RHETORIC

DEFINITION OF RHETORIC

• a thoughtful, reflective activity (written or spoken) leading to effective communication, including rational exchange of opposing viewpoints

• “The faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion”- Aristotle

• A tool that can be used to appeal to an audience of one or many

• to resolve conflicts without confrontation, persuade readers, move people to take action

KEY ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC

CONTEXT

PURPOSE

THESIS

SPEAKER

AUDIENCE

AUDIENCE (READER)

SPEAKER (WRITER)

SUBJECT (TOPIC)

(ARISTOTELIAN

TRIANGLE)

• CONTEXT: • rhetoric is always situational• the occasion, time and place rhetoric is

written or spoken-can arise from current events or

cultural bias• PURPOSE: • the goal that the speaker or writer wants

to achieve

PURPOSES FOR WRITING

• EXPRESS AND REFLECT• INFORM AND EXPLAIN • EVALUATE AND JUDGE • INQUIRE AND EXPLORE• ANALYZE AND INTERPRET • TAKE A STAND/PROPOSE A SOLUTION

• OTHERS: Win agreement, persuade to take action, evoke sympathy, make someone laugh, inform, provoke, celebrate, repudiate, put forth a proposal, secure support, bring about a favorable decision

• THESIS:• the main idea of your rhetoric must be crystal

cleara claim or assertion

• SPEAKER (writer)• a writer considers the PERSONA they are

writing as poet, comedian, scholar, expert, literary critic, concerned citizen

• AUDIENCE• determines style and organization of your piece• what do they know about the subject? What’s

its attitude toward the subject?

APPEALS TO ETHOS, LOGOS, PATHOS

• ETHOS: character-appealing to ethos demonstrates that

the author is credible and trustworthy-emphasizes shared values between

the speaker and the audience-sometimes a speaker’s reputation immediately establishes ethos

-TONE effects ETHOS

• LOGOS: reason• appeal to LOGOS by offering clear, rational

ideas• having a clear, main idea or thesis with specific

details, examples, facts, statistical data, or expert testimony as support• ideas must be logical• make assumptions about the reader• acknowledge a counter argument (anticipate

opposing views)

• PATHOS: emotion• appeal to emotion• choose language that engages the

emotions of the audience• connotation of words, vivid and

concrete description, figurative language, adding visual elements• propaganda (arguments that appeal

solely to emotion – usually very weak)

ARRANGEMENT OF RHETORIC

• THE CLASSIC MODEL• Five-part structure

-introduction (exordium)-narration (narration)-confirmation (confirmatio)-refutation (refutation)-conclusion (peroratio)

Introduction (“exordium”)

• introduces the reader to the subject under discussion• “beginning a web”• can be a single paragraph or several• draws the reader into a text by piquing

their interest, challenging them or otherwise getting their attention• often where ETHOS is established

narration (“narratio”)

• provides factual information and background material on the subject• or establishes why the subject is a problem

that needs addressing• level of detail here depends on audiences

knowledge of subject

confirmation (“confirmatio”)

• usually the major part of the text• nuts and bolts: most specific, concrete

details of the text•makes strongest appeal to logos

refutation (“refutation”)

• addresses the counterargument

conclusion (peroratio)

• can be one paragraph or several• brings the essay to a satisfying close•writer appeals to pathos and reminds

reader of ethos established earlier• does not just repeat what has gone before,

but brings all the writers ideas together and answers the question “SO WHAT?”• the last words are most likely what the

audience will remember

PATTERNS OF DEVELOPMENT

• Writers pick a certain pattern depending on their purpose:

• NARRATION• DESCRIPTION• PROCESS ANALYSIS• EXEMPLIFICATION• COMPARE/CONTRAST• CLASSIFICATION• DEFINITION• CAUSE/EFFECT

NARRATION• telling a story or recounting a series of events• can be based on personal experience or knowledge gained

from reading or observation• usually chronological• includes concrete detail, a point of view, elements such as

dialogue• not simply telling an appealing story, but crafting a story that

SUPPORTS YOUR THESIS (YOU MUST HAVE A POINT/REASON FOR TELLING THE STORY!! DECIDE WHAT THAT IS, THEN INCLUDE ONLY DETAILS THAT SUPPORT THAT POINT)

• often used as a way to draw readers into a subject

DESCRIPTION• like narration, but emphasizes the senses by painting a picture

of how something looks, sounds smells tastes or feels.• often used to establish a mood or atmosphere• rarely is an entire essay descriptive (but it can make writing

more persuasive: SHOWING IS MORE EFFECTIVE THAN TELLING – will make readers empathize with you)

PROCESS ANALYSIS• explains how something works, how to do something or how

something was done• the key to successful process analysis is CLARITY• use clear, logical language• use transitions that make the sequence of major steps, stages

or phases in the process

EXEMPLIFICATION• providing examples to make a point• turns a general idea into a concrete one• INDUCTION: a series of specific examples that lead to a

general conclusion

COMPARISON AND CONTRAST• juxtaposing two things to highlight their similarities and

differences• often used for literary analysis – to compare method, style and

purpose of two texts• can be organized subject-by-subject or point-by-point• example: compare/contrast two candidates:• subject-by-subject: discuss one candidate fully, then the other• point-by-point: discuss where each candidate stands on different

issues

CLASSIFICATION AND DIVISION

• sorting material or ideas into major categories

DEFINITION• defining something ensures the reader and writer are on the

same page• often the first step in a debate or disagreement• might be only a paragraph or might be an entire essay

CAUSE AND EFFECT• analyzing the causes that lead to a certain effect (or vice versa) • a powerful foundation for an argument• often signaled by a “why” in the title or first paragraph