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AGRICULTURE ROBOT
A PROJECT REPORT
Submitted by
BALACHANDAR.S
(070107115011)
GOMATHI.T
(070107115019)
SIVA.S
(070107115045)
in partial fulfilment for the award of the degree
of
BACHELOR OF ENGINEERINGIN
ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
NEHRU INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY,
COIMBATORE
ANNA UNIVERSITY COIMBATORE 641047OCTOBER 2010
ANNA UNIVERSITY COIMBATORE 641047
BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE Certified that this project report “AGRICULTURE
ROBOT” is the bonafide
work of “BALACHANDAR.S (070107115011),
GOMATHI.T (070107115019)
SIVA.S (070107115045)” who carried out the project
work under my
supervision.
SIGNATURE SIGNATURE
PROF.H.JOSEPH PRABHAKAR WILLIAMS Mr.
THUFAIL MOHAMMED
HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT
SUPERVISOR LECTURER/ECE Department of Electronics and
Department of Electronics and
Communication Engineering
Communication Engineering
Nehru Institute of Engineering and Technology Nehru Institute of
Engineering and Technology
Coimbatore 641105 Coimbatore 641105
Submitted for the VIVA-VOCE held on …………… at Nehru
Institute of Engineering
and Technology.
Internal Examiner External Examiner
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First of all we thank God Almighty for his blessings without which we would have
not initiated the project
We submit our gratitude to the Founder and Chairman Late Dr.P.K.DAS.Ph.D.,
Managing Trustee Adv.P.KRISHNA DAS and Secretary Dr.P.KRISHNA
KUMAR.Ph.D., for the sincere Endeavour in educating us in their prestigious
Institution
We extend our gratitude to our principal Dr.P.MANIIARASAN.Ph.D, for the kind
words and enthusiastic motivation.
We extend our profound gratitude and acknowledge our Head Of Department,
Prof.H.JOSEPH PRABHAKAR WILLIAMS.M.E (Ph.D), who gave us valuable
advice and whole hearted co-operation for the completion of the project.
Our sincere thanks to Mr. THUFAIL MOHAMMED K., ME, Lecturer
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, who is our project guide, deserves
a special note of thanks for the ideas that he shared and the constant inspiration that he
has given during the project period.
.We owe special thanks to all members of staff, technical and non-technical
assistants of department for their co-operation and Our Family Members and Our
Friends extending their support and encouragement.
ABSTRACT
The project “ AGRICULTURE ROBOT ” is based on ROBOTIC
ENGINEERING.
In this project we use the PIC microcontroller which is a flash type
microcontroller in which we can reprogram for above 10,000 times and it has a inbuilt
circuitry of ADC, EEPROM. PWM,TIMERS,UARTS etc., which can be configured by
coding .The real time clock is present to update the time because it runs continuously if there
is a power shut down also .EEPROM is present to save the data securable .Much needed data
‘s should not get erased so we have maintain properly.
The mechanical arrangement is designed as the tank and sharp knife type like
as ploughing which is used to dip the soil and seeds are stored in the tank. This mechanical
arrangement is connected robot we can operate the robot in forward direction, reverse
direction left side and right side. When robot is moving the ploughing machine will dip the
soil continuously to moving side. These arrangements are connected to motor controls by
relay through relay driver circuits constructed with transistors, which act as switch, so it can
control the relays. After dipped the soil the robot will activate and open the tank mouth. So
the seeds are sphereted on the drip another one arrangement will close the dip
.
In micro controller we have already programmed when you press the button
for desired action the micro controller will activate corresponding relay for that action. This
project is very useful in the agriculture for reducing the manpower and time.
The 2*16 characters LCD display is kept to display the fire accidents time
and the date and all other details can be displayed on receiving from the
PIC microcontroller.
i
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER.NO TITLE
PAGE NO.
ABSTRACT
i
LIST OF FIGURES
ii
1 ROBOTICS
1
1.1 HISTORY OF ROBOTICS
2
1.2 LAWS OF ROBOTICS
2
1.3 FUTURE OF ROBOTICS
3
2 INTRODUCTION
4
2.1 INTRODUCTION TO “AGRICULTURE ROBOT”
5
2.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM
5
2.3 BLOCK DIAGRAM DESCRIPTION
6
3 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
7
3.1 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM WITH TRANSMITTER
8
3.2 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM WITH RECEIVER
9
4 HARDWARE DESCRIPTION
10
4.1 COMPONENTS
11
4.2 RF MODULE DESCRIPTION
114.2.1 RF Transmitter
11
4.2.2 RF Receiver
11
4.3 PIC 16F877 DESCRIPTION
12 4.3.1 High performance RISC CPU
15
4.3.2 Peripheral features
16
4.3.3 Analog features
16
4.3.4 PIC 16F877 pin diagram
16
4.4 REAL TIME CLOCK GENERAL
17
DESCRIPTION
18 4.4.1 Features
18
4.5 TEMPERATURE SENSORS
18 4.5.1 Temperature sensors description
18
4.5.2 Types
20
4.5.2.1 Engine Coolant Temperature Sensor
20
4.5.2.2 Exhaust Gas Recirculation
21
Temperature Sensor
4.5.2.3 Intake Air Temperature sensor
22
4.5.3 ECT,IAT&EGR Temperature
23
Sensor options
4.5.4 Temperature Sensor
23
diagnostics
4.5.5 Solving oprn circuit problems
24
4.5.6 Features
25
4.6 LCD
25 4.6.1 LCD description
25
4.6.2 Pneumatic phase LCD
26
4.6.3 Making of LCD
26
4.6.4 Working of LCD
28
4.6.5 Colour LCD
29
4.6.6 LCD connection details
29
4.7 DC MOTOR DRIVE UNIT
30
4.8 DS1307 RTC INTERFACE
36
4.9 MAX 232 SERIAL INTERFACE
37
4.10 POWER SUPPLY
38 4.10.1 Block diagram
38
4.10.2 Working principle
38
4.10.2.1 Transformer
38
4.10.2.2 Bridge rectifier
39
4.10.2.3 IC voltage regulators
40
4.10.3 Advantages
42
4.10.4 Applications
42
5 SOFTWARE DESCRIPTION
43
5.1 KEIL VERSION 3
44 5.1.1 Front end
45
5.1.2 Features
45
5.1.3 ULINK debug adapters
45
5.1.4 Evaluation boards
46
6 CONCLUSION
47
6.1 EXISTING TECHNOLOGY
47 6.1.1 Latest technology in automated
48
agriculture
6.1.2 Japan’s first autonomous
49
Agriculture Robot
6.2 PROGRAMMING
50 7 BIBILIOGRAPHY
57
7.1 REFERENCES
58
7.2 WEBSITES
58
LIST OF FIGURES
S.NO FIGURE NAME OF THE FIGURE PAGE NO. 1 2.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF AGRICULTURE
ROBOT
5
2 3 .1 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM WITH TRANSMITTER 8
3 3.2 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM WITH RECEIVER 9
4 4.2.1 TWS-PIN DIAGRAM 12
5 4.2.1 SAMPLE TRANSMITTER APPLICATION
CIRCUIT
12
6 4.2.2 RWS-PIN DIAGRAM 13
7 4.2.2 SAMPLE RECEIVER APPLICATION
CIRCUIT
14
8 4.3.4 PIC 16F877 A PIN DIAGRAM 17
9 4.5.1 LM-35 PIN DIAGRAM 19
10 4.5.2.1 ECT TEMPERATURE SENSOR CIRCUIT 20
11 4.5.2.2 EGR TEMPERATURE SENSOR CIRCUIT 21
12 4.5.2.3 IAT TEMPERATURE SENSOR CIRCUIT 22
13 4.5.5 SOLVING OPEN CIRCUIT PROBLEMS 24
14 4.6.4 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF LCD 27
15 4.6.6 LCD PIN DIAGRAM 30
16 4.7 MOTOR UNIT BLOCK DIAGRAM 30
17 4.8 DS 1307 RTC INTERFACE 36
18 4.9 MAX-232 SERIAL INTERFACE 37
19 4.10.1 POWER SUPPLY BLOCK DIAGRAM 38
20 4.10.2.3 IC VOLTAGE REGULATOR DIAGRAM 41
21 6.1 LATEST TECHNOLOGY IN AUTOMATED
AGRICULTURE
48
22 6.2 JAPAN’S FIRST AUTONOMOUS
AGRICULTURE ROBOT
49
ii
Chapter I
ROB
OTICS
1
1.1 HISTORY OF ROBOTICS
The field of ROBOTICS is emerging to become one of the important
automation areas. Engineers, technicians and managers must be educated and trained in
order to realize the full potential of this technology .
In the 17th and 18th century, there were a number of ingenious mechanical devices
that had some of the futures of the ROBOTICS.JACQUES DE VAUCANSON built
several human –sized musicians in the mid 1700’s . In 1805,HENRI MAILLARDET
constructed a mechanical doll, which was capable of drawing pictures .HARGREAVE’S
SPINNING JENNY (1770), CROMPON’S MULE SPINNER (1779),CARTWRIGHT’S
POWER LOOM (1795),THE JACQUARD LOOM 91801) and others.
In more recent times, numerical control and technicians are two important
technologies in the development of ROBOTICS.
These mechanical creations of human form been regarded as isolated invention
reflecting the genius of man who well ahead of their time. Today ,nearly all ROBOTS
introduced in to the market use computer control. Indeed, the field of ROBOTICS is
often considered to be a combination tool technology and computer control.
1.2 LAWS OF ROBOTICS
SIR Isaac Asimov dealing on the subject of ROBOTICS famed three basic laws
that the ROBOCISTS still obey with respect .The laws of philosophical in nature. They are as
follows
FIRST LAW
A ROBOT must not harm a human being or through in action , allow one to come to
harm.
SECOND LAW
A ROBOT must always obey human being unless it is in conflict with first law .
2
THIRD LAW
A ROBOT must protect itself from harm unless that is in conflict with the first
and /or
the second law.
1.3 FUTURE OF ROBOTICS
ROBOTICS is the technology with the future, and it is to technology for the
future .If a present trend continous,and if some of the laboratory research currently
underway is ultimately converted into practicable technology , ROBOTS of the futures will
be mobile units with one or more arms, multiple sensor capabilities, and the computational
and the data processing power of today’s min frame computers they will b able to respond to
human voice command. They will be able to receive general instruction and will translate
those instruction using artificial intelligent into a specific set of action required to carry out
them. They will be able to see , hear ,feel , apply a precisely measured force to a object and
move under the own power.
In short , the future robots will have many of the attributes of human beings. It is
hard to imagine that robot will ever replace human in the sense of Karel Capk’s play
“ROSSUM’S UNIVERSAL ROBOT”. On the contrary, ROBOTIC is a technology can be
harnessed slowly for the benefit of the human kind.
Getting from reset to the future will require much working mechanical
engineering,electrical engineering, computer science , materials technology, manufacturing
system engineering and social science. The purpose of this book is to explore and examine
these areas which constitutes the technologies, programming, And application of industrial
ROBOTICS.
3
Chapter II
INTRODUCTION
4
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The objective of this project to operate and control the robot for
agriculture purpose. The project is designed with micro controller, solenoid valve, relay
driver circuits, relays, DC motors and mechanical arrangement. Here the micro controller
may be Atmel 89C51 or PIC micro controllers both are flash type reprogrammable micro
controller the project arrangement is connected to mechanical arrangement.
. The mechanical arrangement is designed as the tank and sharp knife
type like as ploughing which is used to dip the soil and seeds are stored in the tank. This
mechanical arrangement is connected robot we can operate the robot in forward direction,
reverse direction left side and right side. When robot is moving the ploughing machine will
dip the soil continuously to moving side. These arrangements are connected to motor
controls by relay through relay driver circuits constructed with transistors, which act as
switch, so it can control the relays. After dipped the soil the robot will activate and open the
tank mouth. So the seeds are sphereted on the drip another one arrangement will close the
dip.
In micro controller we have already programmed when you press the
button for desired action the micro controller will activate corresponding relay for that action.
This project is very useful in the agriculture for reducing the manpower and time.
2.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM
5
2.3 BLOCK DIAGRAM DESCRIPTION
The fire sensor input is given to the analog channel of the PIC
controller and it is been converted and monitored by the PIC and it is displayed in the LCD.
Whenever the fire is detected then the data is transmitted through the RF transmitter module
and it is received in RF receiver module and according to the data the robot is moved and on
the way if any bomb is detected through the proximity sensor then a alarm is heard and a
indication also displayed in the LCD. The LCD is connected to the PORTD and PORTE of
PIC F877A. The temperature sensor is connected to the analog channel at RA0. The wireless
module is connected at PIC16f877a transmission and reception pin. The motor driver are
connected to the PORTB pins. The BUZZER is connected to the PORTC.0 pin.
BLOCK DIAGRAM:
Micro contro
ller
Relay driver circuit
Relay driver circuit
Relay driver circuit
Motor 1
Motor 2
Motor 3
Robo mod
el
Solenoid
valve
Relay driver
tank
RF reciver
RF trnsmi
tter
…….............……………….....................
6
Chapter III
CIRCUIT
DIAGRAM
7
2 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
3.1 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM WITH TRANSMITTER
8
3.2 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM WITH RECEIVER
9
Chapter IV
HARDWARE
DESCRIPTION10
4. HARDWARE DESCRIPTION 4.1 Components Included
MCU: PIC167877A with 8K Bytes Program Flash, 368 Bytes SRAM data ,256 Bytes
of EEPROM One 6V EM Relay I2C based Serial EEPROM AT24C16
RTC DS1307 with 56Byte NV RAM
LCD 16x2 display with backlight contrast adjustment
RS232 DB9 connector for System Interface
11.0592Mhz crystal oscillator
RF Transmitter and Receiver Module(433.92 Mhz)
Temperature sensor (LM 35)
4.2 RADIO FREQUENCY MODULE DESCRIPTION
Radio Frequencies modules (or sensors) are used in many different applications
ranging from a wireless mouse to chips implanted in animals for identification to
vehicle identification on toll roads. If you scroll down to the section on wireless mice,
you'll get a brief introduction to RF transmitters and receivers as applied to a wireless mouse.
4.2.1 TRANSMITER
The TWS-434 and RWS-434 are extremely small, and are excellent for
applications requiring short-range RF remote controls. The transmitter module is only 1/3 the
size of a standard postage stamp, and can easily be placed inside a small plastic enclosure.
TWS-434
The transmitter output is up to 8mW at 433.92MHz with a range of
approximately 400 foot (open area) outdoors. Indoors, the range is approximately 200 foot,
and will go through most walls.....
11
The TWS-434 transmitter accepts both linear and digital inputs, can operate from 1.5
to 12 Volts. DC, and makes building a miniature hand-held RF transmitter very easy. The
TWS-434 is approximately the size of a standard postage stamp.
TWS-434 Pin Diagram
Sample Transmitter Application Circuit
4.2.2 RECEIVER
RWS-434
The receiver also operates at 433.92MHz, and has a sensitivity of 3uV. The
RWS-434 receiver operates from 4.5 to 5.5 volts-DC, and has both linear and digital outputs.
12
RWS-434 Receiver
RWS-434 Pin Diagram
Note: For maximum range, the recommended antenna should be approximately 35cm long.
To convert from centimeters to inches -- multiply by 0.3937. For 35cm, the length in inches
will be approximately 35cm x 0.3937 = 13.7795 inches long.
13
Sample Receiver Application Circuit
The example above shows the receiver section using the HT-12D decoder IC for
a 4-bit RF remote control system. The transmitter and receiver can also use the Holtek 8-bit
HT-640/HT-648L remote control encoder/decoder combination for an 8-bit RF remote
control system. Here are the schematics for an 8-bit RF remote control system:
14
4.3 PIC16F877A DESCRIPTION
RISC architecture
o Only 35 instructions to learn
o All single-cycle instructions except branches
Operating frequency 0-20 MHz
Precision internal oscillator
o Factory calibrated
o Software selectable frequency range of 8MHz to 31KHz
Power supply voltage 2.0-5.5V
o Consumption: 220uA (2.0V, 4MHz), 11uA (2.0 V, 32 KHz) 50nA (stand-by
mode)
Power-Saving Sleep Mode
Brown-out Reset (BOR) with software control option
35 input/output pins
o High current source/sink for direct LED drive
o software and individually programmable pull-up resistor
o Interrupt-on-Change pin
8K ROM memory in FLASH technology
o Chip can be reprogrammed up to 100.000 times
In-Circuit Serial Programming Option
o Chip can be programmed even embedded in the target device
256 bytes EEPROM memory
o Data can be written more than 1.000.000 times
368 bytes RAM memory
A/D converter:
o 14-channels
o 10-bit resolution
3 independent timers/counters
Watch-dog timer
Analogue comparator module with
o Two analogue comparators
o Fixed voltage reference (0.6V)
o Programmable on-chip voltage reference
15
PWM output steering control
Enhanced USART module
o Supports RS-485, RS-232 and LIN2.0
o Auto-Baud Detector
4.3.1 High-Performance RISC CPU
Only 35 single-word instructions to learn
All single-cycle instructions except for program branches, which are two-cycle
Operating speed: DC – 20 MHz clock input DC – 200 ns instruction cycle
Up to 8K x 14 words of Flash Program Memory
Up to 368 x 8 bytes of Data Memory (RAM)
4.3.2 Peripheral Features
Timer0: 8-bit timer/counter with 8-bit prescaler
Timer1: 16-bit timer/counter with prescaler, can be incremented during Sleep via
external crystal/clock
Timer2: 8-bit timer/counter with 8-bit period register, prescaler and postscaler
Two Capture, Compare, PWM modules
o Capture is 16-bit, max. resolution is 12.5 ns
o Compare is 16-bit, max. resolution is 200 ns
o PWM max. resolution is 10-bit
Synchronous Serial Port (SSP) with SPI™ (Master mode) and I2C™ (Master/Slave)
Universal Synchronous Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter (USART/SCI) Address
Detection.
4.3.3 Analog Features:
10-bit, up to 8-channel Analog-to-Digital Converter (A/D)
Brown-out Reset (BOR)
Analog Comparator module with Two analog comparators
Programmable on-chip voltage reference (VREF) module
16
Programmable input multiplexing from device inputs and internal voltage reference
Comparator outputs are externally accessible
4.3.4 PIC16F877A PIN DIAGRAM
14
17
4.4 REAL TIME CLOCK GENERAL DESCRIPTION
The DS1307 serial real-time clock (RTC) is a low-power, full binary-
coded decimal (BCD) clock/calendar plus 56 bytes of NV SRAM. Address and data are
transferred serially through an I2C*, bidirectional bus. The clock/calendar provides seconds,
minutes, hours, day, date, month, and year information. The end of the month date is
automatically adjusted for months with fewer than 31 days, including corrections for leap
year. The clock operates in either the 24-hour or 12-hour format with AM/PM indicator. The
DS1307 has a built-in power-sense circuit that detects power failures and automatically
switches to the battery supply.
4.4.1 FEATURES
Real-Time Clock (RTC) Counts Seconds, Minutes, Hours, Date of the
Month, Month,
Day of the week, and Year with Leap-Year Compensation Valid Up to
2100
56-Byte, Battery-Backed, Nonvolatile (NV) RAM for Data Storage
I2C Serial Interface.
Automatic Power-Fail Detect and Switch Circuitry
Consumes Less than 500nA in Battery- Backup Mode with
Oscillator Running.
Optional Industrial Temperature Range:-40°C to +85°C
Available in 8-Pin Plastic DIP or SO
Underwriters Laboratory (UL) Recognized
4.5 TEMPERATURE SENSOR
4.5.1 TEMPERATURE SENSOR DESCRIPTION
LM35 Precision Centigrade Temperature Sensors General Description
Temperature sensor (LM35) used to sense the temperature. The LM 35 is the
temperature sensor with the sensitivity of 10mv/ ‘c.
18
LM 35 pin diagram
The LM35 series are precision integrated-circuit temperature sensors,
whose output voltage is linearly proportional to the Celsius (Centigrade) temperature. The
LM35 thus has an advantage over linear temperature sensors calibrated in ° Kelvin, as the
user is not required to subtract a large constant voltage from its output to obtain convenient
Centigrade scaling.
The LM35 does not require any external calibration or trimming to provide
typical accuracies of ±1⁄4°C at room temperature and ±3⁄4°C over a full −55 to +150°C
temperature range. Low cost is assured by trimming and calibration at the wafer level. The
LM35’s low output impedance, linear output, and precise inherent calibration make
interfacing to readout or control circuitry especially easy. It can be used with single power
supplies, or with plus and minus supplies. As it draws only 60 μA from its supply, it has very
low self-heating, less than 0.1°C in still air. The LM35 is rated to operate over a −55° to
+150°C temperature range, while the LM35C is rated for a −40° to +110°C range (−10° with
improved accuracy).
The LM35 series is available packaged in hermetic TO-46 transistor
packages, while the LM35C, LM35CA, and LM35D are also available in the plastic TO-92
transistor package. The LM35D is also available in an 8-lead surface mount small outline
package and a plastic TO-220 package.
19
4.5.2 TYPES OF TEMPERATURE SENSORS
4.5.2.1 Engine Coolant Temperature (ECT) Sensor
The ECT needs to adjust a variety of systems based on temperatures. It is critical for
proper operation of these systems that the engine reach operating temperature and the
temperature is accurately signaled to the ECM. For example, for the proper amount of fuel to
be injected the ECM must know the correct engine temperature. Temperature sensors
measure Engine Coolant Temperature (ECT), Intake Air Temperature (IAT) and Exhaust
Recirculation Gases (EGR), etc.
20
The ECT responds to change in Engine Coolant Temperature. By measuring engine
coolant temperature, the ECM knows the average temperature of the engine. The ECT is
usually located in a coolant passage just before the thermostat. The ECT is connected to the
THW terminal on the ECM. The ECT sensor is critical to many ECM functions such as
fuel injection, ignition timing, variable valve timing, transmission shifting, etc. Always
check to see if the engine is at operating temperature and that the ECT is accurately reporting
the temperature to the ECM.
4.5.2.2 Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) Temperature Sensor
The EGR Temperature Sensor is located in the EGR passage and measures the temperature of the exhaust gases. The EGR Temp sensor is connected to the THG terminal on the ECM. When the EGR valve opens, temperature increases. From the increase in temperature, the ECM knows the EGR valve is open and that exhaust gases are flowing.
21
4.5.2.3 Intake Air Temperature (IAT) Sensor
The IAT detects the temperature of the incoming air stream. On
vehicle
equipped with a MAP sensor, the IAT is located in an intake air passage. On Mass Air Flow
sensor equipped vehicles, the IAT is part of the MAF sensor. The IAT is connected to the
THA terminal on the ECM. The IAT is used for detecting ambient temperature on a cold
start and intake air temperature as the engine heats up the incoming air.
NOTE: One strategy the ECM uses to determine a cold engine start is by comparing the
ECT and IAT signals. If both are within 8'C (15'F) of each other, the ECM assumes it is a
cold start. This strategy is important because some diagnostic monitors, such as the EVAP
monitor, are based on a cold start.
224.5.3 ECT, IAT, & EGR Temperature Sensor Operation
Though these sensors are measuring different things, they all operate in the same
way. From the voltage signal of the temperature sensor, the ECM knows the temperature. As
the temperature of the sensor heats up, the voltage signal decreases. The decrease in the
voltage signal is caused by the decrease in resistance. The change in resistance causes the
voltage signal to drop.
The temperature sensor is connected in series to a fixed value resistor. The ECM
supplies 5 volts to the circuit and measures the change in voltage between the fixed value
resistor and the temperature sensor.
When the sensor is cold, the resistance of the sensor is high, and the voltage signal is
high. As the sensor warms up, the resistance drops and voltage sigal decreases. From the
voltage signal, the ECM can determine the temperature of the coolant, intake air, or exhaust
gas temperature. The ground wire of the temperature sensors is always at the ECU usually
terminal E2. These sensors are classified as thermistors.
4.5.4 Temperature Sensor Diagnostics
Temperature sensor circuits are tested for:
• opens.
• shorts.
• available voltage.
• sensor resistance.
The Diagnostic Tester data list can reveal the type of problem. An open circuit (high
resistance) will read the coldest temperature possible. A shorted circuit (low resistance) will
read the highest temperature possible. The diagnostic procedure purpose is to isolate and
identify the temperature sensor from the circuit and ECM.
High resistance in the temperature circuit will cause the ECM to think that the
temperature is colder than it really is. For example, as the engine warms up, ECT resistance
decreases, but unwanted extra resistance in the circuit will produce a higher voltage drop
signal. This will most likely be noticed when the engine has reached operating temperatures.
Note that at the upper end of the temperature/resistance scale, ECT resistance changes very
little. Extra resistance in the higher
23
temperature can cause the ECM to think the engine is approximately 20'F = 30'F colder than
actual temperature. This will cause poor engine performance, fuel economy, and possibly
engine overheating.
4.5.5 Solving Open Circuit Problems
A jumper wire and Diagnostic Tester are used to locate the problem in an open circuit.
24
4.5.6 Features
Calibrated directly in ° Celsius (Centigrade)
Linear + 10.0 mV/°C scale factor
0.5°C accuracy guarantee able (at +25°C)
Rated for full −55° to +150°C range
Suitable for remote applications
Low cost due to wafer-level trimming
Operates from 4 to 30 volts
Less than 60 μA current drain
Low self-heating, 0.08°C in still air
Nonlinearity only ±1⁄4°C typical
4.6 LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY
4.6.1 LCD DESCRIPTION
We always use devices made up of Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs) like
computers, digital watches and also DVD and CD players. They have become very common
and have taken a giant leap in the screen industry by clearly replacing the use of Cathode Ray
Tubes (CRT). CRT draws more power than LCD and are also bigger and heavier. All of us
have seen an LCD, but no one knows the exact working of it. Let us take a look at the
working of an LCD.
We get the definition of LCD from the name “Liquid Crystal” itself. It is
actually a combination of two states of matter – the solid and the liquid. They have both the
properties of solids and liquids and maintain their respective states with respect to another.
Solids usually maintain their state unlike liquids who change their orientation and move
everywhere in the particular liquid. Further studies have showed that liquid crystal materials
show more of a liquid state than that of a solid. It must also be noted that liquid crystals are
more heat sensitive than usual liquids. A little amount of heat can easily turn the liquid
crystal into a liquid. This is the reason why they are also used to make thermometer
25
4.6.2 Nematic Phase LCD
The greatest advantage of a nematic phase liquid crystal substance is that it
can bring about predictable controlled changes according to the electric current passed
through them. All the liquid crystals are according to their reaction on temperature difference
and also the nature of the substance.
Twisted Nematics, a particular nematic substance is twisted naturally. When
a known voltage is applied to the substance, it gets untwisted in varying degrees according to
our requirement. This in turn is useful in controlling the passage of light. A nematic phase
liquid crystal can be again classified on the basis in which the molecules orient themselves in
respect to each other. ranging from a magnetic field to a surface with microscopic grooves.
Classification includes Smectic and also cholesteric. Smectic can be again
classified as smectic C, in which the molecules in each layer tilt at an angle from the previous
layer. Cholesteric, on the other hand has molecules that twist slightly from one layer to the
next, causing a spiral like design. There are also combinations of these two called Ferro-
electric liquid crystals (FLC), which include cholesteric molecules in a smectic C type
molecule so that the spiral nature of these molecules allows the microsecond switching
response time. This makes FLCs to be of good use in advanced displays.
Liquid crystal molecules are further classified into thermotropic and
lyotropic crystals. The former changes proportionally with respect to changes in pressure and
temperature. They are further divided into nematic and isotropic. Nematic liquid crystals have
a fixed order of pattern while isotropic liquid crystals are distributed randomly. The lyotropic
crystal depends on the type of solvent they are mixed with. They are therefore useful in
making detergents and soaps.
4.6.3 Making of LCD
Though the making of LCD is rather simple there are certain facts that should be
noted while making it.
The basic structure of an LCD should be controllably changed with respect to the
applied electric current.
26
The light that is used on the LCD can be polarized.
Liquid crystals should be able to both transmit and change polarized light.
There are transparent substances that can conduct electricity
To make an LCD, you need to take two polarized glass
pieces. The glas which does not have a polarized film on it must be rubbed with a
special polymer which creates microscopic grooves in the surface. It must also be
noted that the grooves are on the same direction as the polarizing film. Then, all you
need to do is to add a coating of nematic liquid crystals to one of the filters.
The grooves will cause the first layer of molecules to align
with the filter’s orientation At right angle to the first piece, you must then add a
second piece of glass along with the polarizing film. Till the uppermost layer is at a
90-degree angle to the bottom, each successive layer of TN molecules will keep on
twisting. The first filter will naturally be polarized as the light strikes it at the
beginning. Thus the light passes through each layer and is guided on to the next with
the help of molecules. When this happens, the molecules tend to change the plane of
vibration of the light to match their own angle. When the light reaches the far side of
the liquid crystal substance, it vibrates at the same angle as the final layer of
molecules. The light is only allowed an entrance if the second polarized glass filter is
same as the final layer. Take a look at the figure below.
27
4.6.3 Working of LCD
The main principle behind liquid crystal molecules is that when an electric
current is applied to them, they tend to untwist. This causes a change in the light angle
passing through them. This causes a change in the angle of the top polarizing filter with
respect to it. So little light is allowed to pass through that particular area of LCD. Thus that
area becomes darker comparing to others.
For making an LCD screen, a reflective mirror has to be setup in the back. An
electrode plane made of indium-tin oxide is kept on top and a glass with a polarizing film is
also added on the bottom side. The entire area of the LCD has to be covered by a common
electrode and above it should be the liquid crystal substance. Next comes another piece of
glass with an electrode in the shape of the rectangle on the bottom and, on top, another
polarizing film. It must be noted that both of them are kept at right angles.
When there is no current, the light passes through the front of the LCD it will
be reflected by the mirror and bounced back. As the electrode is connected to a temporary
battery the current from it will cause the liquid crystals between the common-plane electrode
and the electrode shaped like a rectangle to untwist. Thus the light is blocked from passing
through. Thus that particular rectangular area appears blank.
28
4.6.4 Colour Liquid Crystal Display
Colour LCDs are those that can display pictures in colours. For this to
be possible there must be three sub-pixels with red, green and blue colour filters to create
each colour pixel. For combining these sub-pixels these LCDs should be connected to a large
number of transistors. If any problem occurs to these transistors, it will cause a bad pixel.
One of the main disadvantages of these types of LCDs is the size. Most
manufacturers try to reduce the height than gain it. This is because more transistors and
greater pixels will be needed to increase the length. This will increase the probability of bad
pixels. It is very difficult or also impossible to repair a LCD with bad pixels. This will
highly affect the sale of LCDs.
4.6.5 LCD CONNECTION DETAILS
The LCD can be interfaced to the processor using the JP13 connector. RB0, RB1 and RB2
pin of the processor is connected to the RS,R/W and EN pin of the display. The RD0:RD7
pin of the processor will act as a data line and is connected to the D0:D7 pin of the Display.
The Below fig shows the LCD Connection diagram
29
PIN DIAGRAM
4.7 DC MOTOR DRIVE UNIT:
30
The system consists of two separate dc motor which are kept for symmetric and
angular movement of the robot. For driving these two independent motors a H-bridge motor
driver is used. The microcontroller output is given to the pins IN1A, IN1B, IN2A and IN2B
input pins of L293 D motor driver IC. These pins are given to a control logic unit. These
logic input terminals control each H-bridge output. However if all inputs are taken high, the
output bridge are both tri-stated. The level shifter is used to shift the logic levels as per the
input. The output pins OUT 1A, OUT 2A, OUT 1B and OUT2B is connected to the motor.
These terminals provide connection to the outputs of each of the internal H – bridge.
In any electric motor, operation is based on simple electromagnetism.
A current-carrying conductor generates a magnetic field; when this is then placed in an
external magnetic field, it will experience a force proportional to the current in the conductor,
and to the strength of the external magnetic field. As you are well aware of from playing with
magnets as a kid, opposite (North and South) polarities attract, while like polarities (North
and North, South and South) repel.
Let's start by looking at a simple 2-pole DC electric motor (here red
represents a magnet or winding with a "North" polarization, while green represents a magnet
or winding with a "South" polarization).
31
Every DC motor has six basic parts -- axle, rotor (a.k.a., armature), stator,
commutator, field magnet(s), and brushes. In most common DC motors (and all that
BEAMers will see), the external magnetic field is produced by high-strength permanent
magnets1. The stator is the stationary part of the motor -- this includes the motor casing, as
well as two or more permanent magnet pole pieces. The rotor (together with the axle and
attached commutator) rotate with respect to the stator. The rotor consists of windings
(generally on a core), the windings being electrically connected to the commutator. The
above diagram shows a common motor layout -- with the rotor inside the stator (field)
magnets.
The geometry of the brushes,
commutator contacts, and rotor windings are such that when
power is applied, the polarities of the energized winding and
the stator magnet(s) are misaligned, and the rotor will rotate
until it is almost aligned with the stator's field magnets. As
the rotor reaches alignment, commutator contacts, and
energize the next winding. Given our example two-pole
motor, the rotation reverses the direction of current through
the rotor winding, leading to a "flip" of the rotor's magnetic
field, driving it to continue rotating.
In real life, though, DC motors will
always have more than two poles (three is a very common
number). In particular, this avoids "dead spots" in the
commutator. You can imagine how with commutator contacts
simultaneously). This would be bad for the power supply.
Yet another disadvantage of such a simple motor is that it
would exhibit a high amount of torque "ripple" (the amount
of torque it could produce is cyclic with the position of the
rotor).
32
So since most small DC motors are of a three-pole design, let's tinker with the
workings of one via an interactive animation (JavaScript required):
You'll notice a few things from this -- namely, one pole is fully energized at a
time (but two others are "partially" energized). As each brush transitions from one
commutator contact to the next, one coil's field will rapidly collapse, as the next coil's field
will rapidly charge up (this occurs within a few microsecond). We'll see more about the
effects of this later, but in the meantime you can see that this is a direct result of the coil
windings' series wiring:
33
There's probably no better way to see how an average DC
motor is put together, than by just opening one up.
Unfortunately this is tedious work, as well as requiring the
destruction of a perfectly good motor.
Luckily for you, I've gone ahead and done this in your stead.
The guts of a disassembled Mabuchi FF-030-PN motor (the
same model that Solarbotics sells) are available for you to see
here (on 10 lines / cm graph paper).
The use of an iron core armature (as in the Mabuchi, above) is quite
common, and has a number of advantages2. First off, the iron core provides a strong, rigid
support for the windings -- a particularly important consideration for high-torque motors. The
core also conducts heat away from the rotor windings, allowing the motor to be driven harder
than might otherwise be the case. Iron core construction is also relatively inexpensive
compared with other construction types.
But iron core construction also has several disadvantages. The iron
armature has a relatively high inertia which limits motor acceleration. This construction also
results in high winding inductances which limit brush and commutator life.
In small motors, an alternative design is often used which features a
'coreless' armature winding. This design depends upon the coil wire itself for structural
integrity. As a result, the armature is hollow, and the permanent magnet can be mounted
inside the rotor coil. Coreless DC motors have much lower armature inductance than iron-
core motors of comparable size, extending brush and commutator life.
34
Diagram courtesy of Micro Motor
The coreless design also allows manufacturers to build smaller motors;
meanwhile, due to the lack of iron in their rotors, coreless motors are somewhat prone to
overheating. As a result, this design is generally used just in small, low-power motors.
BEAMers will most often see coreless DC motors in the form of pager motors.
35
4.8 DS1307 RTC Interface
The DS1307 serial real-time clock (RTC) is a low-power, full binary-
coded decimal (BCD) clock/calendar plus 56 bytes of NV SRAM.Address and data are
transferred serially through an I2C*, bidirectional bus. The clock/calendar provides seconds,
minutes, hours, day, date, month, and year information. The end of the month date is
automatically adjusted for months with fewer than 31 days, including corrections for leap
year. The clock operates in either the 24- hour or 12-hour format with AM/PM indicator. The
DS1307 has a built-in power-sense circuit that detects power failures and automatically
switches to the battery supply. The below fig shows the interface diagram of DS1307
RTC.The I2C bus us used to interface the RTC to the Processor. The SDA and SCL lines of
the processor is connected to the SDA/SCL line of the RTC which is used for data
communication and clock synchronization.
.
.
36
4.9 MAX-232 Serial Interface
4.9.1 RS232 System Interface
The MAX232 Serial driver is used for system Interface. The Tx and Rx line of
the processor is connected to the T1IN and R1OUT pin the Serial driver. The TXD and RXD
pin of the serial driver is connected to the 2 and 3 pin of the DB9 connector and this
connector is used for system interface
37
4.10 POWER SUPPLY
4.10.1 Block Diagram
The ac voltage, typically 220V rms, is connected to a transformer, which steps
that ac voltage down to the level of the desired dc output. A diode rectifier then provides a
full-wave rectified voltage that is initially filtered by a simple capacitor filter to produce a dc
voltage. This resulting dc voltage usually has some ripple or ac voltage variation.
A regulator circuit removes the ripples and also remains the same dc value
even if the input dc voltage varies, or the load connected to the output dc voltage changes.
This voltage regulation is usually obtained using one of the popular voltage regulator IC
units.
4.10.2 Working principle
4.10.2.1 Transformer
The potential transformer will step down the power supply voltage (0-230V)
to (0-6V) level. Then the secondary of the potential transformer will be connected to the
precision rectifier, which is constructed with the help of op–amp. The advantages of using
precision rectifier are it will give peak voltage output as DC, rest of the circuits will give only
RMS output.
38
4.10.2.2 Bridge rectifier
When four diodes are connected as shown in figure, the circuit is called as
bridge rectifier. The input to the circuit is applied to the diagonally opposite corners of the
network, and the output is taken from the remaining two corners. Let us assume that the
transformer is working properly and there is a positive potential, at point A and a negative
LOATRANSFORMR RECTIFIER FILTER IC REGULATOR
potential at point B. the positive potential at point A will forward bias D3 and reverse bias
D4.
The negative potential at point B will forward bias D1 and reverse D2. At this
time D3 and D1 are forward biased and will allow current flow to pass through them; D4 and
D2 are reverse biased and will block current.
The path for current flow is from point B through D1, up through RL, through
D3, through the secondary of the transformer back to point B. this path is indicated by the
solid arrows. Waveforms (1) and (2) can be observed across D1 and D3.
One-half cycle later the polarity across the secondary reverse, forward biasing
D2 and D4 and reverse biasing D1 and D3. Current flow will now be from point A through
D4, up through RL, through D2, through the secondary of T1, and back to point A. This path
is indicated by the broken arrows. Waveforms (3) and (4) can be observed across D2 and D4.
The current flow through RL is always in the same direction. In flowing through RL this
current develops a voltage corresponding to that shown waveform (5). Since current flows
through the load (RL) during both half cycles of the applied voltage, this bridge rectifier is a
full-wave rectifier.
39
One advantage of a bridge rectifier over a conventional full-wave rectifier is that
with a given transformer the bridge rectifier produces a voltage output that is nearly twice
that of the conventional full-wave circuit.
This may be shown by assigning values to some of the components shown in
views A and B. assume that the same transformer is used in both circuits. The peak voltage
developed between points X and y is 1000 volts in both circuits. In the conventional full-
wave circuit shown—in view A, the peak voltage from the center tap to either X or Y is 500
volts. Since only one diode can conduct at any instant, the maximum voltage that can be
rectified at any instant is 500 volts.
The maximum voltage that appears across the load resistor is nearly-but never
exceeds-500 v0lts, as result of the small voltage drop across the diode. In the bridge rectifier
shown in view B, the maximum voltage that can be rectified is the full secondary voltage,
which is 1000 volts. Therefore, the peak output voltage across the load resistor is nearly 1000
volts. With both circuits using the same transformer, the bridge rectifier circuit produces a
higher output voltage than the conventional full-wave rectifier circuit.
4.10.2.3 IC voltage regulators
Voltage regulators comprise a class of widely used ICs. Regulator IC units
contain the circuitry for reference source, comparator amplifier, control device, and overload
protection all in a single IC. IC units provide regulation of either a fixed positive voltage, a
fixed negative voltage, or an adjustably set voltage. The regulators can be selected for
operation with load currents from hundreds of milli amperes to tens of amperes,
corresponding to power ratings from milli watts to tens of watts.
40
Circuit Diagram Of Power Supply
A fixed three-terminal voltage regulator has an unregulated dc input voltage, Vi,
applied to one input terminal, a regulated dc output voltage, Vo, from a second terminal, with
the third terminal connected to ground.
The series 78 regulators provide fixed positive regulated voltages from 5 to 24 volts.
Similarly, the series 79 regulators provide fixed negative regulated voltages from 5 to 24
volts.
For ICs, microcontroller, LCD --------- 5 volts
For alarm circuit, op-amp, relay circuits ---------- 12 volts
41
4.10.3 ADVANTAGES
The robot cost is cost efficient so that because most of peripherals are inbuilt.
Power consumption low.
Low cost.
Implement is easy.
4.10.4 Applications:
This project can be implemented in all industries, educational institutions, and
also for domestic purposes In this project we have used advanced technique so that this
technique can be implemented for others things also.
42
Chapter V
SOFTWARE DESCRIPTION
43
5. SOFTWARE DESCRIPTION
5.1 KEIL Version III
5.1.1 Front end
Keil development tools offer a complete development environment for ARM, Cortex-M, and Cortex-R processor-based devices. They are easy to learn and use, yet powerful enough for the most demanding embedded applications.
44
5.1.2 Features
Support for Cortex-M0, Cortex-M1, Cortex-M3, Cortex-M4,Cortex-R4,
ARM7, and ARM9 devices,µVision IDE,debugger, and simulation
environment.
ARM industry-leading C/C++ compiler from ARM MicroLib highly
optimized run-time library Sophisticated Trace and analysis tools for Cortex-
M processor-based devices
Keil RTX full featured, configurable Real-Time Operating System.Keil RTX
Real-Time Operating System with full source code
TCPnet Comprehensive TCP networking suite
Flash File System
CAN Driver Library
USB Device Interface
5.1.3 ULINK Debug Adapters
The ULINK Products enable sophisticated Debugging, Real-Time Trace
and Flash programming via JTAG and Serial Wire Debug modes. The new
ULINK products includes unique streaming trace technology which delivers
enhanced program analysis including Code Coverage and Execution
Profiling.
5.1.4Evaluation Boards Keil offer many Evaluation Boards and starter kits for today’s most
popular MCU devices based on Cortex-M0, Cortex-M3, Cortex-R4, ARM7,
and ARM9.
45
Chapter VI
CONCLUSION
46
6. CONCLUSION:
Lastly I found this project very challenging and at the same time enjoyable
and rewarding as our robot operated as required on completion of the project. This project has
given me experience in working with a team and having to complete a project within a given
timeframe. From this project I have learnt how we can bring all the different areas of
engineering together (such as mechanical, electrical, electronic and software) and apply them
to a real life project.
The control system we used was by far the most complicated part of our
project; the behavior control was a good choice to make, as it managed to simplify the
process substantially. A major part of our control was using pulse width modulation to
control the speeds of our drive motors; this was successful however it caused problems with
the stalling point of the motors as the battery voltage dropped off.
6.1 EXISTING TECHNOLOGIES
6.1.1 Latest technology in automated agriculture
That’s right folks, if you were lucky enough to stumble across this article, you
have the privilege of seeing the latest technology in automated agriculture at work. This
invaluable tool comes all the way from Belarus, a country that apparently spares no effort
when it comes to investing in new technology.
47
This revolutionary agricultural device is a state-of-the-art cucumber harvester
that uses the newly discovered power of people on their bellies. That’s right, people sitting on
their bellies being pulled by a tractor. It’s simple and effective and I for one can’t wait to get
my hands on one, cucumber harvesting will never be the same again.
48
6.1.2 Japan’s First Autonomous Agricultural Robot
According to an ancient folk song "Planting (rice) is never fun, Bent from up 'till
the set of sun. Can stand and can not sit, can not rest for a little bit". This is how planting rice
used to be and oh well, some other countries do still have these traditional way.However in
Japan, planting will never be as cruel as it should be, because robots can now do the job. Fuji
Heavy Industries, Japan's major conglomerate has developed an agricultural robot that can do
the farming hard work autonomously.
The robot which runs on gas and is 2m long, 60cm wide and 1m high, is capable
of orienting itself by emitting and receiving laser signals, measuring the distance with special
reflective plates (which are placed at regular intervals of about 10 meters). Fuji Heavy says
the robot farmer can plant and cultivate fruits and vegetables by itself. It is planned to be
available in the market in 2010 with a selling price of about $100,000.
49
6.1.3 PROGRAMMING
#include <16F877A.h>
#device adc=10
#use delay(clock=11059200)
//#fuses Nowdt,hs,NOBROWNOUT,NOLVP
#byte trisd=0x88
#byte portd=0x08
#byte trisa=0x85
#byte porta=0x05
#byte trisb=0x86
#byte portb=0x06
#bit sel1=0x06.1
#bit sel2=0x06.2
#bit sel3=0x06.3
#bit sel4=0x06.4
#byte trisc=0x87
#byte portc=0x07
#byte trisd=0x88
#byte portd=0x08
#byte porte=0x09
#byte trise=0x89
#bit key=0x05.5
#bit reg=0x09.0 //register selection
#bit rw=0x09.1 //read & write
#bit en=0x09.2
50
#byte intcon=0x0b
#byte option_reg=0x81
#byte tmr0=0x01
#byte trisa=0x85
#byte porta=0x05
int16 value,value1,dat;//count1,count,min1,min,hr,hr1;
int16
k,d,x[4],count1,count,count2,count3,count4,count5,count6,count7,count8,min1,min,min
2,hr,hr1,hr2;
int16
i=0,l,m=0,j=0x80,min3,min4,min5,min6,min7,min8,hr3,hr4,hr5,hr6,hr7,hr8;
const int16
seg[10]={0x3f,0x06,0x5b,0x4f,0x66,0x6d,0x7d,0x07,0x7f,0x67};//,0x77,0x7c,0x39,0x5e,0x
79,0x71};
void display_function(int16);
#zero_ram
void command(unsigned char com) /*********TO GIVE DATAS FOR
FORMET,DISP ON,etc..***********/
{
portd=com;
reg=0;
rw=0;
en=1;
delay_ms(1);
en=0;
} 51
void data(unsigned char da) /********TO WRITE REQUIRED
OUTPUT***********/
{
portd=da;
reg=1;
rw=0;
en=1;
delay_ms(1);
en=0;
}
#int_timer0
timer0_isr()
{
dat++;
if(dat>=719)
{
dat=0;count++;if(count>=60)
{
count=0;min++;
}
if(min==60)
{
min=0;hr++;}if(hr>=12)hr=0;
}
}
void stopm1(int16 n)
{ 52
for(d=0;d<2;d++)
{
x[d]=n%10;
n=n/10;
}
data(x[1]|0x30);
data(x[0]|0x30);
}
void main()
{
setup_adc_ports(AN0);
setup_adc(ADC_CLOCK_INTERNAL);
trisd=0x00;
trisb=0x00;
trisa=0xff;
porta=0;
trisc=0x00;
portc=0xff;
trisd=0;
trise=0;
portd=0;
porte=0;
option_reg=0x03;
intcon=0xe0;
tmr0=0x00;
53
command(0x38); //data for function set
command(0x0e); // " " entery mode set
command(0x0c); // " " display on
command(0x01);
command(0x80);
data("INTELLIGENT ROBOT");
//command(0xC0);
//data("FIGHTING ROBOT ");
delay_ms(2000);
command(0x01);delay_ms(200);
while(1)
{
set_adc_channel(0);
delay_us(50);
value = read_adc();
value1=value/2;
display_function(value1);
portc=0xff;
command(0x80);
data("INTELLIGENT ROBOT");
command(0xc0);
data("time:");
command(0xc5);
stopm1(hr);
data(':');
command(0xc8);
stopm1(min); data(':');
54
command(0xcb);
stopm1(count);
if(key==0)
{
delay_ms(500);
if(count2==1)
{
count2=0;
command(0xc0);
data("time:");
command(0xc5);
stopm1(hr1);
data(':');
command(0xc8);
stopm1(min1); data(':');
command(0xcb);
stopm1(count1);
delay_ms(2000);
}
}
//command(0x01);
if( value1>=50)
{
count2=1;count1=count; min1=min; hr1=hr;
command(0x80);
data("FIRE OCCURED ");
portc=0x00; 55
delay_ms(2000);
}
}
}
void display_function(int16 an_value)
{
int8 a[4],i;
for(i=0;i<3;i++)
{
a[i]=an_value%10;
an_value=an_value/10;
}
portd=seg[a[0]];sel1=1;delay_ms(1);sel1=0;
portd=seg[a[1]];sel2=1;delay_ms(1);sel2=0;
portd=seg[a[2]];sel3=1;delay_ms(1);sel3=0;
portd=seg[a[3]];sel4=1;delay_ms(1);sel4=0;
}
56
Chapter VII
BIBLIOGRAPHY
57
7. BIBLIOGRAPHY
7.1 References
The 8051 microcontroller and embedded systems------Mohammad Ali Mazidi
Microchip PIC16f877a datasheet-------------------------Microchip
Microcontroller Programming: The Microchip PIC
by Julio Sanchez and Maria P. Canton
Design of PIC microcontrollers---------------------------John Peatman
Embedded C by……………………………………… Michael J. Pont
Handbook of Smart Antennas for RFID Systems by………….. Nemai Chandra Karmakar
Principles of electronics -----------------------------------V.K. Metha
ELECTRONICS FOR YOU, ELECTRONICS MAKER, ELECKTOR ELECTRONICS
ETC.,
Acroname Easier Robotics. (2004). The Hamamatsu UVTron Flame Detector Package.
[Brochure]. Richards, S: Author.
Acroname Easier Robotics. (2004). The Sharp GP2D02 and GP2D05 infrared Object
Detectors. [Brochure]. Richards, S: Author.
Paper 143.472 Industrial Systems Design and Integration (2006). Fire-Fighting Robot.
[Brochure]. Xu, W.L: Author.
Renasas (2006). M16C62P Group Single Chip 16-Bit Microcomputer. Retrieved March 12,
2006 from the World Wide Web:
http://documentation.renesas.com/eng/products/mpumcu/rej03b0001_16c62pds.pdf
7.2 WEBSITES:www.microchip.com
www.atmel.com
www.beyondlogic.com
www.embedded.com
www.microcontroller.com 58