Rhetorical Grammar: Grammatical Choices, Rhetorical Effects  

Parts of Speech

Part of Speech Function or “job” Example words Example sentences

verb action or state (to) be, have, do, like, work, sing, can, must

My dog is a collie. I like to play fetch with her.

noun thing or person pen, dog, work, music, town, London, teacher, John

This is my dog. He lives in my house. We live in London.

adjective describes a noun a/an, the, 27, some, good, big, red, well, interesting

My dog is big. I like big dogs.

adverb describes a verb, adjective or adverb

quickly, silently, badly, very, really

My dog eats quickly. When he is very hungry, he eats really quickly.

pronoun replaces a noun I, you, he, she, some Tara is athletic. She is strong.

preposition links a noun to another word

to, at, after, on, but We went to school on Monday.

conjunction joins clauses or sentences or words

and, but, or, nor I like dogs and I like cats. I like cats and dogs. I like dogs but I don’t like cats.

interjection short exclamation, sometimes inserted into a sentence

oh!, ouch!, hi!, well Ouch! That hurts! Hi! How are you? Well, I don’t know.

possessive indicates possession or ownership

John’s, the dog’s Hand me the dog’s ball. Is that the baby’s bottle?

gerund -ing form functioning as a noun.

I enjoy jogging. Running is good exercise..

participle verbal functioning as a an adverbial

The crying baby had a wet diaper. The burning log fell off the fire.

subject functions as the topic of the sentence

The committees were set up to plan the convention. The study of our grammar system includes three areas.

direct object names the objective, goal or receiver of the verb’s action.

We ate the peanuts. The study of our grammar system includes three areas.

 

• Sentence Patterns: 1, 2, 3 The be patterns

PATTERN 1 NP be ADV/TP  

• second unit in the predicate contains an adverbial of time or place  

 

subject be adverbial.

The weasel is in his den

The final liftoff was yesterday.

The students are upstairs.

The last performance was yesterday.

 

PATTERN 2 NP1 be NP1

NP be ADJ

• the subject compliment describes or renames the subject: tells something about the subject (synonyms)

• has the same referent as the subject  • “something is something”  

 

subject be subject compliment

I am an optimist (NP)

The students are scholars. (NP)

The winters are quite cold. (ADJ)

The students are diligent. (ADJ) The linking verb pattern • class of verbs followed by an adjective; not used to describe action, rather describes the subject

PATTERN 3 NP1 lnk verb NP1

NP1 lnk verb ADJ

 

• the subject complement renames the subject • both noun phrases have the same referent • be, the main verb, acts an “equal” sign, connecting the subject with its

compliment

 

subject linking verb subject compliment

My sister became a nurse. (NP)

My uncle remained a bachelor. (NP)

The trail looked steep. (ADJ)

The students seem diligent. (ADJ)

• Sentence Patterns: 4, 5 The intransitive verb pattern • verb that requires no complement to be complete

PATTERN 4 NP v-intr  

• the predicate has only one requirement: the verb alone • no noun phrase or adjectival follows the verb; there is enough info to have a

complete thought

 

subject intransitive verb

Mary laughed.

Accidents happen.

The students rested. The basic transitive verb pattern • requires at least one complement (the direct object) to be complete; verbs in which the action is

transmitted to, an object

PATTERN 5 NP1 v-tr NP2

• a noun phrase fills the subject compliment slot following the linking verb • includes verbs in which the action is directed to an object • the direct object has a referent number different from that of the noun phrase

* The direct object tells what or whom

subject transitive verb direct object

Weasels stalk rabbits.

My roommate borrowed my laptop.

The students studied their assignments.

That car needs four new tires.

• Sentence Patterns: 6, 7 Transitive patterns with two compliments  

PATTERN 6 NP1 v-tr NP2 NP3  

• two noun phrases follow the verb; the subject, indirect object and direct object have different referents.

• the indirect object can shift to a position following the direct object, where it becomes the object of the preposition. * The indirect object: the recipient of the direct object; for whom the action is performed

subject transitive verb indirect object direct object

Marie sent Ramon a birthday gift.

Anne Dillard gives her readers insights into nature.

 

subject transitive verb direct object indirect object

Marie sent a birthday gift to Ramon.

Anne Dillard gives insights into nature to her readers.

   

PATTERN 7 NP1 trans verb NP2 NP2

NP1 trans verb NP2 ADJ  

• the direct object is followed by a second compliment, a noun phrase or adjectival that describes the direct object  

• the object compliment: 1) completes the meaning of the verb and 2) describes the direct object  

 

subject transitive verb direct object object compliment

The director considered the performance a success. (NP)

The students elected Emma chairperson. (NP)

The critic called the acting brilliant. (ADJ)

The students consider the teacher intelligent. (ADJ)

 

SENTENCES sentence • a structure that contains a subject and a predicate; the subject-predicate unit

differs from clause: also refers to capitalization and punctuation.

clause • a structure that contains a subject and a predicate; the subject-predicate unit

independent clause

• a sequence of words that includes a subject and predicate and can stand alone.

• a sentence must have at least one independent clause

A weasel is wild.

dependent clause OR subordinate clause

• a clause that functions as an adverb, an adjective or a noun (nominal) within a sentence:

• when it begins with a subordinating conjunction, it is an adverbial clause

• can function adjectivally, as the modifier of a

noun phrase • can fill the noun phrase position; a nominal

because it functions as a noun

When an adverbial clause opens a sentence, it is followed by a comma. The Scientist who received a Blue Planet Prize works at Columbia University. Annie Dillard says that a weasel is wild.

compound sentence

• a sentence with two or more independent clauses

• ideas expressed in two independent clauses that are related

• calls for a comma at the end of the first clause, signaling another independent clause is on the way

• can be joined by a conjunction • can be joined by a semi-colon, the equivalent

of the comma-plus-conjunction: (, + and/but) = (;) the semi-colon sends the message: “notice the connection”

Acupuncture has been effective in healing muscular disorders, and it has no side effects. Acupuncture is cheaper than conventional medicine, but most Americans do not understand how it works. There was silence; I stood awkwardly, them moved to the door. There was silence; white faces were looking strangely at me.

coordination • putting together like structures in sentences • most coordination takes place in a sentence

results from compounding sentence units

Robbie is mean, and I’m not going to play with him anymore.

   

conjunctions • connectors that coordinate structures of many forms such as subordinate sentences and adverbial emphasis

• do not use a comma with a coordinating conjunction when it joins phrases

• if joining two independent clauses, the conjunction needs a comma to send a signal to the reader a second independent clause follows

FANBOYS: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so Acupuncture has been effective in healing muscular disorders, and it has no side effects.

subordinating conjunction

• introduces a dependent clause and shows relationship of clause to main clause

• subordination of the first clause signals the reader that the main idea is coming later

• answers: time, concession, contingency, condition, reason, result, comparison, contrast

Because the weasel is wild, is should be approached with great caution.

Conjunction Junction, what's your function? Hooking up words and phrases and clauses.

 NP + VP = S

NP noun phrase

• subject of the sentence To find the NP and VP: substitute a personal pronoun for the subject. What remains is the predicate.

VP verb phrase • functions as predicate

Mr. Morton is the subject of the sentence, and what the predicate says, he does.

   

direct object • nominal in the predicate of the transition sentence pattern

• names the objective, goal or receiver of the verb’s action

• tells what or whom

We ate the peanuts. The boy hit the ball. I enjoy playing chess.

indirect object

• the recipient of the direct object; for whom the action is performed

We gave our friends a ride home. Marie sent Ramon a birthday card.

object compliment

• follows direct object in Pattern 7; filled by an adjectival or nominal

• completes the idea of the verb • links the compliment to the direct object

We consider Pete a good friend. The students elected Emma Chairperson. The critic called the acting brilliant.

     

FORM CLASS: NOUN  NP noun phrase

• subject of the sentence • often introduced by a determiner but can

be a single word    

• when functioning adverbally: often a prepositional phrase with the preposition missing

The mayor was upset with her husband. The merchants in town are unhappy. The cat ate. Mary laughed. They worked [for] ten solid hours. The film festival began [on] July 1.

(noun) headword   • main noun in a noun phrase The little boy across the street. The new pizza shop. A dismal weather forecast. A recent covert military operation.

headword noun occupies the central position: determiner adjective noun HEADWORD phrase clause

Preheadword Modifiers

determiners • noun signaler that occupies the opening position in a noun phrase

• includes: articles, possessive nouns and pronouns demonstrative pronouns, indefinite pronouns

• provides a bridge between ideas; can be used for emphasis, rhythm

a, the Matt’s, his this, that, those, these many, each

adjectives & nouns

• fill position between determiner and headword

• seldom use more than one noun as modifier, often use more than one adjective

• preword modifers can be modified; compound modifers are hyphenated

a dismal weather forecast D ADJ N HW the English-speaking world at-risk youth

   

Postheadword Modifiers

prepositional phrases

• adjectival propositional phrase is the most frequently occurring posthead modifier

• adds a distinguishing feature to the noun • often answers which one

The security guard in our building knows every tenant personally. The meeting during our lunch hour was a waste of time.

participial phrases

• verbal phrase headed by the present or past participial form of the verb

• functions as an adjectival • adds information about the noun

headword • allows the writer to include verbal ideas

in a more concise way. • a shortened version of the relative clause

The helicopter hovering over the roof frightened the dogs. The travelers lined up in front of airport security did not look happy.

relative clause • clause modifying a noun phrase • adjectival dependent clause • enables a complete subject-predicate idea

to be embedded into a noun phrase • rarely moves out of noun phrase; almost

always follows noun it modifies

The helicopter that was hovering over the roof frightened the dogs. The travelers who were lined up in front of airport security did not look happy.

relatives • relative clause is introduced by: relative pronoun: that, who which relative adverb: where, why, when

The man who called that night turned out to be my uncle.

     

Nominals

Any structure that functions as a noun phrase normally functions. As: subject, direct object, indirect object, object compliment, subject compliment, object of preposition, appositive

nominal clause • a dependent clause that functions as a noun phrase normally functions.

• commonly introduced by that

He knew that I was right. The CEO announced that he was retiring.

appositive • describes or further identifies a nominal structure, usually another noun phrase

• adds info about subject or object; can rename subject or object

• could fill the NP position on its own

My neighbor, a butcher at Giant Eagle, recently lost his job. Our friend Blain works as an EMT in the mountains

gerund • an -ing verb functioning as a noun • can function as a nominal, filling position

usually held by a noun phrase • names actions or behaviors • can be replaced by a pronoun • suggests you are referring to real

activities or experiences

I enjoy jogging. Running is good exercise. Carrying all their supplies took not only effort but patience as well. The worst part of the airport security system is taking off your shoes. It took not only effort but patience as well.

infinitive • verb that functions as a noun; base form of the verb with to

• names an action, behavior or state of being

• often an alternative to a gerund • suggests you are talking about potential

or possible activities or experiences.

My cousin wants to be an underwater welder. Her ambition is to raise organic vegetables.

     

FORM CLASS: VERB All verbs have five forms: except be which has eight forms:

base form

-s form past tense

past participle present participle

regular irregular be am is are

was were been being

film films filmed filming filming

drive drives drove driven driving

(verb) headword

• verb that heads the verb phrase

VP verb phrase

• functions as predicate

Our county commissioners passed a new ordinance. The mayor’s husband spoke against the ordinance.

tenses • according to time: present, past, future • simple, progressive, prefect, perfect progressive

transitive • requires at least one complement (the direct object) to be complete

• verbs in which the action is transmitted to, an object

My roommate borrowed my laptop. Weasels stalk rabbits.

intransitive • requires no complement to be complete Everyone applauded. Accidents happen.

infinitive • base form of the verb • can function as a nominal

laugh

infinitive marker

• often written with to to laugh

linking verb • class of verbs followed by an adjective • not used to describe action, rather describes the

subject • expresses a change in state • expresses existence or appearance • verbs of perception • test for a linking verb by substituting s form of

be, seem or become

Jason is funny. change in state: become, get grow, turn existence, appearance: appear, seem, remain, stay perception: taste, smell, feel sound, look

regular verb • formed by adding suffix -ed (-t in some cases) to base form

• added to past tense and past participle

base: laugh past tense: laughed

irregular verb • any verb in which -ed and -en forms are not the addition of -d, -ed, -t to base form

base: eat, bet past tense: eaten, bet

 

auxiliary

• sometimes called helping verbs • in the position before the main verb • form depends on the subject of the sentence • can be separated by an adverb

The company is accepting internship applications. Andy has been volunteering on Saturdays The company is now accepting application.

participle • present: -ing form of verb used in progressive tense

• past: form of verb used with auxiliary have to form perfect tense have in active voice be in passive voice

write: writing write: have written write: had written

I get my thing in action (Verb!) In being, (Verb!) In doing, (Verb!) In saying A verb expresses action, being, or state of being. A verb makes a statement. Yeah, a verb tells it like it is!    

direct object • nominal in the predicate of the transition sentence pattern

• names the objective, goal or receiver of the verb’s action

• tells what or whom

We ate the peanuts. The boy hit the ball. I enjoy playing chess.

indirect object

• the recipient of the direct object; for whom the action is performed

We gave our friends a ride home. Marie sent Ramon a birthday card.

object compliment

• follows direct object in Pattern 7; filled by an adjectival or nominal

• completes the idea of the verb • links the compliment to the direct object

We consider Pete a good friend. The students elected Emma Chairperson. The critic called the acting brilliant.

   

   Subject / Verb Agreement 1. often at issue in sentences that have compound subjects 2. to determine which verb is appropriate, replace the subject with a pronoun

SINGULAR PLURAL SINGULAR PLURAL

first I was we were I do we do

second you were you were you do you do

third she was they were he does they do

Verb Tenses 1. according to time: present, past, future

2. simple, progressive, prefect, perfect progressive

time designation: PRESENT PAST FUTURE

simple • no auxiliary in

present, past • needs auxiliary in

future

drive, drives simple present

drove simple past

will drive simple future

progressive • present participle

(-ing) along with be

• determined by tense time

am (is, are) driving present progressive

was (were) driving past progressive

will be driving future progressive

perfect has (have) driven present perfect

had driven past perfect

will have driven future perfect

perfect progressive

has (have) been driving present perfect progressive

had been driving past perfect progressive

will have been driving future perfect progressive

   

Verb Tenses (Passive Voice) Transformation from active to passive:

1. an object (usually direct object) becomes subject

2. form of be added as auxiliary; joins past participle of main verb

3. original agent, if mentioned, become object of preposition, usually by. (In the majority of passive sentences, no agent is mentioned.)

time designation: PRESENT PAST FUTURE

simple am (is, are) assigned

was (were) assigned

will be assigned

progressive am (is, are) being assigned

was (were) being assigned

will be, being assigned

perfect has (have) been assigned

had been assigned

will have been assigned

       

FORM CLASS: ADVERBIAL adverbial • modifier of verb, part of the predicate,

• provides information about time, place and frequency

• adverbs of manner by adding -ly • answers where? when? why? how? how often?

(manner)

today, here, sometimes quickly, slowly, carefully

opening adverbial • often sets the scene • common in narrative writing

In the spring of 1983… Once upon a time…

adverb phrases • has the ability to be placed anywhere in the sentence

My roommate is seriously thinking about getting a dog. My roommate is thinking seriously about getting a dog.

adverbial prepositional phrase

• when prepositional phrase functions like an adverb, phrase can move location

• answers: direction, place, time, duration, manner, cause

In the ballpark fans celebrated boisterously. where?

noun phrase • functions adverbally, preposition is often missing They worked [for] ten solid hours. The film festival began [on] July 1.

verbal phrase • infinitive phrase: infinitive marker • eliminates the thought, “in order to”

Jack got up early that morning to go fishing. (Jack got up early that morning in order to go fishing.)

adverbial clause (see dependent clause)

• has the quality of a complete sentence • the subordinating conjunction indicates the

relationship of the dependent adverbial clause to the main (independent clause)

Because the weasel is wild, is should be approached with great caution.

adverbial conjunctions (or: conjunctive adverbs)

• joins sentences to form coordinate structures; functions as sentence connectors; holds same purpose as transitional phrases

• can appear at any point in the sentence • the farther along in the sentence it appears, the

less value it has as a connector

We worked hard for the Consumer Party candidates; however, we knew they didn’t stand a chance. We worked hard for the Consumer Party candidates; we knew they didn’t stand a chance, however.

An adverb is a word (That's all it is! and there's a lot of them) That modifies a verb, (Sometimes a verb and sometimes) It modifies an adjective, or else another adverb / And so you see that it's positively, very, very, necessary.