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Revolutions and National States in the Atlantic World. Radicalization of Revolution. “liberty, equality, fraternity” National Assembly abolishes old social order Seizes church lands, redefines clergy as civilians New constitution retains king, but subject to legislative authority - PowerPoint PPT Presentation
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Revolutions and National States in the Atlantic World
“liberty, equality, fraternity” National Assembly abolishes old social order Seizes church lands, redefines clergy as civilians New constitution retains king, but subject to
legislative authority Convention: elected by universal male suffrage Guillotine invented to execute domestic enemies
o 1793: King Louis and Queen Marie Antoinette
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Guillotines
Radicalized the revolution “the Incorruptible,” leader of “Committee of
Public Safety” Leader of Jacobin party Dominated Convention, 1793-1794 Churches closed, priests forced to marry
o Promoted “Cult of Reason” as secular alternative to Christianity
Calendar reorganized: 10-day weeks, proclaimed Year 1
Executed 40,000; imprisoned 300,000
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Revolutionary enemies of the Jacobins 1794 Robespierre arrested, sent to guillotine Men of property take power in the form of the
Directory Unable to solve economic and military problems
of revolutionary France. This opens the door for Napoleon to take over a military dictator.
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From minor Corsican noble family Army officer under King Louis XIV, general at 24 Brilliant military strategist Joins Directory 1799, then overthrew it Imposed new constitution, named self “Consul for
life” in 1802
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Napoleon as a young officer
Napoleon in His Study by Jacques-Louis David (1812)
Concludes agreement with Pope: Concordato France retains church lands, but pay
salaries to clergyo Freedom of religion, also for Protestants,
Jews 1804 Napoleonic Code
o Patriarchal authorityo Became model for many civil codes
Tight control on newspapers, use of secret police
Eventually declared himself Emperor
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Crowning of Napoleon, memorialized by Jacques-Louis David
Joséphine de Beauharnais, Empress of the French, by François Gerard
A propagandistic painting by Jacques Louis David. Napoleon is pointing the way across the Alps. David was Napoleon's court painter.
Conquered Iberian, Italian Peninsulas, Netherlands Forced Austria and Prussia to enter into alliance Disastrous invasion of Russia in 1812 Burned Moscow, but defeated by Russian weather
o “General Winter”o Scorched Earth policy
British, Austrian, Prussian and Russian armies force Napoleon to abdicate, 1814o Exiled to Island of Elba, escaped to take power again for
100 dayso Defeated by British at Waterloo, exiled to St. Helena, dies
1821
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Napoleon's Empire in 1812
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The Battle of Waterloo, by William Sadler
Napoleon’s invasion of Spain and Portugal (1807) weakens royal authority in colonies
Priest Miguel de Hidalgo (1753-1811) leads revolto Hidalgo captured and executed, but rebellion continues
Creole general Augustin de Iturbide (1783-1824) declares independence in 1821o Installs self as Emperor, deposed in 1823, republic
established Southern regions form federation, then divide
into Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica
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Led independence movement in South America Native of Caracas (Venezuela), influenced by
Enlightenment, George Washington Rebels against Spanish rule 1811, forced into
hiding Forms alliances with many creole leaders
o José de San Martín (Argentina, 1778-1842)o Bernardo O’Higgins (Chile, 1778-1842)
Spanish rule destroyed in South America by 1825
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“The Liberator”
San Martín's tomb in the Buenos Aires Cathedral
Conservativism (Keep the old ways)o Edmund Burke (England, 1729-1797)o Disavowed rapid revolutionary changeo Favored slow evolution of society
Liberalism (Power to the people)o Viewed conservatives as defenders of illegitimate status
quoo Manage, not stifle, social changeo John Stuart Mill (England, 1806-1873)
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Campaign to end slavery begins in 18th centuryo Olaudah Equiano (1745-1797)
Gains momentum after American, French and Haitian revolutions
William Wilberforce (England, 1759-1833), philanthropist, succeeds in having Parliament outlaw slave trade, 1807
Other states follow suit, but illegal trade continues until 1867
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Haiti: slavery ends with revolution Mexico slavery abolished 1829
o Partially to stop U.S. development of slave-based cotton industry in Mexico
1833 Britain abolishes slavery, offers compensation to former owners
Other states follow, but offer freedom without equalityo Property requirements, literacy tests, etc. block voting
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Enlightenment thinkers remained conservative regarding women’s rightso Rousseau argues women should receive education to
prepare for lives as wives and mothers Mary Astell (England, 1666-1731) argues that
women essentially born into slavery Mary Wollstonecraft (England, 1759-1797)
o A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792)
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Women active in all phases of French revolutiono Women storm Versailles in 1789, demands for foodo Republican Revolutionary Women patrol streets of Paris
with firearms Yet hold few official positions of authority Revolution grants equality in education, property,
legalized divorce Yet women not allowed to vote, major task of 19th
centuryo Elizabeth Cady Stanton (U.S., 1815-1902)
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Cultural nationalismo Johann Gottfried von Herder (1744-1803) praises the
Volk (“people”)o Literature, folklore, music as expressions of Volksgeist:
“spirit of the people” Political nationalism
o Movement for political independence of nation from other authorities
o Unification of national landso Giuseppe Mazzini (1805-1872), “Young Italy”
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Join my Young Italian movement! Neither pope nor king shall rule us, but rather a republic should rule
Italy!
Nationalist ideologies distrustful of indigenous minorities
Pogroms, violent attacks on Jewish communities in Russian Empire beginning 1881
Anti-Semitism rallying cry of many European nationalists
French military Captain Alfred Dreyfus framed for selling military secrets to Germany
Eventually exonerated, but great debate on loyalty of Jews in European societies
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Meeting after defeat of Napoleon Prince Klemens von Metternich (Austria, 1773-
1859) supervises dismantling of Napoleon’s empire
Established balance of power Worked to suppress development of nationalism
among multi-national empires like the Austrian Attempted to return Europe back to the way it
was before Napoleon had reason to power.
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Italy and Germany formerly disunited groups of regional kingdoms, city-states, ecclesiastical stateso Germany: over three hundred semiautonomous
jurisdictions Nationalist sentiment develops idea of unification Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-1882) unify Italy under
King Vittore Emmanuele II Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898) advances
Realpolitik (“the politics of reality”), uses wars with neighbors to unify Germany
Second Reich proclaimed in 1871 (Holy Roman Empire the first), King Wilhelm I named Emperor
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The unification of Italy and Germany
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