL TESTS

TEST 1

Give the general analysis of: When the girl returned from London she told her father that she had seen a grizzly bear which performed tricks in the circus.

Parse the words printed in bold type in Question 1.

(a) State the feminine of: instructor, bachelor, horse, manservant, husband.

(b) Give the plural of: knife, child, penny, sheep, piano.

Insert the names of the creatures: The brays. The hoots. The grunts. The chatters. The croaks. The bleats. The barks. The neighs. The howls. The trumpets.

Correct the following sentences: (1) He said that you done it. (2) She is the biggest of the twins. (3) It was me that took the pencil. (4) The man went for to get the book. (5) A piano was sold to the lady with carved legs.

TEST 2

I. Select from each of the following sentences the subordinate clause and tell its kind and relation: (a) The cottage where Burns was born stands near Ayr. (b) He told me secretly where he was going. (c) The soldiers slept where they found a resting place.

I. Parse the words printed in bold type in Question 1.

•I. Supply the missing words: Example: As sharp as a needle.

As black as As fast as As meek as As happy as As brave as As keen as As sweet as As steady as As cold as As fit as

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General Tests 4. (a) Give the objective case of:

I, he, you, we, they. (b) Give the past tense of:

does, hides, writes, sings, bites. 5. Change the bold type clauses into phrases:

(1) The child was in bed before the sun had set. (2) Flowers will grow where conditions are suitable. (3) Remember to write when you arrive. (4) I saw her when the clock struck four. (5) I am convinced that he is sincere.

TEST 3 1. Give the general analysis of:

When the gentleman arrived at his home he discovered that he had left his umbrella in the train.

2. Parse the words printed in bold type in Question 1. 3. Write down the Comparatives and Superlatives of:

many, hot, evil, famous, little. 4. (a) Name the traditional homes of the following:

tinker, hare, gipsy, eagle, bee. (b) By adding a prefix form words opposite in meaning to:

possible, secure, welcome, use, legal. 5. Change all Singulars into Plurals and Verbs into Past Tense:

(1) The rabbit runs from the dog. (2) The girl wears a blue dress. (3) The sailor swims to his ship. (4) He has a sharp knife. (5) I keep my bird in a cage.

TEST 4 1, Read the following sentence and then answer the questions below:

When I heard that the man was seriously injured I resolved to help him in every way possible. Write out the adverbial clause. What parts of speech are: I, seriously, resolved, possible? What part of the verb is "to help"? What number is him? What is the subject of was injured? Write down the preposition in the sentence.

Form nouns from: introduce, loyal, revive, ready, broad.

Form adjectives from: parent, reason, fortune, poet, winter.

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General Tests 3. Use any five of the following words (one for each sentence) to form short sentences:

instinct, obstinate, traditional, respectively, occurrence, standard, respectable, resolved.

4. Put the correct prepositions in the blank spaces: (1) The boy was told not to meddle the pencils. (2) She felt ashamed herself. (3) The man took great pride his garden. (4) The child has been lost Thursday. (5) He hurried home school.

5. What is meant by saying a person is: (a) hard up, (b) hard of hearing, (c) stuck up, (d) dead beat, (e) all ears, (f) at rest, (g) lion-hearted, (h) ill-used, (i) an old salt, (j) out of sorts?

TESTS

1. Give the general analysis of the following sentence: We were thoroughly alarmed when information reached us that the train in which our friends were travelling had been involved in a serious accident.

2. Parse the words printed in bold type in Question 1. 3. (a) Some Christian names have popular short names, e.g. Robert — Bob,

Catherine — Kate. Give the short names for: Albert, Christina, Frederick, Patrick, Elizabeth.

(b) In which countries do the following peoples live? Dutch, Hindus, Eskimos, Greeks, Welsh.

4. Punctuate and insert capital letters where necessary: do you think said my friend in a whisper that theres a chance of escape certainly i replied.

5. Insert the following phrases in their sentences: rack and ruin, thick and thin, head and shoulders, safe and sound, out and out.

(a) The ship reached harbour (b) The man was an rascal. (c) She is taller than her brother. (d) Later through foolishness he went to (e) The soldiers would follow their general through

TEST 6

1. Read the following sentence and then answer the questions below: When the man reached the garden gate he noticed that the old house in which he was born was in ruins.

(a) What parts of speech are: garden, that, which, was, ruins?

(b) Write out the principal clause. (c) Write out the subordinate adjective clause. (d) Name kind of sentence.

89

General Tests 2. In the following list of words, one word seems Out of place. Underline the word you

consider is wrong: Coat, hat, gloves, curtains, stockings. Blue, yellow, ruler, green, pink. Saw, envelope, plane, hammer, chisel. Anchor, rope, string, twine, cord. Needle, pin, scissors, thimble, spoon.

3. Where would you look to find: The address of a person? The position of a place? The meaning of a word? The day and date of the month? Something which happened the previous day?

4. Give the past tense and past participle of the following verbs: break, fly, hide, ring, swim.

5. What is meant in each of the following proverbs? (a) Let sleeping dogs lie. (b) Too many cooks spoil the broth. (c) Once bitten twice shy.

TEST 7

1. Add a clause and name the kind of clause you add: (a) We ran for shelter (b) When the rain stopped (c) Mary told him (d) The cunning fox could not be caught.

2. Correct the following sentences: (a) Walk as quick as possible. (b) He has forgot the address. (c) Neither Tom or I can swim. (d) This end of the rope is the thickest. (e) The time was j past 9.

3. Make a noun from strong. Make a verb from courage. Make an adjective from obey. Give the opposite of poverty. Give a similar word to mute.

4. Medal, board, loose, waist, hoping, lose, meddle, hopping, bored, waste. Fill in the blank spaces of the following sentences, using the most suitable words from the above list:

The teacher told the little boy not to with the as it had a hinge. The child went over to the paper box to

find his pencil.

90

General Tests

The following is written in the singular number and present tense. Change it into plural number and past tense.

I have a cousin who stays on that little farm. He knows that I like to come here on my holiday.

TEST 8

Read the following sentence carefully and then answer the questions below. When the soldiers reached the city walls they saw that the town which the enemy had completely ruined had been deserted for some time.

(a) Give the case and relation of: town, which, walls. (b) What parts of speech are: city, that, reached, enemy, for, some? (c) Write out the subordinate adverbial clause. (1) Give the opposites of:

seldom, visible, praise, export, advance. (2) Give similar words to:

enemy, purchase, feeble, perceive, conceal.

Your answer in each case should be one word: (a) A person who collects fares. (b) Water which has turned into gas. (c) Name of metal container for oil. (d) A place where birds are kept. (e) Conveys sick or injured to hospital. Join the following ten words in pairs so that they form five sensible compound words:

head, black, gentle, dust, egg, bin, ache, board, cup, man. (a) Complete these proverbs:

(1) A stitch in time (2) A bird in the hand (3) Birds of a feather (4) A rolling stone (5) First come

(b) Give the meaning of: a.m., Co., B.B.C., G.P.O., p.m., M.P., U.K., A.D., U.S.A., J.P.

TEST 9

Add a clause and name the kind of clause you add: (a) The boys ran away (b) The lady was my sister. (c) The man saw when he returned. (d) before the child arrived.

91

General Tests State the masculine of:

witch, duck, aunt, vixen, wife. Give the singular of:

loaves, armies, roofs, sheep, feet. Use each of these verbs—frowned, mumbled, sang, chuckled, bowed, whispered, listened, smiled — once only to complete the following sentences: (1) He tunefully. (5) He gleefully. (2) He angrily. (6) He broadly. (3) He humbly. (7) He attentively. (4) He indistinctly. (8) He softly. A number of sheep together is called a flock. What name is given to a number of:

ships, insects, herring, angels, thieves, wolves, chickens, geese, pups, players? Make each pair of sentences into one sentence without using and or but or so. (a) The house was destroyed. It was built by Tom's father. (b) He works hard at his lesson. He wishes to succeed. (c) The men were walking quickly. The men saw me. (d) He heard the strains of music. He was passing the church. (e) The lady lost the book. She was going to the library.

TEST 10 Read the sentences below and then answer the questions:

Our little hut was situated among the high mountains near the River Dee. Along the banks lay green pastures to which deer came frequently in winter.

(a) What case is hut? (b) What kind of noun is Dee? (c) What part of speech is our? (d) Parse among. (e) What is the subject of lay? (f) Parse frequently. (g) What tense is came? (h) What part of speech is which? (i) What gender is deer? (j) What part of speech is high? (1) Form adj ectives from:

affection, nature, attraction, pride, value. (2) State opposites of:

success, arrive, often, sense, entrance. Make sentences, one for each word, showing the correct use of:

coarse, course, root, route, rode, rowed, currant, current, pare, pair. Rewrite the following correctly:

a boy said to his chum where are you going james oh replied the other i'm on my way home.

92

General Tests

.V < iivr one word in place of each: oiJ A fertile place in the desert. (h) A person who by desire lives alone. !•) An instrument for measuring heat and cold. (il) A person who looks on the bright side of things. U'j A stream which flows into a river.

TEST 11

I (a) Make a sentence containing that he would come as a noun clause. (b) Make a sentence containing which he bought as an adjective clause. (c) Make a sentence containing when he reached the station as an adverbial clause.

L Give the plural of ox. Give the feminine of tiger. Word for a young swan. The home of an Eskimo. Adverb from danger.

,t„ Put in the suitable words in the spaces below: Example: Little is to Big as Dwarf is to Giant.

Sheep is to Mutton as Pig is to High is to Low as is to Down. Soldier is to as Sailor is to Navy.

is to Herring as School is to Whales. Bee is to Hive as Cow is to

J, Change the following Complex Sentences into Simple Sentences: (1) There is a boy who is very proud. (2) He spoke to me while he was passing. (3) The girl who is intelligent gave the right answer. (4) The man bought a boat which is very big. (5) We received word that he was rescued.

S. What is the meaning of the following expressions? A wet blanket. To have a bee in one's bonnet. A rough diamond. To bury the hatchet. A queer fish. To draw the long bow. A chip of the old block. To keep one's powder dry.

93

General Tests TEST 12

1. Read the sentence and then answer the questions below: When the boys who were playing in the park heard the school bell ringing loudly they were afraid that they would be late.

What parts of speech are: who, park, loudly, school, that? What part of the verb is playing? What is the case of bell? What is the number of boys? What is the subject of heard? What is the gender of they?

2. (a) Give the gender of: lion, cousin, jotter, waitress, friend.

(b) Give words similar in meaning to: lair, disappear, inside, empty, quickly.

3. Give the names of the shops where you would buy the following: fruit spectacles flowers hats milk newspapers fish meat sweets tobacco

4. Change all nouns and verbs into plural: (1) The lady is very beautiful. (4) The valley is broad. (2) Is the salmon fresh? (5) The goose makes a loud noise. (3) The son-in-law is ill.

5. Who use the following articles? hoe anvil spanner solder palette safety-lamp awl "goose" hod cleaver

TEST 13 In the following sentences there are groups of two words within brackets. One of the two words is correct, the other wrong. Underline the correct word: (1) William can (ran, run) faster than (I, me). (2) It was (me, I) who (did, done) it. (3) George and (he, him) (has, have) gone on holiday. (4) Between you and (me, I) I think they (was, were) wrong. (5) (He, Him) and (me, I) are twelve years of age. A number of sheep is called a flock. Insert the most suitable word in each of the following: (1) a of wolves (5) a of ships (2) a of bees (6) a of singers (3) a of herring (7) a of thieves (4) a of cattle (8) a of rascals

94

General Tests X In the following sentences underline the correct word of the two words within

Itiitckets: {I) You ought to visit her now (but, that) you know where she stays. {/) Write down the answers (as, when) you were taught. (I) The boy tried hard (but, that) he failed. (4) (Than, When) he conies let us know. (5) The man was careful (except, lest) he should fall.

•I, (a) Give the plural of: deer, mouse, pansy, tooth, woman.

(b) Give the masculine of: cow, duchess, duck, waitress, niece.

H„ By accident the sentences of this story were jumbled. Re-arrange them in their proper order:

Fortunately he saved her from serious injury. Suddenly her ball rolled into the middle of the road, and she ran after it. A passer-by saw the girl's danger and ran to her aid. A little girl was playing on a busy street. At that moment a motor came dashing round the corner.

TEST 14 1. In the following sentences underline the correct word of the two words within

brackets: (1) How he managed it remains a (duty, mystery). (2) James was honest and (deceptive, diligent). (3) The stranger asked if I could (direct, inform) him to the station. (4) The (remedy, illness) or cure is very simple. (5) His opinion differed (against, from) mine.

2. (a) Punctuate the following correctly: tell me said the old gentleman what is your name.

(b) Form adjectives from: reason, success, south, fool, France.

3. Use the correct prepositions in the blank spaces: (1) The bottle was filled water. (2) He was told not to meddle the toys. (3) The two brothers divided the apple them. (4) That hat is similar mine. (5) I hope I can rely you.

4. With whom do you associate the following? Example: anvil — blacksmith.

(1) rifle (5) letters (2) prescription (6) pulpit (3) telescope (7) sheep (4) spectacles (8) joy-stick

95

General Tests 5. Opposite each phrase are groups of words in brackets. Underline the group of

words in brackets which gives the correct meaning of the phrase: down in the mouth (speaking quickly) (in low spirits) a peppery individual (a cranky person) (a happy person) out of sorts (not well) (of great courage) hard up (good enough) (short of money) beside oneself (overcome with anger or grief) (very self-satisfied)

TEST 15

1. Underline the correct word of the group of words in brackets: (1) A person who eats too much is a (miser, glutton, hypocrite). (2) A lady who sells hats is a (milliner, florist, hosier). (3) John, who is my aunt's son, is my (nephew, brother, cousin). (4) A soldier who rides on horseback is in the (marines, cavalry, infantry). (5) A wooden shelter made for a dog is a (byre, stable, kennel).

2. Give words opposite in meaning to: present bitter entrance polite east danger guilty lost

3. Underline the correct word in each of the brackets: (Who, Whom) do you think I (saw, seen)? All but one (was, were) saved»when the ship (sank, sunk). Each of the men (has, have) a right to (their, his) opinion. Between you and (I, me), the boys (wasn't, weren't) pleased. Let you and (me, I) stay after the others have (gone, went).

4. We say "As black as coal". Supply the missing words in the following: as blind as as cold as as quiet as as good as as gentle as as sharp as as happy as as fresh as

5. Following are five sentences, which, if arranged properly, would make a short story. Re-arrange them in proper order:

The bird, highly flattered, opened her mouth to sing. One day a crow spied a piece of cheese on a window sill. The cheese fell and was soon eaten by the crafty animal. She picked it up and flew to a neighbouring tree. A cunning fox approached and praised her voice.

Printed by Bell and Bain Ltd., Glasgow

R E V I S E D F I R S T

A I D I N

E N G L I S H

B Y

ANGUS MACIVER

ISBN 07169 4073 6

©Angus Maciver, 1988

ROBERT GIBSON Publisher 17 Fitzroy Place, Glasgow, G3 7SF

FIRST AID IN ENGLISH SERIES By Angus Maclver

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