RESEARCH COMPENDIUM

1997

Projects Completed Between Jan 1996 - Jun 1997

FINAL DRAFT

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© 1997 Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation ISBN 0 642 24691 2 Electronically published in June 2008 with 1 74151 695 1 New RIRDC Pub. No. 08/107 “RIRDC Research Compendium 1997” This publication is a collection of summaries of research projects supported by RIRDC between January 1996 and June 1997. These summaries are based directly on information provided by contributing organisations and have been edited only to meet a uniform standard of style and presentation. While every effort has been made to ensure editorial consistency, RIRDC does not take responsibility for the accuracy of information supplied by the contributors. RIRDC shall not be responsible in any manner whatsoever to any person who relies, in whole or part, on the contents of this report unless authorised in writing by the Managing Director of RIRDC. RIRDC Contact Details Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation Level 1, AMA House 42 Macquarie Street BARTON ACT 2600 PO Box 4776 KINGSTON ACT 2604 Phone: 02 6272 4539 Fax: 02 6272 5877 Email: rirdc@netinfo.com.au Homepage: http://www.dpie.gov.au/rirdc Edited by Eva Hickman, RIRDC, Canberra Printed by Union Offset, Canberra Published in October 1997

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PREFACE This publication contains summaries of the results of research projects completed betweeen January 1996 and June 1997. The summaries are an initial briefing only. You are encouraged to follow-up on areas of interest directly with the agencies and researchers involved. Relevant publications arising from the research have also been listed. Where the final report has not been included in the Corporation’s publication series, they are still available from the Corporation at a copy cost of $10. The initial contact point in the Corporation is Ms Karen Banyard on (02) 6272 4819. Many of the final reports have been published and you should ask for our publications catalogue which is also available on our home page at http://www.dpie.gov.au/rirdc The Corporation’s current program structure is shown on p xxi(?). You may notice there have been several changes as from 1 July 1997, and therefore the diagram will not correspond to the structure of programs in this compendium. For instance: there are now four not five program areas, there is a new sub-program (Organic Produce), and the names of several sub-programs under Future Agricultural Systems have changed and/or become a merger of two or three previous sub-programs. The compendium is part of the Corporation’s commitment to improving communications with researchers, industry practitioners, education organisations, relevant government ministers and departments, and the general public. The Corporation wishes to thank all contributors for their time and effort in preparing their summaries. We trust you will find this publication an interesting and valuable reference tool. PETER CORE Managing Director

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CONTENTS PREFACE iii ABOUT THE CORPORATION v

PROJECT LISTING vii

RIRDC PROGRAM STRUCTURE xxi PROGRAM 1 PROSPECTIVE NEW INDUSTRIES Sub-program 1.1 New Plant Products 2 Sub-program 1.2 Cashews 35 Sub-program 1.3 New Animal Products 39 PROGRAM 2 EMERGING INDUSTRIES Sub-program 2.1 Asian Foods 56 Sub-program 2.2 Deer 66 Sub-program 2.3 Essential Oils and Plant Extracts 72 Sub-program 2.4 Rare Natural Animal Fibres 86 Sub-program 2.5 Tea Tree Oil 92 Sub-program 2.6 Wildflowers and Native Plants 102 PROGRAM 3 ESTABLISHED INDUSTRIES Sub-program 3.1 Chicken Meat 125 Sub-program 3.2 Eggs 133 Sub-program 3.2a Joint Chicken Meat and Eggs 153 Sub-program 3.3 Honeybee 157 Sub-program 3.4 Rice 181 Sub-program 3.5 Horses 199 Sub-program 3.7 Pasture Seeds 213 PROGRAM 4 AGRIBUSINESS, TRADE & SUSTAINABLE FARMING SYSTEMS Sub-program 4.1 Agroforestry and Farm Trees 222 Sub-program 4.2 Agribusiness and Trade 236 Sub-program 4.3 Education, Extension and Information Systems 250 Sub-program 4.4 Farmer Occupational Health and Safety 281 Sub-program 4.5 Sustainable Agricultural Systems and Structures 293 Sub-program 4.6 Sustainable Pest, Weed and Disease Control Strategies 317 Sub-program 4.7 Climate Change 343

INDEX 349 KEY CONTACTS inside back cover

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ABOUT THE CORPORATION The Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation’s (RIRDC) was established in 1990 to manage agricultural research and development investments on behalf of government and industry for the benefit of Australians. Our Vision Our vision is for a more profitable, dynamic and sustainable rural sector. To achieve this vision, RIRDC will be: • recognised as a leading manager of research and development; • commercially oriented and have tangible cost-effective delivery benefits for

stakeholders; • professional and ethical; and • accountable to client groups and government. Our Mission RIRDC’s mission is to make and manage research and development investments on behalf of government and industry for the benefit of the rural sector. RIRDC has three core businesses: • Fostering the development of new industries - both prospective and emerging; • Managing research and development investments for established industries. • Addressing strategic cross-sectoral issues facing the rural sector. Our Programs As a member of the family of rural R&D corporations, we focus our programs on: • fostering the development of new and emerging industries (such as the cashews and

wildflower industries); • enhancing the sustainability and profitability of the smaller established industries

whose R&D programs we manage (such as rice, chicken meat, eggs); and • addressing strategic and generic issues facing the rural sector (such as agribusiness,

sustainable agricultural systems and structures, and climate change). In 1996-97 RIRDC invested $21 million in agricultural research and development in some 500 projects. Our activities are financed by income from Commonwealth appropriations, voluntary industry contributions, industry levies, Commonwealth dollar-for-dollar matching funds and a small amount of royalty income.

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Further Sources of Information • Research Reports on individual projects (ask for our publications catalogue) • Newsletters (both corporate and program specific) • Annual Report • Program Prospectus and Guidelines to Applicants • Corporate Brochure • Corporate Five Year Plan • Industry Five Year R&D Plans • Internet Home Page http://www.dpie.gov.av/rirdc • Research Managers

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PROJECT LISTING (**to be in table format, similar to last year, and to include project title, researcher, phone number, organisation, page no. See example)

PROSPECTIVE NEW INDUSTRIES

NEW PLANT PRODUCTS 2

SALICORNIEAE AS OIL SEED HALOPHYTES FOR SALINE LAND AND WATER 3

LENTIL IMPROVEMENT AND DEVELOPMENT FOR SOUTHERN AUSTRALIA 4

BOOSTING DURIAN PRODUCTIVITY 6

ESTABLISHING A BUSH FOOD INDUSTRY IN WESTERN QUEENSLAND 8

GROWING TUBER MELANOSPORUM AS A CROP FOR EXPORT AND DOMESTIC CONSUMPTION 10

MAIZE AND SORGHUM GERMPLASM CONSERVATION 11

SEAWEED AS A SOURCE OF OMEGA-3-FATTY ACIDS AND BETA CAROTENE 13

DESERT EPHEMERAL PLANTS AS TEACHING TOOLS 14

PROSPECTS FOR THE AUSTRALIAN NATIVE BUSHFOOD INDUSTRY 16

TISSUE CULTURE DEVELOPMENT OF A TROPICAL ASPARAGUS SUPER-CLONE 17

DEVELOPING MOLECULAR MARKERS FOR OSMOTIC ADJUSTMENT IN MAIZE AND SORGHUM 19

MANUFACTURING SELECTED INDUSTRIAL HEMP PRODUCTS IN AUSTRALIA 20

WEED CONTROL IN SESAME 22

FEASIBILITY AND PROFITABILITY OF JOJOBA 23

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AN AGRONOMIC PACKAGE FOR MICROLAENA STIPOIDES FOR FORAGE AND OTHER PURPOSES 24

CONTROLLING PHOMOPSIS NUT ROT AND EXTENDING STORAGE LIFE OF CHESTNUTS 26

THE HEMP INDUSTRY IN EUROPE AND ITS FUTURE IN AUSTRALIA 28

INVESTIGATION INTO THE COMMERCIALISATION OF SAFFRON29

INVESTIGATION INTO THE COMMERCIALISATION OF SIBERIAN GINSENG 31

CASHEWS 35

EVALUATION OF CASHEW HYBRIDS 36

NEW ANIMAL PRODUCTS 39

DESIGNING A RESEARCH FACILITY FOR GROWER SIZE CROCODILES 40

REPRODUCING OSTRICH FADING SYNDROME 41

INCREASING THE HATCHABILITY OF OSTRICH EGGS 43

USE OF POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION TO STUDY ASPERGILLOSIS IN OSTRICHES 45

EPIDEMIOLOGY AND DIAGNOSIS OF ASPERGILLOSIS IN OSTRICHES 46

SUSTAINABLE ECONOMIC USE OF NATIVE AUSTRALIAN BIRDS AND REPTILES 48

KANGAROO & KANGAROO PRODUCTS AWARENESS, ATTITUDES AND USAGE BY AUSTRALIANS 49

IMPACT OF GOVERNMENT REGULATIONS ON THE COMMERCIAL OPERATION OF THE AUSTRALIAN KANGAROO INDUSTRY 50

EMU PROCESSING AND PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT 52

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ASIAN FOODS 55

STRATEGIC ENTRY INTO ASIA - A REVIEW OF ASIAN VEGETABLE MARKETS 56

AUSTRALIAN MARKET DEMAND FOR AUSTRALIAN ASIAN VEGETABLES 57

ASIAN FOOD PACKAGING INFORMATION DATABASE (AFPID) 58

DEVELOPMENT OF AN AUSTRALIAN SEAWEED FOOD INDUSTRY59

EXPLOITING THE OPPORTUNITIES IN FOOD RETAILING IN EAST ASIA 61

FOOD CULTURE AND PREFERENCES OF INDONESIAN FOOD MARKETS (FOR SMES) 62

DEER 65

ENHANCING THE MARKETABILITY OF VELVET AND CO-PRODUCTS - A MANUAL 66

VENISON MARKET DEVELOPMENT TOWARDS 2000 67

DEVELOPING VALUE ADDED VENISON PRODUCTS FROM FOREQUARTER 68

ESSENTIAL OILS & PLANT EXTRACTS 71

EVENING PRIMROSE AS AN ALTERNATIVE ESSENTIAL OIL CROP IN TASMANIA 72

EUCALYPT OIL PRODUCTION - ESTABLISHMENT OF A BREEDING PROGRAM 73

TASMANNIA LANCEOLATA - A NEW NATURAL FLAVOUR PRODUCT 75

DETERMINING PESTICIDE MINIMUM RESIDUE LIMITS IN ESSENTIAL OILS 77

DEVELOPING HIGH-VALUE FOOD AND INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTS FROM CORIANDER SEED 78

HARVESTING AND PREPARATION OF GERANIUM PLANTS FOR OIL EXTRACTION 80

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GENETIC RESOURCES OF BORONIA MEGASTIGMA FOR ESSENTIAL OIL PRODUCTION, AND B. HETEROPHYLLA AND B. PURDIEANA FOR FLORICULTURE 81

RARE NATURAL ANIMAL FIBRES 84

DEVELOPING GOATS TO GROW LONG STAPLED CASHMERE 85

ECONOMIC STUDY OF THE CASHMERE AND MOHAIR INDUSTRY86

TEA TREE OIL 90

INSECT PEST MANAGEMENT IN TEA TREE 91

TOWARDS NON-CHEMICAL CONTROL OF WEEDS IN TEA TREE 93

BREEDING AND SELECTION OF AUSTRALIAN TEA TREE FOR IMPROVED OIL YIELD AND QUALITY 94

SIGNIFICANCE OF CINEOLE FOR THE BIOACTIVITY AND IRRITANCY OF TEA TREE OIL 96

DEVELOPING THE NORTH QUEENSLAND TEA TREE INDUSTRY 97

WILDFLOWERS AND NATIVE PLANTS 100

PREVENTING POSTHARVEST FLOWER DROP IN GERALDTON WAXFLOWER 101

SELECTING BANKSIA CULTIVARS FOR FLORICULTURE 102

GERMANY - A MAJOR EXPORT MARKET FOR THE AUSTRALIAN WILDFLOWER BANKSIA 104

EFFECT OF PHENOTYPE AND GENOTYPE ON THE POSTHARVEST QUALITY OF NATIVE AUSTRALIAN CUT FLOWERS 106

MANAGING POSTHARVEST TEMPERATURE IN CUTFLOWERS 107

DEVELOPING A QUALITY ASSURANCE SYSTEM FOR THE PRODUCTION OF NATIVE FLORA 109

WATER REQUIREMENTS AND GROWTH OF GERALDTON WAX IN AN ARID ZONE ENVIRONMENT 110

MANAGEMENT OF BUSH STANDS FOR CUTFLOWER AND FOLIAGE PRODUCTION 112

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NUTRITION OF PROTEACEAE USED IN CUT FLOWER PRODUCTION 113

PRODUCTION, MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING OF QUALITY NEW NATIVE CUTFLOWERS FOR EXPORT 115

PRODUCTION OF QUALITY PHOTOGRAPHS OF AUSTRALIAN FLOWERS & FOLIAGES 118

NATIONAL WORKSHOP FOR AUSTRALIAN NATIVE FLOWERS 119

CHICKEN MEAT 122

AVIAN COLIBACILLOSIS IN AUSTRALIA: UNDERSTANDING AND CONTROL 123

EMBRYONIC MANIPULATION TO IMPROVE GROWTH RATE OF BROILERS 125

AN IMPROVED ASSAY FOR CHICKEN ANAEMIA VIRUS 126

EGGS 130

PRODUCING TRIAL DISTANCE LEARNING MATERIALS FOR THE POULTRY INDUSTRY 131

IDEAL DRINKING WATER TEMPERATURE FOR LAYERS 133

INFECTIOUS BRONCHITIS: EFFECTS AND PREVENTION IN LAYING HENS 135

EGG BASED REPELLENTS 136

GENETIC RELATIONSHIPS AND PATHOGENICITY OF INTESTINAL SPIROCHAETES INFECTION IN AUSTRALIAN POULTRY 137

DEVELOPING EGG YOLK PRODUCTS TO MATCH LOCAL AND EXPORT MARKET OPPORTUNITIES 139

MOLECULAR TYPING TO TRACE CONTAMINATION OF EGG PRODUCTS BY BACTERIA 140

COMMERCIAL IMPLICATIONS OF SOURCE AND FORM OF DIETARY CALCIUM AND EVALUATION OF IMPORTED AND AUSTRALIAN LAYER STRAINS 141

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EGGSHELL ULTRASTRUCTURE AND QUALITY: INFORMING THE INDUSTRY 143

STRATEGIES AND MODELS FOR STABILITY IN THE PRODUCTION AND MARKETING OF EGGS IN AUSTRALIA 144

EFFECTS OF FOOT LESIONS AND FEATHER LOSS ON THE WELFARE OF CAGED LAYERS 145

PREVENTION OF BEAK REGROWTH AND CHRONIC PAIN FOLLOWING TRIMMING 147

JOINT CHICKEN MEAT & EGGS 150

OVARIAN REGRESSION IN THE DOMESTIC HEN AND ITS EFFECT ON PERFORMANCE IN LAYER AND BROILER FLOCKS 151

CHARACTERISATION AND ATTENUATION OF EIMERIA SPP. FOR USE IN A LIVING VACCINE FOR AVIAN COCCIDIOSIS 152

HONEYBEE 154

DISAPPEARING DISORDER OF HONEY BEE COLONIES 155

AUSTRALIAN HONEY IN DRY FOOD MIXES 156

BENEFITS OF SECURE ACCESS TO PUBLIC LANDS AND THEIR MELLIFEROUS RESOURCES 157

PRODUCTION OF A VIDEO ON EXTERNAL EXOTIC HONEY BEE PARASITES 159

NATURAL RESOURCES DATABASE FOR THE NSW APIARY INDUSTRY 161

USING SWARMING ACOUSTICS OF HONEY BEES TO CLEAR HONEY SUPERS OF HONEYBEES 163

QUALITY SURVEY OF INTRODUCED HONEYS 165

EVALUATION OF HONEYBEES FOR HYGIENIC BEHAVIOUR 166

PRODUCTION OF A VIDEO ON CHALKBROOD DISEASE 167

POLLINATION OF FABA BEANS 169

ANTIMICROBIAL PROPERTIES OF AUSTRALIAN HONEYS 170

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IMPACT OF COMMERCIALLY MANAGED HONEYBEES ON FLORA AND FAUNA 172

INTRODUCTION AND EVALUATION OF REPLACEMENT SPECIES FOR BLACKBERRY IN TASMANIA 174

BULK HONEY CONTAINERS 175

RICE 177

SWAGMAN OPTIONS - HELPING MAXIMISE PROFITABILITY OF RICE BASED CROPPING SYSTEMS WHILE ENSURING ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY 178

RICELAND SUITABILITY ASSESSMENT 180

PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF RICE HARVESTING EQUIPMENT 182

DEVELOPING A FRAGRANT RICE VARIETY WITH EXPORT POTENTIAL USING MICRO-PROPAGATION 183

MAXIMISING THE FUTURE PAY-OFF FROM RICE BREEDING 185

BUSINESS CHECKS FOR RICE FARMS 187

IMPROVING SEED QUALITY IN EARLY GENERATIONS OF EXPERIMENTAL RICE VARIETIES 188

ADOPTING PUDDLING TO MINIMISE DEEP PERCOLATION FROM RICE 190

PREDICTION OF RICE CROP FERTILISER REQUIREMENTS USING NIR 191

HORSES 195

TURF SPECIES COMPOSITION AND MAINTENANCE OF GRASS RACETRACKS IN AUSTRALIA 196

MELATONIN IMPLANTS IN THE HORSE 197

PRODUCTION OF AN EQUINE RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT NEWSLETTER 199

PASTURE MANAGEMENT TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER FOR THE HORSE INDUSTRY 200

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DELAYING OVULATION IN CYCLING MARES 202

A STUDY OF THE GREY HORSE MELANOMA 203

1997 RACECOURSE MANAGERS' CONFERENCE 205

AGRONOMIC PRACTICES ON THOROUGHBRED HORSE STUD FARMS 206

PASTURE SEEDS 209

LUCERNE SEED CHECK: A MANAGEMENT SUPPORT SYSTEM APPROACH TO IMPROVING LUCERNE SEED PROFITABILITY 210

PASTURE ESTABLISHMENT AND MANAGEMENT PUBLICATION211

HERBICIDE FAILURE AND THE NEED FOR INTEGRATED WEED MANAGEMENT IN LEGUME PASTURE SEED CROPS 213

DEVELOPING AN AGRONOMIC PACKAGE TO MAXIMISE PROFITABILITY OF SUB CLOVER SEED CROPS 214

AGROFORESTRY & FARM TREES 218

INTEGRATING TREES WITH LIVESTOCK GRAZING TO REDUCE THE NEED FOR CONVENTIONAL FENCING 219

DIRECT SEEDING TECHNOLOGIES FOR FARM TREE ESTABLISHMENT 220

SPECIES SELECTION DATABASE 222

COLLECTION OF TREE PERFORMANCE DATA 223

ALLEY FARMING IN AUSTRALIA: CURRENT RESEARCH AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS 224

AGROFORESTRY AND HYDROLOGY WORKSHOP 226

AGROFORESTRY DESIGN PRINCIPLES - PRODUCTION OF A MANUAL 227

GROWING AUSTRALIAN BLACKWOOD FOR TIMBER: WORKSHOP 229

AGRIBUSINESS & TRADE 232

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AN ANALYSIS OF THE JAPANESE MANGO MARKETING CHAIN TO IDENTIFY OPPORTUNITIES FOR QUEENSLAND MANGO EXPORTS233

ASIAN FOOD SERVICE MARKETS 234

THE EXPORT ORIENTATION OF FOOD AND BEVERAGE PROCESSING MANUFACTURERS IN REGIONAL NSW AND VICTORIA 236

EXPLOITING THE OPPORTUNITIES IN FOOD RETAILING IN EAST ASIA 237

AGRIBUSINESS OPPORTUNITIES IN SUMATRA AND EAST JAVA239

APPLYING HEAT PUMP DRYING TECHNOLOGY TO AUSTRALIAN RURAL INDUSTRIES 240

IDENTIFYING KEY AGRICULTURAL SECTORS FOR APEC NEGOTIATIONS 241

EDUCATION, EXTENSION & INFORMATION SYSTEMS 245

PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT FOR AGRICULTURE 246

USING A CARTOON CHARACTER TO INCREASE FARMERS’ UNDERSTANDING OF PASTURE MANAGEMENT 247

COMPARATIVE EVALUATION OF TRAINING COURSES TO SERVICE NEEDS IN RURAL EXTENSION 248

NETWORKING SYSTEMS FOR RURAL WOMEN 250

EDUCATION NEEDS FOR RURAL MERCHANTS 252

DEVELOPING A COMPUTER BASED LEARNING (CBL) PILOT PROJECT FOR THE DELIVERY OF HOLISTIC ACCOUNTING CONCEPTS 253

COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION IN LAND MANAGEMENT EXTENSION, RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT 254

EVALUATION OF TRAINING ACTIVITIES TO IMPROVE BUSINESS MANAGEMENT SKILLS OF FARM FAMILIES 256

BENCHMARKING FINANCIAL PERFORMANCE OF AUSTRALIAN BROADACRE AGRICULTURE - UPDATE 257

USING WESTERN TEA TREE FOR SALTLAND REHABILITATION259

AGSA 2000 SUSTAINABLE AGRIBUSINESS - FEASIBILITY STUDY261

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SUSTAINING AGRI-INDUSTRY: VALUING THE ENVIRONMENT WORKSHOP 263

INTERNET OPPORTUNITIES FOR AGRICULTURAL PROFESSIONALS 264

ONLINE CONTENT FOR AUSTRALIAN FARMERS 265

IMPACT OF LIABILITY LAW ON RESEARCH AND INNOVATION 266

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE COMPETENCIES OF FARMERS AND FARM MANAGEMENT 267

THE RETURNS TO AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE FROM R&D ACTIVITIES 269

RURAL AUSTRALIA ONLINE 270

POLICY ISSUES IN PUTTING RURAL AUSTRALIA ONLINE 272

ANALYSIS OF PLANT ADAPTION DATA-DEVELOPMENT AND TRAINING UNIT 274

FARMER OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH & SAFETY 276

A NATIONAL DATA COLLECTION FOR FARM INJURY PREVENTION 277

EVALUATING FARM TRACTOR AND UTILITY/4WD SEATS 278

SURVEY OF FARM WORK INJURY TO ASSIST INTERVENTION PLANNING BY FARM SAFETY ACTION GROUPS AND INDUSTRY280

THE EFFECTS OF WHOLE BODY VIBRATION ON THE SPINE IN FARMERS DRIVING TRACTORS 281

RURAL SAFETY EDUCATION IN PRIMARY SCHOOLS 283

ANALYSIS OF FARMERS' PERCEPTIONS OF RISK TO IMPROVE THE EFFECTIVENESS OF FARM HEALTH AND SAFETY PROGRAMS 285

SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURAL SYSTEMS & STRUCTURES 287

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ON ORGANIC AGRICULTURE IN AUSTRALIA 288

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THE ROLE OF LAND TRANSACTION IN AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT 289

RE-ARRANGING FARM BOUNDARIES TO FACILITATE BENEFICIAL ADJUSTMENT IN PRIMARY INDUSTRIES 292

ENHANCING PRODUCTIVITY OF CROPS AND PASTURES BY APPLYING RARE EARTH ELEMENTS 293

RARE EARTHS IN AGRICULTURE SEMINAR 294

DEVELOPING PRODUCTION SYSTEMS FOR ORGANIC GRAINS IN SOUTH EAST AUSTRALIA 296

CONSERVATION FARMING WORKSHOP FOR THE SEMI-ARID TROPICS 297

ENTERING FARMING AS AN OCCUPATION 299

ZINC IN SOILS AND PLANTS 300

IMPROVING THE NUTRITIVE VALUE AND GROWTH HABIT OF THE FODDER SHRUB TAGASASTE 302

MAXIMISING THE PRODUCTIVE AND NUTRITIVE VALUE OF PASTURES ON SALTLAND 303

SUCCESSFUL ADJUSTMENT STRATEGIES FOR RURAL COMMUNITIES 305

STRATEGIC FARM PLANNING BY OPEN LEARNING 306

SUSTAINABLE PEST, WEED & DISEASE CONTROL STRATEGIES 310

ROOT-KNOT AND CYST NEMATODES WORKSHOP 311

RESISTANCE TO BT IN LEPIDOPTEROUS PESTS 312

NOVEL BT TOXINS FOR CONTROLLING INSECT PESTS 313

MINIMISING PESTICIDE USE THROUGH CONTROLLED RELEASE FORMULATIONS OF BACILLUS THURINGIENSIS 315

BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF FRUIT PIERCING MOTHS 317

STRAIN IMPROVEMENT OF THE INSECT BIOCONTROL AGENT METARHIZIUM ANISOPLIAE 318

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DEVELOPING PHEROMONE BASED CONTROL SYSTEMS FOR PEST LEPIDOPTERA 320

DEVELOPING CO-FORMULATIONS OF HERBICIDES TO PREVENT RESISTANCE 321

VIRTUAL PLANTS: A REVOLUTIONARY APPROACH TO CROP EXPERIMENTATION 323

MOLECULAR DIAGNOSIS OF ROOT-KNOT NEMATODE (MELOIDOGYNE SPP) 325

NATIONAL EVALUATION OF DIAGNOSTIC CAPABILITIES FOR AUSTRALIAN PLANT INDUSTRIES 326

AUSTRALIAN PHYTOPLASMA DISEASES: RAPID IDENTIFICATION TECHNIQUES AND PREDICTION MODELS 328

ASSESSMENT OF SYSTEMIC INDUCED RESISTANCE IN PLANTS AS A COMPONENT OF INTEGRATED PEST AND DISEASE MANAGEMENT 330

BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF MOUSE PLAGUES 331

NEMATODE CONTROL WITH ORGANIC AMENDMENTS AND ROTATION CROPS 333

CLIMATE CHANGE 335

POTENTIAL PRODUCTIVITY BENEFITS TO TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL TREE FRUIT AND NUT CROPS FROM ELEVATED CO2 LEVELS 336

POTENTIAL FOR CARBON SEQUESTRATION IN AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURAL SOILS 337

IMPACT OF GLOBAL CHANGE ON ARTHROPOD PESTS, WEEDS AND DISEASES - WORKSHOP 339

INDEX 341

KEY CONTACTS 342

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RIRDC PROGRAM STRUCTURE

New Plant ProductsNew Animal Products

PROSPECTIVENEW

INDUSTRIES

Asian FoodsAgroforestry & Farm ForestryCashewsDeerEssential Oils & Plant ExtractsOrganic ProduceRare Natural Animal FibresTea Tree OilWildflowers & Native Plants

Chicken MeatEgg IndustryHoneybeeRiceHorsesFodder CropsPasture Seeds

Global CompetitivenessResilient Agricultural SystemsHuman Capital, Communications & Information Systems

EMERGINGNEW

INDUSTRIES

ESTABLISHED INDUSTRIES

FUTUREAGRICULTURAL

SYSTEMS

R&DMANAGEMENT

CORPORATE,FINANCE AND

ADMINISTRATION

COMMUNICATIONSMANAGEMENT

VISION

MISSION

FUNCTIONS PROGRAMSVISION/MISSION SUB-PROGRAMS

As at 1 July 1997

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PROSPECTIVE

NEW INDUSTRIES ** COLIN: There are four of these pages. Can they be the same style as the chapter pages in our annual report.

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NEW PLANT PRODUCTS

(*Colin: can you make each of these 25-odd headings look like this page? I’ve only done it on this one. A pic goes in left hand column. Same pics and style as last year.)

The Corporation views the New Plant Products program as a seed-bed or nursery in which stand-alone programs of the future can be germinated and raised. The program also provides a means of supporting commercially viable but intrinsically small rural industries. The program has six components: bushfoods, culinary herbs, spices and beverages; extractive and fibre crops; prospective fruit, vegetable and nut crops; prospective grain and pulse crops; and miscellaneous crops and activities. Research Highlights for 1996-97 • Support of a well attended national bushfoods

conference, a study of the industry’s prospects, and development of a research plan for bushfoods.

• A commissioned study on the end-use opportunities for hemp in Australia.

• Staging of the First Australian New Crops Conference held in Gatton, Queensland.

• Boosting of durian productivity. • Lentil improvement and development. • Commercialisation of saffron and Siberian

ginseng. • Investigation into seaweed as a source of omega-3-

fatty acids and beta carotene.

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SALICORNIEAE AS OIL SEED HALOPHYTES FOR SALINE LAND AND WATER

Objectives • To assess the feasibility of increasing financial returns from saline land, by

determining if the oil-seed halophyte S. bigelovii can be grown under saline irrigation on the saline soils of southern Australia.

• To determine if Australian members of the Salicornieae tribe have seed compositions with commercial potential as oil-seed crops for saline degraded soils.

• To supply seed produced from S. bigelovii crops to processors for evaluation. Background Large areas in Australian irrigation regions are saline, but this saline land contributes practically zero to the economy. Research addressing this imbalance has concentrated on forage production from halophytes such as saltbush. There is a need for more high value halophyte crops, as forage production produces only small returns. Salicornia bigelovii is an annual halophyte which as been selected an developed by the University of Arizona for its high oil yield when irrigated with sea water (2 tonne of seed/ha/year, containing 28% oil with a 74% linoleic acid content). This oil is suitable for human consumption and could form the basis of a high value halophyte industry. Research Throughout the project enormous difficulties were experienced in establishing S. bigelovii. The project addressed temperature requirements (four different field and four different greenhouse sowing dates), soil moisture requirements (automated drip irrigation, continuous sub-irrigation, periodic flood irrigation), salt requirements (irrigation with 4, 15 or 25dS/m water), and soil requirements (sown into eight different soils). The project was developed to assess the feasibility of growing S. bigelovii, and the results indicated that a major constraint to field growth was the inability of S. bigelovii to germinate and establish. Whilst a range of establishment factors were investigated, it was beyond the scope of the project to undertake detailed investigations that would allow definitive conclusions as to the necessary establishment conditions. Despite the range of factors tested, it is possible that the required combination of conditions were not produced in any of the sowings. This aspect is therefore an area for future development. Outcomes

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As all efforts at field establishment were unsuccessful, there was no seed multiplication and no seed was available for processor evaluation. Although no plant data was produced, soil data from greenhouse trials demonstrated a problem inherent to saline irrigation. Even in free-draining cores, the soul EC increased from negligible to >10dS/m in response to irrigation with saline water. As S. bigelovii requires large quantities of saline water to grow, irrigation with saline water is unavoidable. Obviously S. bigelovii is not being considered for non-saline sites, however the sustainability of irrigating it even on salt degraded sites must be questioned in the absence of a means of removing the applied salt. Options such as tile-drains or ground-water pumps would inflate the cost of producing S. bigelovii products and still not ‘dispose’ of the salt. Where such engineering solutions exist, for instance as part of a Serial Biological Concentration installation, S. bigelovii’s extreme salt tolerance would make it a useful final crop in the concentration series. Of the Australian Salicornieae species collected, Tecticornia verrucosa was the most readily available as a clean seed sample. Its oil content (5%),is low however compared to S. bigelovii. The oil content of the Sarocornia blackiana sample was also low, but when allowance is made for the presence of trash, an oil content of 18% can be interpolated. Although this is much higher than the oil concentration in other species tested, the seed is fine and difficult to separate from other plant tissue. Therefore, no obvious oil-seed crops were identified amongst the Australian Salicornieae. It appears from the study that T. verrucosa could be considered for its marketability as ‘Bush Tucker’ cuisine, due to its availability, its ease of cleaning, and its history of usage by indigenous Australians. RIRDC Project No: DAV-88A RESEARCHER: Mr Mike Schulz ORGANISATION: Agriculture Victoria Dept of Natural Resources and Environment Ferguson Road TATURA VIC 3616 PHONE: 058 335 222 FAX: 058 335 299

LENTIL IMPROVEMENT AND DEVELOPMENT FOR SOUTHERN AUSTRALIA

Objectives To develop varieties of lentil which will form a sound basis for a lentil industry in Australia by:

5

• identifying of lines for possible cultivar development by critical selection of entries from ICARDA (International Centre for Agricultural Research in Dry Areas) early generation crossbred lines to identify genotypes better adapted to environments of Southern Australia; and

• conducting agronomic experiments which aim to improve crop management practices.

Background Lentils (Lens culinaris) are a relatively new crop to Australia. Prior to 1994 lentil production in Australia has been almost insignificant. In 1990-91 Australia imported 1,900 tonnes of lentils at a value of approximately $ 1.5 m. Currently we are importing 2-3,000 tonnes annually. The 1988-90 world lentil production was 2.26m tonnes of which 27.4% were exported by the producing countries mainly Canada, Turkey, USA and EEC countries. Southern Australia has a similar climate to Turkey, the world’s leading producer. The reason for developing a lentil industry in Australia is to replace current imports and to develop export markets. Lentil production would also provide further diversity in cropping options available to farmers. A lentil industry in Australia can directly replace current imports. This import is rising every year with increased migration into Australia from Asian countries. Research Cultivar development During the tenure of this project approximately 400 lines were introduced from ICARDA and evaluated annually at three to five sites in field trials throughout South Australia. In comparison with the existing, poorly adopted commercially available cultivars Kye, Laird and Callisto, lines were selected with improved adaption, seed yield, plant architecture and photopheriodic response. This resulted in the successful identification and release of two cultivars namely cvs. Aldinga and Northfield. The red lentil cv. Aldinga was a reselection from within the introduced line ILL 5750 obtained from ICARDA. Alinga was found to have a clear yield advantage over varieties then grown in South Australia regardless of season. The variety was registered under the voluntary registration scheme of Australian Pulse crops in 24 August 1994 (Reg No. ARGL 94-1; Australian journal of Experimental Agriculture (1995) 35,557-9) The red lentil cv.Northfield was a reselection from within the introduced line ILL5588 obtained from ICARDA. Northfield is the only variety currently available in Australia with good resistance to late season Ascochyta lentis infection. Northfield was also registered under the voluntary registration scheme on 21 March 1995 (Reg No. ARGL 94-6, Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture (1995) 35,1181-2). Implications

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Prior to the release of two lentil cultivars, the area under lentil production in South Australia was 400ha (1993-94). The project area sown to lentils in South Australia in 1996-97 is 1500ha. In 1995, Northfield was sown 50% and Aldinga on 25% of the area cropped to lentils, and thus the release of these two cultivars is having a big impact on SA lentil production. Agronomic experiments on seeding rate and herbicide tolerance have also provided valuable information to guide producers in the management of lentil crops. Therefore, the principal objectives of this project have been achieved by providing the technical foundations for a lentil industry in South Australia. RIRDC Project No: DAS-34A RESEARCHERS: Dr S M Ali & Mr R D Wheeler ORGANISATION: South Australian Research & Development Institutes (SARDI) GPO Box 397 ADELAIDE SA 5001 PHONE: 08 8303 9483 FAX: 08 8303 9378

BOOSTING DURIAN PRODUCTIVITY

Objectives • To increase durian productivity by introducing more adaptable, high-yielding and

compatible clones. • To improve our understanding of the crop phenology and reproductive biology of

durian with regards to pollination and to rationalise cultural practises such as assisted pollination and fertilisation.

• To improve fruit yield, size, quality and uniformity by practical cultural measures and proper fertilisation based on soil and foliar nutrient monitoring.

• To reduce the juvenile period using various precocious rootstock-scion combinations and propagation techniques with introduced Durio species and clones.

Background Durian has immense potential to be developed into viable fruit crop in northern Australia. The market potential for durian has not been tapped despite a sizeable Asian Pacific minority and European migrant population. There are many production and market impediments that have to be surmounted before it can be developed into a viable horticultural industry in northern Australia. Some of these can be summarised as the lack of high-yielding adaptable cultivars, erroneous identification of cultivars, a long juvenile period of 9-12 years, inadequate knowledge of the crop phenology and poor fruit set and development.

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Research The first objective will be realised by the introduction and grafting of promising, high-yield durian clones and various Durio species from Malaysia and Indonesia onto compatible rootstock. The second objective will be achieved by a thorough study of the flowering biology with the ultimate aim of devising a practical system of assisted pollination through selfing and outcrossing studies to identify compatible pollen sources and by laboratory pollen germination, viability and storage studies. Monitoring of vegetative and reproductive cycles with respect to fluctuations in meteorological factors, leaf and soil nutrient levels and existing cultural practises will also address the second and third objective. The fourth objective will be realised using various grafting techniques for different precocious scion-rootstock combinations ivz. single and double rootstock. Outcomes From the overseas trips to Sarawak and Peninsular Malaysia a total of 440 plants and seeds of 45 plant species were brought back besides durian cultivars and Durio species. A higher success level was obtained by bringing in scionwood and budding them onto rootstock in the quarantine screen-house than by introducing barerooted grafted durian seedlings. Polygonal graph analysis using durian leaf parameters was developed to overcome erroneous identification of clones. It rectified 11 cases of misidentification and confirmed similarities in identity between samples from different localities, regions and countries. Fifty samples from 32 designated durian cultivars were reduced to 21 cultivars. Additionally, a highly predictable, precise and rapid multiple linear regression model A=-52.1+2.67L+13.3Wm was developed to estimate leaf area in durian based on non-destructive measurements of leaf length and mid width. A crop phenology model was developed to rationalise crop management inputs and cultural practices in durian. Manually assisted cross-pollination gave significantly higher fruit set of 31% in contrast to<10% for selfing. Selfing resulted in more fruit drop, lower yields and poorer fruit quality. Self incompatibility was more common in durian and was gametophytically controlled. The maternal parent was found to influence the following fruit traits of flesh colour, taste, flavour, basic fruit shape and spine length. The pollen had a metaxenia effect on fruit weight, size (length), rind weight, number of locules with fertilised ovules, number of well-formed arils per locule, number of arils per fruit, percent flesh recovery and sweetness (Brix). Diagnosis of crop nutrient demand should be assessed from leaf and soil sampling done in November by standardising a leaf sampling method. Nutrient norms were developed on the sufficiency range basis and m-DRIS approaches to be used as guidelines for nutrition programs. Implications

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Polygonal graph analysis of leaf characters can be used to differentiate among durian cultivars from various localities, regions and countries instead of using reproductive characters which entails a long waiting period of 10-12 years for seedling trees and 6-8 years for grafted trees. The multiple linear regression model developed can be used as a fast and accurate method to estimate durian leaf area which are commonly employed as indices of growth and development in crop physiological studies and in horticulture. The crop phenology model encompassing flowering and vegetative phenology provides a holistic approach to optimising crop management inputs and resources in particular with respect to the development of sound fertilisation and irrigation scheduling programs as well the implementation of cultural practices. RIRDC Project No: DNT-13A RESEARCHER: Dr T K Lim ORGANISATION: Horticulture Division Department of Primary Industry and Fisheries GPO Box 990 DARWIN NT 0801 PHONE: 08 8999 2222 FAX: 08 8999 2049 E-MAIL: tk.lim@nt.gov.au

ESTABLISHING A BUSH FOOD INDUSTRY IN WESTERN QUEENSLAND

Objectives • To determine the economic viability of a plantation or wild harvest bush food

industry in Australia’s northern rangelands, focusing on western Queensland. • To assess the size and structure of the bushfood industry in Australia. • To assess the market potential of rangeland bush food products, including the

potential product range, market share, price structure and limitations to market expansion.

• To determine the availability of raw materials, including a brief comparison of wild harvest production with the production potential from plantations.

• To determine the natural distribution and preferred soil types of a number of native plants with bush food potential.

• To use this information to recommend species to trial in demonstration plantations. Background Australia’s bush food industry is currently worth $5 million at the farm gate and $14 million retail. Interest in harvesting and growing bush foods has been increasing in the

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semi-arid and arid rangelands of Australia over the last 5 years. There is a wide range of native plants with commercial potential in western Queensland, including gundabluey, desert lime, bottletrees and kurrajongs, wild oranges, bush cucumbers, native thyme, quandongs, plumwood, bush tomatoes, and warrigal greens. This may represent an opportunity for diversification in the rangelands of western Queensland to relieve increased economic pressures resulting from low and erratic beef and wool prices. Research The research consisted of three major stages: • a preliminary market analysis and brief overview of the industry based on seven “best

bet” rangeland products; • gathering of information on the distribution and abundance of species using existing

botanical records and a survey of landholders throughout western Queensland; and • the combining of these two major sections of research with recent published material

to form the final recommendations of the pre-feasibility study. Outcomes There is a small but rapidly expanding bush food industry in western Queensland, with the farm gate value of produce currently $37 350. This is predicted to increase to almost $345 000 in the year 2000, in line with the industry’s 74% per annum growth target. Over 50% of graziers in western Queensland would be interested in either wild harvest or plantation production of bush foods. There are sufficient plants growing throughout western Queensland to supply the current demands for bush foods through wild harvest in an average year. Quality and yield of produce cannot be guaranteed with wild harvest production, and demand may exceed supply in some years. Plantations are being established in other areas of Australia which will directly compete with produce from western Queensland. Implications A coordinated approach involving the public and private sectors is required to quickly and strategically enhance the bush food industry in western Queensland. RIRDC Project No: DAQ-189A RESEARCHER: Mr D Phelps ORGANISATION: Department of Primary Industries, Queensland PO Box 519 LONGREACH QLD 4730 PHONE: 076 584 400 FAX: 076 584 433

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GROWING TUBER MELANOSPORUM AS A CROP FOR EXPORT AND DOMESTIC CONSUMPTION

Objective • To conduct a feasibility study on the establishment of Perigord black truffle (Tuber

melanosporum) industry on mainland Australia. Background In Europe the Perigord black truffle is a highly seasonal and expensive delicacy keenly sought after by the restaurant trade and gourmets. In the Northern Hemisphere the season for this species of fungus is limited to 4 months per year (Dec - Mar) consequently there is an apparent market opportunity for fresh truffles grown ‘out of season’ in the Southern Hemisphere. To date no attempt has been made to grow the truffles on mainland Australia. This study considers the practical issues related to the actual growing of the truffles and the economic issues with respect to the costs of establishing the industry and the marketing of its produce. Research Key personnel involved in truffle research, growing, processing and marketing in France, Italy, USA and New Zealand were interviewed to ascertain the current state of knowledge on all aspects of truffle growing and what potential there was for establishing an industry on mainland Australia. Outcomes It is concluded the establishment of a Perigord black truffle industry is possible on mainland Australia. The key points of the study include: • The edaphic and climatic requirements of T. melanosporum can be met in several

locations on mainland Australia especially where natural rainfall is supplemented by irrigation.

• With pre-emptive action and appropriate controls, an industry on mainland Australia should be able to avoid problems of contamination and substitution of T. melanosporum by inferior species in the inoculation and the marketing phases, respectively.

• Farmers interviewed in the locations identified as being suitable for growing truffles expressed a keen interest in participating in the fledgling industry.

• There is almost unlimited market potential for fresh Australian truffles as a vastly superior replacement for the unreasonably expensive preserved truffles used in Europe, Asia and USA.

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• The protracted time frame and uneven cash flow indicate the need to treat the establishment of the industry in three separate stages with three separate and possibly independent groups of beneficiaries - inoculation, growing and marketing.

• The least profitable but most critical stage of the industry, the inoculation stage, will require Government funding to assist in the establishment.

• It is unlikely that centralised control of the whole industry, from inoculation to marketing, by a single corporate entity or cooperative would be worthwhile.

Implications With limited seeding money there is an opportunity to establish a new, profitable and long-term agricultural industry on mainland Australia. RIRDC Project No: DPS-1A RESEARCHER: Dr P P Stahle ORGANISATION: DPS Strategy Pty Ltd 84 Richmond Terrace RICHMOND VIC 3121 PHONE: 03 9428 5978 FAX: 03 9428 5978

MAIZE AND SORGHUM GERMPLASM CONSERVATION

Objectives • To regenerate and establish Australian germplasm collections of sorghum and maize,

and store them under internationally acceptable conditions. • To establish a database on all these accessions. • To make seed and data on these accessions available to researchers. Background The maintenance of germplasm collections of maize and sorghum is an integral part of the research support for the sorghum and maize industries in Australia. At the commencement of this project, in Australia there were 4,000 germplasm accessions of sorghum and 2,000 germplasm accessions of maize with QDPI, CSIRO, NSW Agriculture, Pacific Seeds Pty Ltd, Pioneer Overseas Corporation, DeKalb Shand Seed Co Pty Ltd, and Snowy River Cooperative Ltd. Seed viability of the sorghum was reasonable but characterisation data was poorly catalogued. Some maize accessions had good germination but other collection such as

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the old Australian open pollinated variety collection had germination rates of approximately 1%. All maize collections were poorly catalogued. Both sorghum and maize germplasm collections could benefit by placing them in a national Genetic Resource Centre. Research The Australian Tropical Crops Genetic Resource Centre (ATCGRC) assembled germplasm collections for maize and sorghum by soliciting accessions form research organisations throughout Australia. The accessions were grown at Biloela Research station for regeneration and characterisation. Good quality harvested seed was placed in long-term storage, and passport and characterisation data catalogued onto our national database. Outcomes This project commenced the task of assembling national germplasm collections of maize and sorghum germplasm. 1,222 sorghum germplasm accessions and 654 maize germplasm accessions were regenerated, catalogued and placed in long-term storage. Seed and data are available to bona-fide researchers wishing to use the germplasm in the research programs A GRDC project is continuing the regeneration, characterisation, cataloguing and storage of further accessions of maize and sorghum germplasm. Implications National germplasm collections of maize and sorghum germplasm being assembled by the ATCGRC should facilitate the use of wide genetic variation in breeding programs in Australia, both public and private. RIRDC Project No: DAQ-136A RESEARCHER: Dr Peter Lawrence ORGANISATION: Australian Tropical Crops Genetic Resource Centre PO Box 201 BILOELA QLD 4715 PHONE: 079 929 135 FAX: 079 923 468

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SEAWEED AS A SOURCE OF OMEGA-3-FATTY ACIDS AND BETA CAROTENE

Objectives • To identify Australian seaweeds having the most economic value for extraction,

concentration and purification of omega-3-fatty acids (OFA) and beta carotene (BC). • To incorporate OFA and BC into general food and health food products. • To assist in the development of the Australian and Japanese markets for these

products. Background Eicosapentaenioc acid (EPA), an omega-3-fatty acid found rich in fish oil is considered to be beneficial in the prevention of some coronary heart diseases. Another OFA having beneficial effects on the development of brain and eye cells in infants is identified as docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). Several studies indicated that seaweed could be used as a reliable source of OFA. Australia, with over 40,000 km of coastline, has thousands of species of seaweeds. Australian water, free of pollution, can be ideal for seaweed aquaculture. Australian seaweeds, once identified, as having high levels of OFA and free of toxic elements can be consumed directly or processed as ingredients for food and pharmaceutical applications. A two year project to investigate the potential use of Australian seaweeds as a source of OFA and Beta carotene (BC) was supported by Department of Natural Resources and Energy (DNRE) and Rural Industries Research & Development Corporation (RIRDC). Other research and industrial participants in this project are Australian Sea Vegetables (ASV), Sagami Chemical Research Centre (Japan), Sunward International Inc (Japan), Melbourne University and Monash University. Research A market survey was conducted to confirm a growing concern by the general public about the effects of diet on health and also confirm that a market existed for OFA products in Australia, from either fish oil or seaweeds. An extensive investigation of Australian seaweeds as a source of OFA has been conducted. About four hundred seaweed samples of all major divisions (Green, Brown and Red) were collected along the coastlines of Victoria, South Australia and Tasmania. These samples were scientifically identified by Australian and American experts. Outcomes

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The lipids and OFA in 400 samples from 155 species were extensively analysed to identify the most likely commercial species. Over 30 species with a high level (>40%) of EPA were identified. The level of the target acid in this study (EPA) is the highest level found among all seaweed worldwide. Other components of commercial interest were also identified. Compared with imported edible seaweeds, Australian seaweeds are free of any toxic metals such as As, Cd, or Hg. The market survey confirmed that consumers in Australia are prepared to consume OFA products from either fish oil or seaweeds. Implications The project has attracted support from the Australian and overseas seaweed industries. This reflects a recognition of the economic potential of Australian seaweed resources which has been recognised by the industry. A seaweed working network including many experts from a range of disciplines has been established in Australia to support this project and any future work in this area. Although the project was completed in June 1996, the Japanese team is still working on this project. An agreement has been signed by all parties in July 1996 confirming the economic potential of this natural resource and also suggesting that further investment in seaweed research is required for ultimate commercial utilisation. RIRDC Project No: DAV-87A RESEARCHER: Dr Hung Tran ORGANISATION: Department of Natural Resources & Environment Sneydes Road WERRIBEE VIC 3030 PHONE: 03 9742 0121 FAX: 03 9742 0250 EMAIL: hungt@food.agvic.gov.au

DESERT EPHEMERAL PLANTS AS TEACHING TOOLS

Objectives • To develop a set of teaching tools based on arid zone ephemeral plant species. • To document the responses of the plants under study to a range of environmental

parameters. • To develop a set of experimental procedures designed to demonstrate the plants’

responses to environmental factors. • To develop a set of instructional materials for use by plant biology teachers.

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Background Presently, the teaching of plant biology at both high schools and universities in Australia is still largely derivative of the approaches and materials used in the United Kingdom, the United States of America and Europe. Consequently, many of the teaching tools and laboratory and field experiments used to demonstrate principles of plant biological responses are European in origin. In order for this situation to change, a new set of plants, which can be used as teaching tools, needs to be developed. Research The research consisted of a series of experiments designed to evaluate the germination, growth and development of four species collected from the arid zone of western New South Wales. The responses of the species to a range of environmental parameters was studied. The results of these experiments were largely descriptive. These results formed the basis for the first set of instructional materials developed. These materials were refined in content after initial trials with first year university students. The germination and establishment of Atriplex pseudocampanulata was examined in a series of experiments. The results of these experiments formed the basis of a second set of instructional materials. The effectiveness of these materials were evaluated in first and second year university plant biology practical classes. Outcomes The major outcomes of this project have been the development of the teaching materials which have been designed to enable students to observe the germination of seeds and the development of plants of Atriplex pseudocampanulata. The results of the series of experiments conducted on the germination and establishment of A. pseudocampanulata have also increased our knowledge of this annual member of an important genus in the vegetation of the arid zone. Although four species were initially collected for use in this project, three of the species proved unsuitable for use as teaching tools. These species were Goodenia pinnatifida, Rodanthe corymbiflora and Wahlenbergia communis. Little information on the basic biology of these species was gathered during this project. Implications The results obtained in this study form the basis for the development of a series of new teaching tools. The adoption of these tools by the community of plant biology teachers awaits the dissemination of the knowledge of these teaching tools and the availability of supplies of seed material. The adoption of these teaching tools can also enhance the examination of major issues confronting the continued use of arid lands for agricultural activities.

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RIRDC Project No: UWS-6A RESEARCHER: Dr Anthony M Haigh ORGANISATION: School of Horticulture University of Western Sydney, Hawkesbury Locked Bag 1 RICHMOND NSW 2753 PHONE: 045 70 1254 FAX: 045 70 1314

PROSPECTS FOR THE AUSTRALIAN NATIVE BUSHFOOD INDUSTRY

Objective • To evaluate the prospects of the Australian native bushfood industry and in doing so

provide a sound basis for identifying and prioritising industry research and development needs.

Background The Australian native bushfood industry, estimated to have a current value of $10-12 million, is at a critical point of development where issues of national importance are impacting on industry growth. Understanding how these issues are best overcome and how they are affecting the industry should encourage effective research and development, therefore supporting sustainable and viable growth. Research Nine issues were investigated with particular reference to the fourteen most widely used native bushfood species. These issues were: • product development potential with major food processors; • price structures and costs of production at each industry level; • limitations of current food standards; • required levels of raw produce supply for major processors to enter market; • major competing food types and product ranges; • minimum product standards of raw materials; • time required to develop and launch new products; • the role of the Federal and State government agencies in the bushfood industry; and • the benefits of liaison with complimentary industries eg native meats, ecotourism.

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Outcomes The final report contains the most current and complete base line study of this emerging industry to date. It provides a useful source of industry information to determine: • industry and/or plant species viability; • current raw produce demand; • industry research and development requirements; and • industry opportunities and constraints. RIRDC Project No: RPT-1A RESEARCHERS: D. Hart, C. Graham ORGANISATION: Rapt Consulting Pty Ltd

PO Box 309 CIVIC SQUARE ACT 2608

PHONE: 08 88 213 565 FAX: 08 8821 3454

TISSUE CULTURE DEVELOPMENT OF A TROPICAL ASPARAGUS SUPER-CLONE

Objective To develop a heat-tolerant tropical asparagus super-clone with early emergence characteristics, high yields and good spear quality by: • identifying, from tropical stands of field grown asparagus, superior individuals displaying

earliness, good spear quality and high yield characteristics; and • using tissue culture techniques to propagate clones of the best individuals with the view

to developing a cultivar specifically suited to tropical Australia. Background Asparagus (Asparagus officinalis L.) is a temperate perennial vegetable crop which is normally harvested from September to December in southern Australia. The industry in tropical Australia has undergone expansion in recent years from approximately 100 ha in 1992 to 300 ha in 1997. This expansion has been in response to the high price for early-season (July/ August) fresh asparagus in both the domestic market and Japan. However, heat stress and a lack of cold-induced winter dormancy in some tropical areas have been responsible for reduced total yield and inferior quality compared with the temperate product. Exploitation of the inherent variability of the crop by tissue culture was perceived as one avenue for the production of a high-yielding, heat-tolerant tropical asparagus clone with early emergence characteristics.

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Research The research was carried out in four steps: • commercial fields were scouted for superior individuals and their yields were

recorded; • tissue culture was used to propagate up plantlets from the best six individual plants

(based on yield and quality characteristics); • clonal plantlets and seedlings from the industry standard cultivar UC157 F1 were

transplanted into the field in a replicated factorial experiment; and • yield was assessed over two harvest seasons. Outcomes The resultant field trial which assessed the performance of the clones with the industry standard cultivar showed that only half of the clones were male, the weight of marketable spears produced by the most productive clone (UC#18) was only 3.9% greater than that of the industry standard cultivar and, that the average weight of individual marketable spears of the clones were generally higher than UC157 F1. Implications Based on approximate gross margin analysis, it was concluded that, due to the extra expense of plants produced from tissue culture, commercial planting of a clone which is less than 30% more productive than the industry standard cultivar would probably not be economically viable. Because the highest yielding clone produced only 3.9% more marketable spears (by weight) than the standard industry cultivar, a recommendation for commercial release of this clone could not be made. Therefore, the industry implication of this research is that the clones which were developed in this project did not produce a marketable yield which was sufficiently higher than the current standard cultivar to justify their commercial release. It is possible that the price of tissue cultured plants may fall in the future due to greater capacity, but unless appreciably higher yields may be attained by tissue cultured plants, this method of plant propagation will not serve any useful purpose in the asparagus industry. The selection procedure may have been improved by increasing the period of data collection from one to at least two harvest seasons and by observing fern characteristics (such as height, stem diameter and number of stems per crown) during the growing period. RIRDC Project No: DAQ-138A RESEARCHER: Jason K Olsen ORGANISATION: Queensland Department of Primary Industries Bundaberg Research Station MS 108, Ashfield Road

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BUNDABERG QLD 4670 PHONE: 071 556 244 FAX: 071 556 129 EMAIL: olsenj@dpi.qld.gov.au

DEVELOPING MOLECULAR MARKERS FOR OSMOTIC ADJUSTMENT IN MAIZE AND SORGHUM

Objectives • To identify molecular markers linked to osmotic adjustment in sorghum and maize. • To measure levels of genetic diversity in Australian sorghum hybrids. • To investigate the potential use of graphical genotypes developed using molecular

markers in a pedigree breeding system. Background Molecular markers are being increasingly used as an additional tool for plant breeders. Molecular markers can be used to tag traits which are difficult and/or expensive to select for in the field, to tag simple or complex (QTLs) traits, and to provide estimates of genetic diversity in a species. Many important agronomic traits in sorghum, such the drought resistance traits osmotic adjustment (OA) and staygreen, are difficult to select for in the field. Identification of molecular markers linked to such traits would overcome the need for field screening and allow rapid identification of plants containing these traits. Two methods are being utilised, map-based trait tagging and graphical genotypes. Low levels of genetic diversity increase the crop’s risk for significant loss of production due to unknown pests or disease and numerous examples exist of epidemics caused by low levels of diversity. The level of genetic diversity in commercial sorghum hybrids grown in Australia is unknown but is thought to be narrow. Molecular markers can be used to quantify levels of genetic diversity and monitor changes in diversity levels. Research Parents of two well-mapped maize recombinant inbred line populations and a sorghum recombinant inbred line population (previously shown to be segregating for OA) were screened for variation in levels of OA, using two methods of calculating OA, namely maximum OA and osmoregulation. Twenty-six sorghum hybrids, representing >90% of the area sown to sorghum, were screened with RFLP probes and pairwise similarity values calculated.

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Sixty related sorghum lines from the QDPI breeding program were screened with mapped RFLP probes. The inheritance of chromosome fragments from source lines through generations of selection to elite lines was followed using the RFLP probes. Outcomes and Implications Insufficient variation in OA exists between the parents of the 2 maize RIL populations and parents of the sorghum RIL population to enable accurate phenotyping of progeny of the RIL populations. Thus, at this time, it is not possible to identify markers linked to OA in sorghum or maize. Further work is required to characterise the conditions under which the previously identified sorghum OA gene will express before mapping can proceed. Levels of genetic diversity in Australian sorghum hybrids is low. Levels are considerably lower than that found in elite maize inbred lines and hybrids but are comparable with that found in Australian and US rice varieties where the germplasm base is known to be narrow. Of more concern, however, is the realisation that the move to midge resistant hybrids is resulting in a further decrease in levels of genetic diversity in sorghum. The inheritance of chromosome fragments from source lines through generations of selection was followed. Evidence for selection of a chromosome region containing a rust resistance gene or genes was obtained, providing strong supportive evidence for the location of gene(s) for these traits on these chromosomal regions and proving the utility of the graphical genotype approach. RIRDC Project No: CSC-48A RESEARCHER: Dr Lynne McIntyre ORGANISATION: CSIRO Division of Tropical Agriculture Cunningham Laboratory 306 Carmody Road ST LUCIA QLD 4067 PHONE: 07 3377 0209 FAX: 07 3371 3946

MANUFACTURING SELECTED INDUSTRIAL HEMP PRODUCTS IN AUSTRALIA

Objectives • To identify the domestic markets for utilising hemp for the production of particle

board, geotextiles, insulation batts and other fibrous insulation materials and specialty textile products.

• To evaluate the technical suitability of hemp as a raw material for these product categories.

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• To identify the price at which hemp would need to compete in these product categories, and the price at which it could be made available in Australia, considering growing, processing and capital costs.

• To identify potential market and industry reaction in these product areas to the introduction of hemp.

• To identify requirements for research and development for hemp in each of the product categories listed above, and in the processing of hemp to provide raw material to those categories.

Background In December 1995 the Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation and the Australian Institute of Agricultural Science jointly convened a conference in Melbourne entitled, "Industrial Hemp: The Potential for an Industrial Hemp Industry in Australia". Several workshop sessions were conducted to identify key issues which needed resolution if a viable industry was to be established and to suggest actions to resolve these issues. This report addresses three of the key issued identified during the workshop. Research Contact was made with key members of the recent workshop to draw on past experience and ideas. Relevant information was collected from Australia and overseas using the Interned and the International Hemp Association. Samples of hemp were collected from overseas and locally and used to obtain an assessment of its properties from industry. Assessments were made of the likely costs of growing hemp using information obtained from departments of agriculture and from overseas studies. Industry sectors were contacted regarding the potential utilisation of hemp, and information provided by representatives and engineers of companies making processing machinery was assessed and compared with practice overseas. The likely availability of local processing capacity was considered. Outcomes Because of the likely costs of producing hemp in Australia, it is concluded that only specialty clothing - which can carry a relatively high price per tonne of fibre - offers encouraging prospects at this time. The report gives very useful insights into the needs and price structures of the markets and identifies the constraints that R&D should target if the hemp industry is to be viable. RIRDC Project No: PMP-1A

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RESEARCHER: Stuart De Jong ORGANISATION: Planning & Managing Projects Pty Ltd 15/56-62 Chandos St ST LEONARDS NSW 2065 PHONE: 02 9439 6545 FAX: 02 9439 7597 PUBLICATIONS RIRDC Research Paper 97/31, (1997). Some Opportunities for Commercial Hemp

Products in Australia

WEED CONTROL IN SESAME

Objectives • To identify and register cost effective herbicides for use in sesame. • To investigate weed competition with sesame and its interaction with herbicides as a

basis for the progressive development of integrated weed management systems. Background The Northern Territory Department of Primary Industries & Fisheries has identified sesame as a high value crop warranting intensified research and development because the semi-arid tropics is the most suitable environment in Australia for high commercial yields and seed quality, and Australian demand far exceeds production. Weeds are a serious problem because they can cause serious yield losses, lower the seed quality for confectionary, and impede harvesting. It was decided to address the weed problems by identifying and registering suitable herbicides, and to instigate research into integrated weed management via crop/weed competition. Research There were 3 main thrusts to the research: 1) screening of herbicides, 2) establishing the competitive effect of weeds on crop biomass, 3) investigating the practicality and usefulness of models based on early leaf area growth to predict yield losses. Outcomes and Implications

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• Sesame was very sensitive to pre-emergence herbicides whose effectiveness and phytotoxicity varied from season to season. Linuron, and perhaps diuron may be suitable for registration after further testing.

• Suitable post-emergence herbicides affect chiefly grasses; broadleaf weed control will remain a problem if linuron or diuron prove unsuitable.

• The relationship between crop and weed biomass at maturity was negatively linear; thus any weed growth will reduce yield.

• Leaf area indices of crop and weeds up to 22 days after sowing were reliably estimated photographically.

• The reliable prediction of yield losses at maturity from changes in early leaf area required more intensive research.

• Although it was possible to predict yield losses at maturity from data recorded in the first month of growth, much more research is required to predict the economic benefits of weed control. The establishment of the negatively linear relationship between crop and weeds and the accurate measurement of early growth should, however, provide a solid basis for the prediction of economic losses and the need for weed control.

RIRDC Project No: DNT-15A RESEARCHER: Dr Colin Martin ORGANISATION: Department of Primary Industry and Fisheries

Agriculture Division GPO Box 990 DARWIN NT 0801

PHONE: 08 8999 2323 FAX: 08 8999 2043

FEASIBILITY AND PROFITABILITY OF JOJOBA

Objectives • To provide background information to ABARE for further economic assessment of

jojoba. • To disseminate information on management and marketing to the public through

advisory publications. Background ABARE are undertaking a project which forms part of a broader study (‘Episodic recharge under crops and shrubs in the mallee zone’) funded by the Murray-Darling Basin Commission. They are looking at the economic impact of the use of shrubs for recharge control in the mallee cereal cropping areas of the basin.

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The ABARE component of the study comprises three stages. The first, to establish the existence and nature of markets for three crops , has already been completed and published in Jojoba, Blue Mallee & Broombush: Market Assessment & Outlook, [ABARE Research Report 94.9]. The second stage will analyse the impact of increased production, stemming from planting for recharge control, on market trends, while the third stage will examine the profitability of farming the shrubs in the mallee region. Work on both these stages is currently in progress. This project was undertaken to gather information to assist ABARE complete stages 2 and 3 of their study on the feasibility of jojoba in marginal cropping areas that are under threat of salinisation from rising watertables. As jojoba is new to Australia the agronomic knowledge available to successfully manage plantations is incomplete and subject to change as growers become more familiar with it. Detailed knowledge does not extend to the harvesting and crushing operations as plantations in Australia are still immature and overseas information has been sought. Outcomes The data has been used to assist ABARE to complete parts 2 and 3 of their economic analysis of jojoba, and complete a new agfact on jojoba for distribution to people interested in gaining knowledge about jojoba. RIRDC Project No: DAN-117A RESEARCHER: P Milthorpe ORGANISATION: NSW Agricultural Research and Advisory Station PO Box 300 CONDOBOLIN NSW 2877 PHONE: 068 952099 FAX: 068 952688 PUBLICATIONS: McThorpe, P., Dunstone, R. (1996), Jojoba - Agfact, p5.2.8 2nd Edition, NSW

Agriculture Condobolin, and Jojoba Scene Pty Ltd Curtin

AN AGRONOMIC PACKAGE FOR MICROLAENA STIPOIDES FOR FORAGE AND OTHER PURPOSES

Objectives

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• To obtain PBR registration for three accessions of the Australian native grass Microlaena stipoides and make these commercially available both in Australia and overseas.

Background Microlaena stipoides is a native yearlong green perennial grass found throughout the higher rainfall zones from the mountains of the Cape York Peninsula through New South Wales and Victoria to Tasmania, as well as in the wetter coastal districts of South Australia and the south west of Western Australia. Within this range, Microlaena has a great potential for a wide variety of commercial uses. Research About 45 different accessions of Microlaena were collected from a wide range of ecological situations and grown in a comparison nursery at the University of New England. Single plant selection for four generations resulted in a range of distinct and uniform accessions. A replicated variety comparison trial enabled the data necessary for PBR registration to be collected. Laboratory, glasshouse and field trials were conducted to provide the information necessary to construct a management package for each variety registered. Seed of the selected varieties was increased to provide seed for the above trials and to enable seed growers to commence commercial seed production. Arrangements were made with a commercial partner for seed production and marketing. Outcomes Three varieties of Microlaena, (Wakefield, a forage type; Griffin, a turfgrass and Shannon for amenity purposes) were registered under Plant Breeders Right legislation in 1995 and a contract signed with Wrightson Seeds (Australia) Pty Ltd for their commercial seed production and marketing. Small seed production blocks of 225m2 were established for each variety and 10kg of seed of each was supplied to Wrightson Seeds in May 1995 to commence commercial seed increase. Vacuum harvesting using an electric “Flymo” garden vacuum proved satisfactory for small plots of Microlaena seeds because the machine only removes ripe or nearly ripe seeds from the inflorescences. Several landcare groups have developed larger scale vacuum specifically for Microlaena and these will be tested during the 1996-97 summer. Microlaena seed can be successfully spread by hydromulching and the resultant fibre mulch should be about 20mm thick for best results. Seeds of Microlaena usually weigh between 4 and 6mg and should be sown at about 10mm in the field. About 20mm of eucalyptus mulch or sterilised sheep manure were very effective for covering surface

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sown seed and reduced seed problems in some experiments. Microlaena seeds have a wide temperature range for germination between about 10 degrees to 35 degrees C. Best results have been achieved by sowing in early spring or autumn. The best turfgrass stands were produced when the seeds were sown at 10,000/m2, and Griffin Microlaena turf responds best to a cutting height of about 20mm mown weekly. Small commercial seed increase areas of Wakefield have been established at Rystone and Armidale, and Shannon and Griffin at Armidale during late 1996. A draft management package for each variety will be produced early in 1997 to be ready for release with the first of the commercially produced seed. Implications The recently formed Australian Native Grass and Legume Seed Industry Association Inc. has listed several species including Microlaena as high priorities. Hopefully, if the post-harvest seed treatment problems can be solved in the near future, then the Microleana project will provide a model for the development of seed industries involving other species of native grasses and legumes. RIRDC Project No: UNE-35A RESEARCHERS: R D B Whalley and C E Jones ORGANISATION: Department of Botany University of New England ARMIDALE NSW 2341 PHONE: 067 73 2477 FAX: 067 73 3283

CONTROLLING PHOMOPSIS NUT ROT AND EXTENDING STORAGE LIFE OF CHESTNUTS

Objective • To improve the quality of chestnuts and extend the marketing period by controlling

Phomopsis and associated nut rots; and developing effective post-harvest handling, storage and marketing protocols.

Background Around 700 tonnes of chestnuts are produced in Australia worth over $3 million. Most production is consumed on the local market although there is considerable potential for export to the Northern Hemisphere. To facilitate the development of a profitable

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industry, research was aimed at overcoming major quality problems which are associated with Phomopsis rots and with poor post-harvest handling and storage practices. Phomopsis castanea is the major cause of nut rot in Australia, and can cause up to 90% losses in large nut consignments. This fungus has been shown to live as an endophyte in apparently healthy trees throughout the year for the first time anywhere in the world. It is widespread throughout chestnut plantings and has been found in Victoria, New South Wales and South Australia. Cultivars such as Purton’s Pride, Red Spanish and Lucente were shown to be less susceptible than Marone, Sword and Buffalo Queen. Research The research consists of studies to determine the main cause and source of infections; studies to develop field and post-harvest treatments to control Phomopsis rot; and studies to optimise post-harvest handling, storage and marketing in order to maximise quality of chestnuts. Outcomes Harvesting nuts at least every two days is recommended, longer delays lead to significantly more rots. Contamination of nuts during post-harvest handling is unlikely to be a major source of infection, although other rot fungi could contaminate nuts at this time. Two to four field sprays of benomyl or phosphorous acid significantly reduced rot levels in nuts from these trees during storage for up to 16 weeks. No residues of benomyl were detected in nuts at harvest, but residues of phosphorous acid ranged from 16-145 mg/kg. An application based on this work was submitted to the National Registration Authority for a permit for minor use of phosphorous acid for nut rot control. Tree injection with phosphorous acid or imazalil failed to significantly reduce rot in stored nuts. Pre-storage water soaking at a range of temperatures and times reduced rots during storage by up to 70%. The best treatments were 60 min at 20 degrees C, 15 min at 50 degrees C and 5 min at 60 degrees C although some treatments caused damage and /or nut sprouting during storage. Pre-treatment of nuts with carbon dioxide (80%) at 0 degrees C for 5-10 days also reduced rots. Sodium hypochlorite dipping of nuts reduced external moulding of stored nuts. Low temperature storage restricts the development of rots, with -1 degrees C being better than 5 degrees C for long term storage. Storage materials which restrict moisture loss reduce rot levels eg. nuts stored in polyethylene bags are less rotted than those stored in hessian bags; however sprouting can be a problem in the former during long term storage. Temperature monitoring of nuts during post-harvest handling (grower, wholesaler, retailer) showed that the optimal low temperatures are not maintained and conditions allow rot development.

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Implications Chestnut quality can be improved by a combination of practices. For new plantings, avoid cultivars such as Marone and Sword which are highly susceptible to Phomopsis rot, and plant less susceptible to Phomopsis rot, and plant less susceptible cultivars such as Purton’s Pride, Red Spanish and Lucente. Field sprays of phosphorous acid or benomyl reduce rots in nuts from treated trees (NRA application under consideration). Harvest nuts within two days of nut fall. Pre-storage soaking of nuts in chlorinated water, and subsequent drying; or pre-treating in a high carbon dioxide atmosphere before storage will both reduce rotting. Low temperature storage after harvest and during marketing is important in restricting rot development and improving nut quality, with -1 degrees C being better that 5 degrees C. Further studies are required to develop some of these findings for commercial use. RIRDC Project No: DAV-81A RESEARCHER: W S Washington ORGANISATION: Agriculture Victoria Institute for Horticultural Development, Knoxfield Private Bag 15 South Eastern Mail Centre VIC 3176 PHONE: 03 9210 9222 FAX: 03 9800 3521

THE HEMP INDUSTRY IN EUROPE AND ITS FUTURE IN AUSTRALIA

Objective • To present a paper outlining the status of industrial hemp in Australia and to gain

insights into the progress of the industry around the world. The paper is based on a trip taken by Carolyn Ditchfield, of Australian Hemp Resource and Manufacture, to the Bioresource Hemp Symposium at Frankfurt between 27 February - 2 March 1997.

Report Summary The paper “Whither Australian Hemp”, presented by Carolyn Ditchfield, summarised the progress of the hemp industry in Australia and provoked a lot of response from delegates at the symposium. A number of solutions were offered to overcome problems identified in the paper. There are hemp cultivars available that would be better suited to Australian conditions, and result in higher yields. To introduce and select appropriate cultivars, the permissible

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level of THC should be raised to 1%. Development of male only crops would address the immediate need for maximising fibre quality. The lower THC content of male plants and lack of seed production would also deter illegal use of the crop for drug purposes. Hemp has been successfully reintroduced and commercialised by private enterprises in England and the Netherlands. Their approach and government involvement provide working examples for Australia. Western Europe has embarked on an extensive research program exploring ways to improve on old technology and develop new products. Private industries are also contributing to this effort, and have introduced hemp into some of their manufacturing lines. The versatility of hemp was constantly highlighted and many papers presented discussed unique properties of the fibre, seed, oil and cannabinoids. There was also a number of newly developed machinery to handle the crop and process the fibre, which are currently available for purchase. The symposium provided an opportunity for Australian Hemp Resource and Manufacture to renew old acquaintances and meet other influential hemp researchers and manufacturers. This has increased the resource base of the company for providing up-to-date information and market contacts to decision-makers in Australia. Discussions with delegates reinforced the likely economical, social and environmental benefits that a hemp industry could provide the rural industry in Australia. Many papers provided guidelines and examples of ways to avoid problems in hemp production. Australia is in a good position to participate in this industry and prove its commitment to a sustainable future. RIRDC Project No: TA967-24 RESEARCHER: Carolyn Ditchfield ORGANISATION: Australian Hemp Resource and Manufacture 15 Belmont Crescent PADDINGTON QLD 4064 PHONE: 07 3369 5925 FAX: 07 3368 1255 EMAIL: ahrm@hits.net.au

INVESTIGATION INTO THE COMMERCIALISATION OF SAFFRON

Objectives To investigate the feasibility of a commercial Tasmanian-based saffron export industry through:

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• critical evaluation of the export market potential for saffron; and • evaluation of the commercial processing and agronomic factors affecting production

under Tasmanian conditions. Background Saffron (Crocus sativus) is one of the most highly prized and expensive spices, it is a plant-derived dye and is used to colour food, fabric and other fibres. The genus crocus belongs in the family Iridaceae, (irises etc.) and comprises over 80 species, distributed through Central to Southern Europe, North Africa, West Asia as far as Afghanistan. The saffron industry appears to be well protected and very little information to date has been available. The crop is harvested by hand and traditionally grown in areas able to supply intensive labour at very low cost. Information on the current world production and consumption levels is available. The lack of information on the agronomic and economic factors makes assessing the industry difficult. The highest grades of saffron are produced by removing the stigmas from the dried flower by hand. Lower grades of saffron are produced after breaking up the dried flowers by threshing and floating the crushed petals off in water. Research Research methods included the extensive use of international library databases, international publications both general and specialised journals, books and news articles. An extensive network of peers and contacts has been established around the world. The research also encompasses experimental work and investigation of agronomic principles by Department of Primary Industries & Fisheries staff. Outcomes Saffron is the spice obtained from the flowering corm, Crocus sativus. It is an unprocessed product requiring large amounts of manual labour. The plant itself is less than 30cm tall at flowering and requires the gatherer to individually pick each flower as it opens. The flowers are spread out to dry and sort and require frequent turning. The stigma (which is the actual saffron) is then pulled out of the dry flower by hand with forceps. Capital investment costs are relatively low compared with other new crops like olives or ginseng production. The main establishment cost is the purchase of corms in the first year. The variable costs are incurred over the remaining 4 years in which saffron is harvested. The returns for saffron production, obtained in 2 to 5 years are sensitive to the size of the area planted, the planting density and the market price of saffron at the time of sale. Implications

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There has been an opinion among herb dealers and growers that there is potential for development in the industry in Australia particularly if there is an opportunity to introduce some form of mechanisation within the post harvest area of the crop. The industry is possibly better suited to a cottage based format rather than large commercial ventures. There are a number of small, labour intensive producers as opposed to larger capital based properties. RIRDC Project No: DAT-27A RESEARCHERS: Ms Ange Monks and Mr Les Baxter ORGANISATION: Department of Primary Industry and Fisheries New Town Laboratories St Johns Avenue NEW TOWN TAS 7008 PHONE: 03 6233 6809 FAX: 03 6228 5936

INVESTIGATION INTO THE COMMERCIALISATION OF SIBERIAN GINSENG

Objectives The project aims to determine the potential for an export industry based on Siberian ginseng through: • assessment of the export market potential for Siberian ginseng; • evaluation of the requirements for commercial products under Tasmanian

conditions; • sourcing and introductions of propagating material of superior Siberian ginseng

cultivars; and • establishment of marketing, technical and commercial links with potential

agribusiness investors and marketing companies. Background Siberian ginseng was identified as an opportunity for investigation by the Horticulture Branch, New Crops group of the Tasmanian Department of Primary Industries & Fisheries in 1993-94. Various publications suggest that Siberian ginseng, (E. senticosus) is more efficient and accessible, less toxic and less expensive than Korean ginseng (Panax ginseng). A one year project was designed to investigate the possibility of introducing E. senticosus into Australia as a new crop to provide a possible alternative in the wide range of medicinal plants that are at present grown in Australia.

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Research Research methods include the extensive use of international library databases, international publications, both general and specialised journals, books and news articles. An extensive network of peers and contacts has been established around the world. The research also encompasses experimental work and investigation of agronomic principles by DPIF staff. Outcomes Siberian ginseng (Eleutherococcus senticosus) belongs in the family which also contains other genera of ginseng (e.g. Panax etc). It is active in many and various ways. Siberian ginseng increases the general tone of an organism. It is also said to be a biologically active stimulant that does not cause undesirable changes in the functioning of internal organs or metabolic processes, this is referred to as its adaptogenic properties. Among the ailments that Siberian ginseng is believed to control or mediate are: thermal shock, mental illness, reproductive disorders, radiation illness, some forms of cancer, cardiac problems and hypertension. It is also said to enhance the senses’ response time coordination and concentration in humans without producing any physiological changes. Propagation is by ripe seed in the autumn and by root cuttings in late winter. Alternatively suckers and semi-ripe cuttings can be struck with bottom heat in summer. Propagation by seed can be guided by the general procedure used for Araliaceae. Tests of seed germination in other types of ginseng suggests that they require two periods of winter chilling and a warming cycle. Germination of seed sourced overseas and introduced into Australia has proven to be very difficult. The quality of the seed is dubious and germination tests have been carried out including stratification and flushing. The micropropagation of Siberian ginseng may be an option to increase the plants available. Other forms of vegetative propagation may also be an alternative to the use of seed. Implications Siberian ginseng appears to be a viable cropping alternative for Tasmanian or Australian farmers. Sourcing of viable germplasm is the main hindrance to proceeding with the project, although the development of the large pool of contacts world wide among alternative crop producers by the DPIF plays a proactive role. Contacts have been established and are maintained to provide alternative sources of Siberian ginseng. The literature review has established the basic information surrounding the growing and usage of the plant. The review has also brought to notice the possibility of other medicinal herbs that have been used in tandem with Siberian ginseng. RIRDC Project No: DAT-28A

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RESEARCHERS: Ms Ange Monks and Mr Les Baxter ORGANISATION: Department of Primary Industry and Fisheries New Town Laboratories St Johns Avenue NEW TOWN TAS 7008 PHONE: 03 6233 6809 FAX: 03 6228 5936

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CASHEWS (*Colin: same style as page 2, ‘new plant products’. Make all following

title pages the same too eg, deer, rice, horses, etc) A concerted R&D program in recent years has aimed to provide the platform for future development of a viable cashew industry. It is likely that Australia now has the most diverse and comprehensive genetic collection of cashew material in the world. Furthermore, breeding efforts and production research arguably puts Australia at the forefront in terms of establishing an internationally competitive industry based on the marketing of high quality fresh nuts and a range of value-added, processed products. Research Highlights for 1996-97 • While further research and analysis of data is still required to confirm

heritability, the best hybrid clones yield up to 14 kg of nut per tree at year four, which is consistent with required yields of 30 kg from the mature tree.

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EVALUATION OF CASHEW HYBRIDS

Objectives • To complete planting and maintain the cashew hybrids (produced during 1988-92) at

three test sites (Wildman River Cashew Plantation NT; Melville Forest Products, Melville Island; Cashews Australia, Qld).

• To assess growth habit, yield and nut characteristics of individual trees to identify hybrids with high yield potential.

• To initiate replicated trials with hybrids that produce high individual tree yields and medium-large nut and kernel weight during the early stages of assessment.

Background There is a large and expanding market for increased cashew production worldwide. Australia currently imports about $A26 m worth of nuts annually. Opportunities for establishing large cashew plantations exist in the tropical areas of north Australia provided such plantings can achieve yields of more than 4 t/ha compared with the current world average production of 0.5-1.0 t/ha nut-in-shell. Initial plantings in the Northern Territory and Queensland consisted of imported genetic material which produced only moderate yields in Australian conditions. To develop high yielding cultivars suited to local conditions, a hybridisation program involving some of the best imported and local selections was carried out during 1988-92. Collaborators in this program included RIRDC, CSIRO Horticulture, DPI&F NT, QDPI and several private companies. These hybrids were planted during 1989-93 at three test sites owned by the collaborating private companies (Wildman River Cashew Plantation Pty Ltd, NT; Melville Forest Products Pty Ltd, Melville Island; and Cashews Australia Pty Ltd, Dimbulah Qld). Research During this project period the planting of hybrids was completed and initial evaluations, which commenced during the previous phase of the program (RIRDC CSH-36A), were continued and expanded. Information on growth habit, yield and nut characteristics (nut weight, kernel weight and kernel recovery) of individual trees that flowered and fruited well was collected from the hybrids produced during 1988-91 and planted during 1989-92 at the Wildman River Cashew Plantation NT and Cashews Australia Qld. A replicated trial with ten high-yielding 1988-produced hybrids was commenced at Wildman River Cashew Plantation in 1994/5. These selections were multiplied for additional replicated trials at Cashews Australia Qld and Coastal Plantation, La Belle Downs Station NT during the next phase of the project.

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Outcomes Evaluation of individual trees from the 1989-91 plantings (1988-90 hybrids) during 1992-5, resulted in the identification of a total of 49 high-yielding hybrids at the Wildman River Cashew Plantation and Cashews Australia. Implications Based on such encouraging results during the early stages of assessment there are good prospects of identifying many more high yielding hybrids during the next 3-5 years of evaluation. Replicated trials with such high yielding selections are planned during the next phase of the program to confirm their ability to achieve high yields in commercial plantings. RIRDC Project No: CSH-43A RESEARCHER: Dr Elias Chacko ORGANISATION: CSIRO Division of Horticulture PMB 44 WINNELLIE NT 0821 PHONE: 08 8944 8484 FAX: 08 8947 0052

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NEW ANIMAL PRODUCTS (**new format) During the past two years, RIRDC has funded R&D for twelve of the 30 prospective and emerging animal-based industries from which RIRDC receives submissions or enquiries regarding R&D funding. The annual value of products traded from these industries exceeds $150 million. For each of these, production is increasing and/or processing and value-added products and resources are being established. Much effort is being made to extend and increase export marketing. During the past year, there has been greater interest in R&D on sustainable usage of native and feral animals in conjunction with commercialisation, particularly for export markets. Quality and safety assurance are becoming marketing requisites and R&D is being increasingly required to underpin both on-farm and value-added commercial activities. Research Highlights for 1996-97 • Completion of a final report on emu processing and product development. • Release of a comprehensive report on the awareness, attitudes to and

usage of kangaroo products by Australians. • Investigations into increasing the hatchability of ostrich eggs. • Design of a research facility for farmed grower size crocodiles. • Publication of a final report on the sustainable economic use of native

birds and reptiles.

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DESIGNING A RESEARCH FACILITY FOR GROWER SIZE CROCODILES

Objectives • To investigate alternate forms of controlled-environment rearing sheds for ‘grower’

size crocodiles. • To design a specific building which would be optimal for carrying out such research

on such animals. Background RIRDC convened a workshop in 1995 at which crocodile farmers from throughout Australia met with researchers to discuss research issues and to identify priority R&D needs. The highest priorities were ‘production’ issues and effects of these on growth rates, skin quality and disease incidence. The Queensland Department of Primary Industries (DPI) has established a research facility for ‘juvenile’ saltwater crocodiles (hatching to one year of age) in Townsville but there are no research facilities in Australia for larger ‘grower’ sized animals (one year old to harvest size). DPI set aside finances to build a second facility but it was recognised that ‘grower’ sized crocodiles posed special problems in terms of rearing and handling, and also in the types of pens and rooms necessary in such a facility. Any such structure had to be designed so that statistically valid research experiments could be carried out. Research In order to develop the most appropriate design for such a facility a series of activities was undertaken: • a study of commercial open-style ‘grower’ sheds and pens used by farmers in

Australia; • a study of enclosed, fully insulated rearing sheds used by alligator farmers in the

USA; • discussions with researchers in the USA who have had experience with large size

alligators; • several planning / discussion sessions with Australian farmers and researchers; and • deciding on the best functional design and drawing up building plans. Outcomes

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The review of Australian farms provided useful information on the best types of pens to use and identified potentially useful research projects. The study tour of alligator facilities in the USA was crucial to the project. In particular a wide range of different fully insulated enclosed commercial alligator sheds was evaluated, and USA researchers suggested many useful ideas from their wealth of experience. Both the farmers and researchers in the USA were very cooperative and supportive of DPI’s proposed R&D activities and were keen to set up a regular exchange of information. At the conclusion of the USA tour two industry / research seminars were held (Townsville and Cairns) to discuss the extensive information collected and to focus on key issues relative to designing an optimal research building. At the Cairns meeting an ‘industry advisory’ group was established to continue more detailed planning with DPI and to advise on other crocodile R&D issues. This group has met twice and DPI now has design plans drawn up for such a building. Essentially it will consist of an outer structural shed (18m x 17m) of colourbond enclosing 12 separate, well insulated rooms (each 6m x 3m). Each room will have its own carefully controlled environment and land / water areas suited to rearing larger grower size crocodiles. Construction will begin in the next few months and the first lot of ‘grower’ size crocodiles should be housed by September 1997. Implications The primary benefit of having a world-class research facility for grower crocodiles will be to the researchers who can target priority research areas and have confidence that such work can be successfully pursued in such a facility. Real benefits will then flow to the commercial farmers in that relevant research is being done and results extended immediately to industry. RIRDC Project No: DAQ-220A RESEARCHER: Mr R Mayer ORGANISATION: Dept of Primary Industries PO Box 1085 TOWNSVILLE QLD 4810 PHONE: 077 222 614 FAX: 077 782 970

REPRODUCING OSTRICH FADING SYNDROME

Objective

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• To determine the cause of Ostrich Fading Syndrome by isolating a retrovirus from small intestine and leukocyte explant cultures of affected birds. This project was designed as an attempt to reproduce Ostrich Fading Syndrome using this retrovirus.

Background Ostrich Fading Syndrome (OFS) is a newly recognised disease entity that occurred in ostrich chicks in Australia in February 1995. The syndrome consisted of wasting in chicks up to six months of age and usually ended in death. Research Experimental infection studies were conducted on ostrich chicks obtained from an interstate ostrich flock with no history of OFS and no recent introductions. Eggs were incubated in isolation, recently hatched chicks were transferred to animal isolation facilities at our laboratories and at 4 to 7 weeks of age, two groups of 6 chicks were inoculated orally or by subcutanious injection (s/c) with the virus. An additional 6 chicks were kept as isolated, uninoculated controls. Outcomes Surprisingly, a retrovirus was recovered from pre-inoculation leukocyte cultures from most chicks in all groups, suggesting the virus was latent in the flock of origin. There were only two birds that were free of virus prior to inoculation and both failed to develop clinical or pathological evidence of OFS. However, one bird in each of the oral and s/c inoculated groups, that had the virus prior to inoculation, developed some clinical features of OFS and two birds in the s/c group had microscopic lesions in the gut showing some features of OFS. Implications From the results of this project, we cannot presently say whether the virus has any causal role in the syndrome or is simply a latent passenger virus reactivated by in vitro culture. The role that this agent plays in OFS will require further investigation. Future research will require the development of a sensitive and quicker diagnostic test to identify ostriches infected with this virus. We are currently attempting to develop a polymerase chain reaction diagnostic test for the virus based on conserved retrovirus polymerase gene sequences. This tool will improve the screening of birds prior to future experimental transmission studies and could be applied to epidemiological investigations of future outbreaks of OFS. RIRDC Project No: DAW-71A RESEARCHER: Mr Mark Kabay

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ORGANISATION: Agriculture Western Australia 3 Baron-Hay Court SOUTH PERTH WA 6151 PHONE: 09 368 3351 FAX: 09 474 1881 PUBLICATIONS: RIRDC Research Paper 97/27, (1997). Reproducing Ostrich Fading Syndrome.

INCREASING THE HATCHABILITY OF OSTRICH EGGS

Objectives To identify the principal causes of poor hatchability of ostrich eggs and to improve hatchability by: • examining large numbers of fail-to-hatch eggs and eggs containing large dead embryos

(dead-in-shell); • developing a shell quality evaluation system; • investigating incubator and egg temperatures; • estimating dietary calcium requirements for laying ostrich hens; and • preparing and disseminating extension information. Background In the early 1990s, the Australian ostrich industry recognised that poor hatchability of artificially-incubated eggs was the greatest production-limiting factor facing the industry. Commencing in 1993, the Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation and the Australian Ostrich Association jointly funded a 3 year research project to address the issue of poor hatchability. It was thought that if causes of poor hatchability could be identified and were amenable to correction, a major improvement in production, greater profitability and earlier expansion of the industry would result. Research and Outcomes A large number of fail-to-hatch eggs were examined for shell quality, microbial infection and fertilisation failure. The most common cause of hatching failure was that eggs were infertile. Immaturity of cocks was identified as the leading contributor to infertility. The most important causes of early to mid stage embryonic death were microbial infection (mostly by faecal bacteria) and poor shell quality. Eggs containing embryos which died in the late embryonic period (DIS) were investigated in detail. It was found that eggs containing DIS embryos were on average larger than successfully hatching eggs; that shells with excessive and inadequate porosity were over-

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represented; and that embryonic malposition, microbial infection and floating air cells were also commonly associated with DIS embryos. A system whereby farmers could evaluate shell quality without recourse to sophisticated measurements was developed. Qualitative features such as shell surface finish (degree of glossiness) and surface texture (degree of roughness), and quantitative features (egg weight, estimated shell surface area, shell thickness, pore count and porosity parameters) were measured. Dietary calcium requirements for laying ostrich hens were estimated. Dry shell were weighed to calculate calcium content. To meet calcium requirements for sustained egg production, hens need to consume approximately 2 kg of breeder pellets per day. Free access to a calcium supplement such as coarse shell grit in a separate feed container is suggested for all laying hens except those producing low weight loss eggs (<10%). Incubator temperatures inside loaded incubators were measured accurately. Temperature is the single most important factor in incubation. Findings were that incubation temperature was dangerously high in some incubators and that others had "hot spots" or cool areas. An extension article detailing a practical protocol for setting, measuring and monitoring incubation temperature was published in an AOA Journal. Hatchability-related extension information was prepared and disseminated. Two extension articles were published in the AOA Journal (see below). In addition, presentations were made at the AOA Conferences "Ostrich Odyssey” 1993 and 1994, at two field days in Victoria; and at Branch Conferences in Hobart and Perth. Implications Australian ostrich farmers are now in a better position to maximise hatchability of ostrich eggs using a combination of genetic selection and modified management. The importation of new bloodlines allows farmers to make use of hybrid vigour. Highly fertile cock birds three years or older and hens producing good quality eggs should be selected. Commercial breeder diets are now more scientifically formulated. Management of nest sites, promptness of egg collection and sanitation of eggs and incubator have all improved greatly in the past five years. Incubation management, including set temperature, humidity, air exchange and egg turning, are now much better understood. The efforts of farmers, commercial interests (feed companies, incubator manufacturers) and research such as the above have combined to make this possible. RIRDC Project No: DAV 78A RESEARCHER: Kit Button ORGANISATION: Agriculture Victoria Department of Natural Resources and Environment 73 Calvert Street BAIRNSDALE VIC 3875 PHONE: 0351 520 600 FAX: 0351 526 865

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PUBLICATIONS: Button K (1995). Increasing the hatchability of ostrich eggs; (1) Minimising the

Infection Rate of Ostrich Eggs. Australian Ostrich Association Journal, Number 35 pp 35-39

Button K (1996). Increasing the hatchability of ostrich eggs; (2) Maximising Incubation Success. Australian Ostrich Association Journal, Number 38 pp 34-41

Button K (1996). Increasing the Hatchability of Ostrich Eggs; RIRDC Research Report 97/24

USE OF POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION TO STUDY ASPERGILLOSIS IN OSTRICHES

Objectives • To use the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique to develop an assay for the

detection of Aspergillus fumigatus in ostriches. • To analyse variation between strains of A. fumigatus isolated from ostriches. Background Aspergillosis is a widespread disease, occurring in most regions of the world, and affecting avian, mammalian and other species. In birds the disease usually presents as a respiratory infection, commonly chronic airsaculitis in ostriches, although acute forms are sometimes also encountered. Aspergillosis is a disease of considerable economic significance to the Australian ostrich industry. The proposed test may enable the early detection of birds with the disease. Research Primers based on the sequences of the alkaline protease genes and ribosomal RNA genes of Aspergillus fumigatus were used in PCR assays to analyse cultures of Aspergillus fumigatus, oral swabs and blood samples taken from ostriches. PCR assays using primers based on alkaline protease genes successfully detected DNA prepared from cultures, but did not detect Aspergillus fumigatus in swabs or blood samples. The more sensitive assays using primers based on the ribosomal RNA genes, which are present in multiple copies, detected Aspergillus fumigatus in swabs from ostriches. However, these assays failed to detect Aspergillus fumigatus in some samples from infected ostriches, and detected Aspergillus fumigatus in some samples from ostriches with no signs of infection. Genetic variation between isolates was also examined, and one isolate was found to differ considerably from all other isolates which were tested.

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Outcomes The project was successful in developing a PCR-based assay for the detection of Aspergillus fumigatus in oral swabs from ostriches, but the assay lacked both the sensitivity and specificity required for use as a reliable means of detecting early infection. Genetic variation was shown to exist between isolates, and this has potential for use in monitoring the spread of aspergillosis. Some of these findings have been published in the Australian Veterinary Journal, and a second manuscript is in preparation. Implications The results from this study indicate that the amount of Aspergillus fumigatus in the pharynx is very low, even in ostriches with substantial infection in the air sacs. Further work to improve the sensitivity and specificity of the assay is needed, perhaps by use of the technique of nested PCR. Blood samples may be more accessible than oral swabs, but substantial work is needed in this area. RIRDC Project No: UNE-37A RESEARCHER: Dr Margaret Katz ORGANISATION: University of New England Department of Animal Science ARMIDALE NSW 2351 PHONE: 067 733 016 FAX: 067 733 275

EPIDEMIOLOGY AND DIAGNOSIS OF ASPERGILLOSIS IN OSTRICHES

Objectives • To improve currently available diagnostic tests, so that the disease could be

diagnosed earlier and more accurately, and so improve treatment outcomes. • To investigate epidemiological aspects of aspergillosis in order to improve measures

aimed at preventing the disease. Background

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Whether in human patients or animals, the diagnosis of aspergillosis, particularly an early diagnosis, is an ongoing problem. Early diagnosis is desirable because it improves the likelihood of successful treatment. The situations in animals such as ostriches is in some respects even more difficult because many of the diagnostic aids employed in human and small animal medicine are not practicable. In human medicine in particular, there have been many efforts to improve serological diagnosis of aspergillosis, but not always with great success. Aspergillosis, as with most diseases, is a multifactorial disease. As such, there are likely to be a number of host, agent and environmental factors that are important in the epidemiology of the disease in farmed ostriches. Research and Outcomes Three enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) were developed, and two of these, the indirect ELISA for antibody, and the inhibition ELISA for antigen, were found to compare more than favourably with the currently available agar gel immunodiffusion test (Love, Wong, Gill and Hinch 1996) A review of the literature on the epidemiology of aspergillosis showed that the risk factors for the disease are similar in the various avian, mammalian and other species studied. As an outcome of the project, these and other aspects of aspergillosis were summarised in an invited review paper (Love and Gill 1995b). Additionally, a survey of 400 ostrich farmers in Australia yielded basic epidemiological data, such as estimates of prevalence and incidence, information which was previously lacking in Australia or overseas. Implications Two of the assays developed are superior to the currently available serological test for aspergillosis in ostriches. The benefits of this development for the Australian ostrich industry can probably be enhanced further by investigating some of the suggested possibilities for improving the assays. The epidemiology of aspergillosis in farmed ostriches is essentially similar to that of other species. The most significant advances in preventing and controlling the disease are likely to be in the area of farm management. RIRDC Project No: UNE 38A RESEARCHER: Dr Margaret Katz ORGANISATION: University of New England Department of Animal Science ARMIDALE NSW 2351 PHONE: 067 733 016 FAX: 067 733 275

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SUSTAINABLE ECONOMIC USE OF NATIVE AUSTRALIAN BIRDS AND REPTILES

Objectives • To review the potential for allowing expansion of current avicultural and

herpetocultural industries within Australia. • To provide a scientific underpinning to any changes and improvements to policy

including enhancement of animal welfare and conservation status. • To consider a controlled management regime that permits exports of captive-bred

birds and reptiles; and that enables the export of wild birds or their offspring, providing it also enhances habitual protection and biodiversity.

Background Some Australian native birds and reptiles which are common on the Australian market have high economic value in foreign markets because the commercial export of all live wild animal species, even budgerigars, is not permitted. Research Commercial data were collected and markets and prices overseas assessed. The views and comments were sought from all the government conservation, vertebrate pest and agricultural agencies, and a wide range of other institutions. In addition opinions on commercialisation from aviculturists and herpetologists, wildlife management societies, and animal welfare, conservation and preservation organisations were gathered. Outcomes The report outlines a management regime which has the ultimate aim of increasing wild populations of the less common species. This can be achieved by supplementing the intrinsic value of the species, where appropriate, with economic value through application of sustainable use. The report also aims to remove some of the anomalies in current national policies on bird ownership and subsequent trade which have little conservation benefit. It does not propose the export of adult wild-caught ‘pest’ birds because of concerns about animal welfare.

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Finally the conclusion was reached that enhanced conservation has to be stimulated by providing the correct incentives for private investment. For example, landowners must be given financial encouragement to protect and expand habits and considerations have to be given to captive breeding. RIRDC Project No: ACI-2A RESEARCHER: Dr George Wilson ORGANISATION: ACIL Economics & Policy Pty Ltd GPO Box 1322 CANBERRA ACT 2601 PHONE: 02 6249 8055 FAX: 02 6257 4170 PUBLICATIONS: RIRDC Research Paper 97/26, (1997). Sustainable Economic Use of Native Australian

Birds and Reptiles. RIRDC Research Paper 97/26a, (Short Report), (1997). Sustainable Economic Use of

Native Australian Birds and Reptiles.

KANGAROO & KANGAROO PRODUCTS AWARENESS, ATTITUDES AND USAGE BY AUSTRALIANS

Objective • To analyse and assess perceptions of the kangaroo industry and its products and

formulate strategies to exploit market opportunities. Background Legislation over recent years has allowed selling of kangaroo meat for human consumption in all states. Although the kangaroo which are harvested are part of a pest control measure and the meat has a healthy nutritional profile, negative attitudes persist. These include emotional and environmental concerns and perceived food safety threats. The project was designed to identify and formulate education and marketing means to mitigate the negatives. Research A survey of 100 randomly selected individuals was conducted from households in each of Adelaide, Brisbane, Melbourne, Perth and Sydney.

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Outcomes Most urban Australians have limited or no exposure to kangaroo meat. However, most Australians are prepared to at least try the meat or eat it again provided that their needs for information, recipes, cooking/preparation advice, ready availability, acceptable price etc are met. Implications Recommended options include promotional/ information/ education programs to improve product range and better distribution. Research consideration include market development, including working with chefs, restaurateurs etc to increase usage. RIRDC Project No: Consultancy Project RESEARCHER: Des Purtell ORGANISATION: Des Purtell & Associates Marketing and Research Consultants PO Box 921 CROWS NEST NSW 2065 PHONE: 02 9968 3095 FAX: 02 9231 3335 PUBLICATIONS: RIRDC Research Paper 97/36, (1997). Improving Consumer Perceptions of Kangaroo Products.

IMPACT OF GOVERNMENT REGULATIONS ON THE COMMERCIAL OPERATION OF THE AUSTRALIAN KANGAROO INDUSTRY

Objective • To conduct an accurate review of all State and Federal Government policy initiatives,

rules and regulations that have both a positive and negative impact on industry development.

Background The Australian kangaroo industry in formulating its national industry strategic plan endorsed the position that: “The kangaroo industries are composed of all those sectors associated with the responsible and economically sustainable commercial utilisation of the renewable kangaroo resource. Those sectors include individuals and companies

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associated with the production, processing, manufacturing and marketing of kangaroo meats, skins, leather and manufactured products”. Research A review of state and federal Government policies, rules, and regulations has been reported as positive and negative impacts on the development of the kangaroo industry. Policy consistencies and inconstancies have been identified across states in light of mutual recognition legislation and to determine the appropriate regulatory balance to ensure imperatives of kangaroo population conservation, rangeland maintenance, industry development and broad community interests are met in a systematic way. It is assessed that Government regulates and manages the kangaroo population and the rangelands, agricultural, industry and community interests in isolation. An integrated approach is proposed for efficient and effective resource management and a regulatory framework that is consistent with sound resource management, industry viability and community interest. Outcomes and Implications A number of recommendations are given where regulatory framework between and within states needs to be rationalised. Management practices which need to be adopted include: • Rationalisation and consistency of the regulatory framework and the consistent

application of regulatory requirements with respect to health standards and the management and monitoring of the kangaroo population.

• More sophisticated population monitoring and quota management systems. • Uniform health standards that meet domestic and export market requirements. • Strategic alliance and relationships between government, pastoralists, shooters,

processors and markets. The impact of adoption of some or all new management practices will be: • Development of a professional industry producing high quality products including

food for human consumption, high quality leather and value added co-products for domestic and export markets.

• Security for established industry participants who have sustained investment in the industry by achieving resource guarantee for better planning and marketing.

• Comprehensive statistics that will accurately reflect the number of kangaroos available for commercial harvest.

RIRDC Project No: MAC-3A RESEARCHER: Warwick Yates ORGANISATION: Macarthur Consulting GPO Box 2452 BRISBANE QLD 4001 PHONE: 07 3831 7330

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FAX: 07 3832 7298

EMU PROCESSING AND PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT

Objectives • To evaluate markets for emu products, particularly meat and leather. • To reduce slaughter costs particularly in the areas of defeathering and skinning. • To eliminate skin and meat stress damage during transport. • To determine the cost of supplying emus for different end uses. Background Australian commercial scale emu farm commenced in Western Australia in 1987. In the early 1990s a report funded by the Government of Western Australia - ‘A development strategy for the emu industry’ had recommendations for research on determining the cost of supplying emus for different end uses, reduction of slaughter costs eliminating skin and meat stress damage during transport and product development including identifying and refining meat cuts and the preparation of cooking instruction and recipes. Research Research scope included laboratory experiments in meat processing facilities to prepare an emu meat language and specification system, at abattoirs to identify better scalding and plucking procedures, and in pens and yards to elucidate nutrition with liveweight and body composition changes. Laboratory experiments were also carried out to use a prototype stock crate to relate stocking densities and citr height to severity of skin damage Declawing techniques were investigated in an endeavour to minimise injury between birds, damage to skin and thus leather quality and protection for human handlers. Outcome and implications • There was no appreciable improvement in the tenderness of emu meat after ageing

for up to 12 weeks. • A nutritional analysis of emu meat showed that the meat is low in fat and cholesterol

and extremely high in iron. • An emu cut description system was developed and incorporated into an export trade

description as required by the Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service.

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• Emus of 60 weeks of age or older, scalding at 60° for 1 or 2 minutes makes plucking easier, without any detrimental effect on the resulting leather. However effective scalding makes the skins harder to remove.

• Declawing emu chicks at hatch by removing the tip of the toe approximately at the last phalangeal joint with a hot blade debeaking machine dramatically reduced damage to the birds and their skin from fighting and transport. There was no evidence of chronic pain in amputated limbs and the quality of skins collected from the declawed birds was dramatically improved.

• There was no benefit in transporting declawed emus in single sex groups and measurement of ultimate pH and glycogen content of the meat from emus that birds transport in single pens travel poorly.

• Emus eat to a consistent demand for energy and diets formulated to contain 10.5 mj of energy for each kilogram do not limit growth. Average weight for age, energy consumed and expected yield of meat and fat were determined.

RIRDC Project No: DAW-34A RESEARCHERS: Paul Frapple and Peter O’Malley ORGANISATION: Agriculture Western Australia 3 Baron-Hay Court SOUTH PERTH WA 6151 PHONE: 09 368 3550 FAX: 09 474 2479

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EMERGING

INDUSTRIES

(**COLIN: SAME STYLE AS ‘PROSPECTIVE NEW INDUSTRIES’ ON PAGE 1)

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ASIAN FOODS The market for Australian grown Asian vegetables in many Asian countries is large. For instance, Japan imports $2.3 billion of fresh, frozen, preserved and dehydrated vegetables each year. There are off-season windows of opportunity in Australia for fresh products when prices are high and supply from competing Asian sources is low. Foods other than vegetables, particularly processed foods, are popular and opportunities include sauces, ready made meals, and possibly snacks. Domestically, the predicted value of potential import replacement Asian foods is $1.5 billion by 2000. Research Highlights for 1996-97 • Development of trial exports of several Asian vegetables. • Completion and publication of reports on market prospects for Asian

foods in Asian countries and current market opportunities in Australia. • Investigation into the development of an Australian seaweed food

industry. • Development of an Asian food packaging information database. • Investigation into the food culture and preferences of Indonesian food

markets.

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STRATEGIC ENTRY INTO ASIA - A REVIEW OF ASIAN VEGETABLE MARKETS

Objective • To review existing production, government standards and marketing literature

relevant to developing an Australian Asian vegetable export industry. Background Since 1993, the Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation has sponsored a number of workshops and seminars dealing with Asian vegetables. One outcome of these was the target of developing an Australian grown Asian vegetable industry worth $100 million in the near future. At the same time, the workshops and seminars recognised that the bulk of research, both the physical as well as the economics and marketing, available in Australia was heavily biased towards traditional “western” vegetables. As a first step towards assisting the development of an Australian grown Asian vegetable industry, it was determined that a literature review be conducted of the existing knowledge. Research The review identified production, government standards and marketing as the three broad areas where there were significant knowledge gaps. As many of the publications relating to the physical research have not been catalogued, computer-generated literature research was of limited use. Outcomes The number of Asian vegetables which have been subjected to detailed Australian physical research is comparative small. Brassicas, especially Chinese cabbage, have been subjected to more research that any other Asian vegetable. Even with this comparatively well-reported research, potential producer/exporters in most of Australia are not able to draw upon detailed agronomic and like production-oriented advice. The situation for most other Asian vegetables is quite poor. Government standards relating to quarantine information and assistance to potential exporters, are also poorly promulgated. The main weakness with quarantine standards is that there is no obligation for importing countries to notify Australian authorities of their latest standards. This puts the emphasis for discovery back to producers who are usually poorly equipped to do so. Whilst there are an encouraging number of state and federal

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government schemes designed to assist potential exporters to get into exporting, knowledge of all but a few is very poor. Moreover, most schemes are ephemeral, making keeping abreast of them very demanding. A great deal has been written about the Asian market. However, most of this has been too macro-oriented to be of assistance to a potential exporter of an Asian vegetable(s). RIRDC Project No: AMR-2A RESEARCHER: Mr Grant Vinning ORGANISATION: Asian Markets Research 157 Horizon Drive WESTLAKE QLD 4074 PHONE: 07 3376 2244 FAX: 07 3376 7264

AUSTRALIAN MARKET DEMAND FOR AUSTRALIAN ASIAN VEGETABLES

Objective • To determine baseline market data on the demand for Asian vegetables in Australia. Background Recent studies supported by RIRDC’s Asian Food research and development program have identified that the Australian market is a major consumer of Asian vegetables. RIRDC’s recent research on the Australian Asian vegetables industry has estimated that in 1995 some 80% of the industry’s value of production is consumed locally in Australia. This consumption is occurring through not only the traditional outlets (such as Asian restaurants), but it is also increasing in popularity in major Australian supermarkets. A greater understanding is required of the Asian vegetables, quantity and trends for distribution, and consumption in Australia. Research The research involved an extensive program of over 180 interviews with Asian grocery store retailers, Asian restaurants and major Australian supermarket groups in Sydney and Melbourne.

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Outcomes The total wholesale annual demand for Asian vegetables purchases in Sydney and Melbourne is estimated to be $44 million, and the total Australian market is estimated to be $60 million. Both the Sydney and Melbourne markets are estimating an annual growth rate of over 20%. In Sydney and Melbourne, Asian restaurants, Asian grocery stores and supermarkets are the major outlets for Asian vegetables, with Asian restaurants accounting for some 50% of the trade. However, in terms of future growth demand for Asian vegetables, major Australian supermarkets expect the largest average increase in annual demand of some 38% or $9 million. Implications To foster the viability of the Asian vegetables industry in Australia there is a need for: • Market development with a focus upon consumer research, marketing and consumer

education, and training of trade outlets. • Industry development with a focus upon an understanding of the Asian vegetables

markets, the differing requirements of the trade outlets, improved industry communication, industry investment, research and professional training in the Asian vegetable industry.

RIRDC Project No: CON-2A RESEARCHER: Barry W. Lee ORGANISATION: Connectica International Level 3, 2 Help St CHATSWOOD NSW 2067 PHONE: 02 9415 4200 FAX: 02 9411 8188 EMAIL: blee@world.net

ASIAN FOOD PACKAGING INFORMATION DATABASE (AFPID)

Objective • To provide Australian food interests with a comprehensive and accessible system of

packaging information relating to differing Asian foods categories as required in East

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Asian markets. The project result would be in the format of a database accessible by computer.

Background A priority areas identified in RIRDC’s Asian Food Strategic Workshop in July 1993 was the lack of commercial marketing knowledge of Asian food packaging. Research The project involved the research, collation and documentation of information covering Asian food packaging in 14 east Asian nations. On site market research was undertaken in Brunei, Cambodia, China, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Japan, Korea, Laos, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Taiwan, Thailand and Vietnam. A unique database system containing a large volume of industry specific information was developed, utilising Microsoft Access and Windows, to be made available on floppy disks. Outcomes The project resulted in the production of a 2 diskette database system listing the characteristics of some 2,600 Asian food items across 14 east Asian nations. The database, called AFP10- Asian Foods Packaging Information Database, was jointly funded by RIRDC/Sira International Corporation in April 1996. The cost is $150 for 2 disk set plus $10 p&h. To order call SIRA International.There is potential for an update or expansion of the database in the future dependent upon demand and cost recovery principles. RIRDC Project No: SIR-2A RESEARCHER: Kelvin Fahey ORGANISATION: SIRA International Corporation Pty Ltd GPO Box 2609 CANBERRA ACT 2601 PHONE: 02 6293 1800 FAX: 02 6293 1818

DEVELOPMENT OF AN AUSTRALIAN SEAWEED FOOD INDUSTRY

Objective

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• To establish baseline market, production and research data for the development of an Australian seaweed food industry.

Background As a result of Asian vegetables research conducted under RIRDC’s Asian Foods program, seaweed has been identified as a potential and emerging food industry opportunity for Australia. With the support of the Fisheries Research and Development Corporation (FRDC), RIRDC commissioned this study to establish a more comprehensive understanding of the market and supply opportunities for the Australian seaweed industry. Research The study methodology included: • identification of key industry and research organisations; • a strategic analysis of the Australian seaweed industry; and • identification of key production and marketing factors influencing the industry. Outcomes The key findings from the study are: • The utilisation of seaweed throughout the world is wide and diverse, and accordingly

the seaweed industry should not be viewed as one industry; rather it is a collection of heterogeneous industries.

• Statistics on world seaweed production are not readily available, but it is conservatively estimated that the world seaweed industry is valued at some A$1.5 billion annually, and is equivalent to a world production of over 6 million tonnes of dry weight per annum.

• Recent Australian statistics confirm that Australia is a net importer of seaweed products importing over $16 million of seaweed products in 1995-96, and exporting some $415,000 of seaweed products.

• Very limited information exists on the sustainability of seaweeds as a resource. However, this should not preclude the industry from recognising the potential of seaweed as a resource, and the opportunity to diversify the Australian marine industry.

Implications The commercial utilisation of Australia’s seaweed resource needs to be compatible with the present management strategies of the Australian fisheries industry and the Commonwealth Government. Further objective research data is required on key resource and environmental aspects of seaweed utilisation such as sustainability and biodiversity. The study details conclusions and recommendations for:

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• Industry communication and information. • Research management. • Market research feasibility studies. • Product development. • Trade development. • Research and development. RIRDC Project No: CON-5A RESEARCHERS: Barry W. Lee/Karnig Momdjian ORGANISATION: Connectica International

Level 3, 2 Help St CHATSWOOD NSW 2067

PHONE: 02 9415 4200 FAX: 02 9411 8188

EXPLOITING THE OPPORTUNITIES IN FOOD RETAILING IN EAST ASIA

Objective • To provide practical information on the structure of and the changes taking place in

food retailing in Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Taiwan and Thailand in order to help the Australian agribusiness community to better identify and develop market opportunities for their products.

Background Numerous market research reports have been prepared which discuss in general terms the character of retail and consumer markets in Asia. However, such reports are of little help in supporting the agribusiness community to precisely identify key market opportunities and the practical issues in exploiting those opportunities. This research was designed to fill this information need. Research The research was conducted principally through field visits to the countries under study and an extensive series of face-to-face interviews with senior management from the major retail companies in each country. Over 120 interviews were conducted with food retailers as well as distribution companies, manufacturing companies, property developers and other interested parties. Secondary sources were also extensively reviewed.

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A further element of the study was an overview of grocery retailing trends in Europe as a means to better understand possible future change drivers in Asia. The study was conducted between October 1994 and April 1995. Outcomes Each country studied demonstrates important individual characteristics in the structure of retail and distribution channels. the sophistication of the major food retailers. and the dynamics of their market development. Furthermore, important differences were also found between product channels within the same country. There were, however, identified also a number of common development themes throughout the countries studied. In particular, many supply chains are presently 'pushed' by manufacturers and distributors but will come increasingly to be 'pulled' by major retailers. Implications Clear opportunities were identified and noted for the Australian agribusiness industry in the countries studied. However, carefully targeted and focused strategies need to be employed to maximise the opportunities in the region. Ensuring effective distribution will be a key determinant of success. Where a distribution strategy emphasises a focus on modem distribution channels, understanding specific organisational characteristics will be crucial to success. Further research to establish more clearly the dynamics of market change in these and other countries would be highly valuable. RIRDC Project No: ACR-1A RESEARCHERS: Dr Alan Treadgold ORGANISATION: Australian Centre for Retail Studies

PO Box 197 CAULFIELD EAST VIC 3145

PHONE: 03 9903 2864 FAX: 03 9903 2099

FOOD CULTURE AND PREFERENCES OF INDONESIAN FOOD MARKETS (FOR SMES)

Objective • To prepare and assist small to medium sized enterprises (SMEs) to maximise

opportunities for food exports to Indonesia. Background

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Australia’s economic prosperity and well-being relies, in part, on the ability of its food industry to take advantage of opportunities in the rapidly growing Asian food markets to the north. Some 30% of companies who failed in export drives did so because of a lack of market research, failure to understand Asian culture and lack of knowledge of the market. SMEs are highly susceptible to failure in export business, since their size provides minimal resources for research and for meeting the costs of mistakes in market penetration. In addition, there is a need for suppliers, growers, manufacturers and allied industries to be informed about the Asian food markets. The strength of the Indonesian economy and the growth in its middle class, is creating a growing demand for a wide range of food products. The Indonesian market is important by virtue of its accessibility to Australian exporters and the demands it generates are moderate and therefore are more easily supplied by SMEs than are the larger, more difficult-to-penetrate markets of Northern Asia. However, the information on the market, culture and consumer trends that is critical for SMEs to succeed in Indonesia is not readily available. Research CSIRO’s Sensory Research Centre surveyed SMEs (food) in Australia, to determine their information requirements about exporting food to Indonesia, then consulted market experts for their views on what SME exporters need to know. Bi-lingual staff were used to help gather and translate relevant information in Indonesia and to study A+ consumer attitudes through structured discussion sessions (focus groups) and by questionnaire. The results provide a profile of Indonesian A+ consumers’ shopping habits, favourite foods, preferences for convenience foods, taste for traditional and western flavours, important food attributes and attitudes to imports and western flavours. It shows Indonesian consumers will purchase products which many companies can produce with relative ease. The data in the study should help food companies prepare their market entry or expansion strategies in this important Asian food market and emphasises the importance of understanding cross-cultural sensory perceptions and preferences when doing so. There is also an update on latest trends and statistics and information on regulations and the distribution system. Outcomes Data was collected and collated by the SRC and published as a softcover book “Exporting Food to Indonesia: A guide for Australian Small to Medium Enterprises”. The book has been brought to the attention of food companies through a seminar (February 1997, Sydney), by advertisements in industry journals and newsletters, through interviews, by presentation of research at an international conference

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(International Symposium on Olfaction and Taste XII / Association for Chemoreception Sciences XIX) in San Diego and via the Internet. Implications The food and beverages industry is the largest sector of the manufacturing industry in Australia. There is a need for information on the food culture and eating habits of other potential food markets in South-East Asia, to improve our export performance, reduce the cost of market entry and stimulate rural-based manufacturing and production sectors. RIRDC Project No: SRC-1A RESEARCHERS: Ms Kerry Easton ORGANISATION: CSIRO Sensory Research Centre

PO Box 52 NORTH RYDE NSW 2113

PHONE: 02 9887 8424 FAX: 02 9887 3107

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DEER (*Colin: change format) The Australian deer industry has an estimated gross value of production of around $5 million in 1996-97. The majority of the herd is in NSW and Victoria. Fallow and Red deer make up more than 90 per cent of the national herd. Other breeds (eg Rusa and Chital) are more adapted to tropical regions. Australian venison production in 1996-97 is estimated at around 650 tonnes with around 80 per cent exported - approximately 50 per cent to Europe with most of the remainder to Asia and the USA. Velvet production/harvesting has increased in recent years with about 20 tonnes harvested in 1996-97. Over 75 per cent is marketed by the Australian Velvet Pools Pty Ltd. By way of comparison, the New Zealand deer herd is around 1.5 million with estimated slaughterings of around 300,000 animals in 1996-97. For 1996-97, processed venison production is estimated at around 18,000 tonnes, with velvet production at around 600 tonnes. Research Highlights for 1996-97 • Finalisation and publication of the project on Venison Market

Development Program - Towards 2000. • Development of value-added venison products from forequarter. • Development of stronger linkages between Chinese users of velvet and

Australian producers and a better understanding of velvet market developments.

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ENHANCING THE MARKETABILITY OF VELVET AND CO-PRODUCTS - A MANUAL

Objectives • To raise awareness amongst all sections of industry practitioners in Australia of the

marketing and production best practice in China of velvet and co-products with the aim of assisting Australian market penetration into the Chinese markets (Hong Knog and Taiwan inclusive).

• To assist the industry with information requisite to formation of strategic alliances between Australian deer producers and Chinese buyers.

Background Discussions with the velvet target markets in Hong Kong and China revealed little knowledge of Australia as a producer. Furthermore there are unanimous complaints on the lack of a quality assurance program and grading system for frozen and finished stock that approximated traditional Chinese practice. There was in the Australian industry no widespread knowledge of the unmet market demands or the region specific product specifications for co-products. These factors contribute to poor credibility of Australian deer products making it difficult for local deer farmers or vendors to export directly to Asia. There was therefore a need to redress and close the gaps in product information between producers, Australian and Asian marketers in an effort to improve the competitiveness of Australian velvet and co-products in the Asian markets. Research Invitations to assist with the compilation of the Manual were extended to and accepted by the Tianjin Traditional Chinese Medicine Group Corporation (TTCMGC), the second largest TCM manufacturer in China and the sole legal importer of Australasian velvet, Dr LZ Chen of Tong Ren Tang Australia, Dr Peter McInnes and the Red Deer Society of Australia. Industry consultation was embarked upon to identify the practical and relevant key problem areas to be addressed in the compilation of the Manual. The draft Manual was circulated to the industry for consultation. Invited deer experts from TTCMGC then visited six deer farm locations in Australia to hold skill-share marketing seminars to discuss the draft Manual and to adapt it to Australian conditions. The information derived from the farm visits and the feedback solicited from the industry were then collated and incorporated in the final copy of the Manual. Outcomes

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The compiled Manual provides an insight into the farming, harvesting and marketing of deer velvet and co-products for Chinese markets and gives a useful insight into the factors that contribute to higher productivity and credibility for the products. The meeting with the Chinese deer farmers exposed the local deer industry to an exemplary Chinese deer farm and marketeer and facilitated a fruitful exchange of views and practical farming hints. Implications The findings of the project led to recommendations of strategic marketing guidelines relevant to the new Chinese markets for local green velvet and co-products. It is therefore essential that vehicles be developed to familiarise the industry with the Asian business corporate cultures. Production of high grade velvet requires specialised farming nutritional needs and long term capital investment. The Australian deer farmers need to be skilled in harvesting deer products correctly. The best returns are promised also to those who are prepared to invest in infrastructural support and those who have access to a marketing network. RIRDC Project No: ORD-2A RESEARCHER: Dr Hannah Yiu ORGANISATION: Oriental Distributors Pty Ltd Store 70, Wool Corp Stores 422-436 Somerville Road FOOTSCRAY WEST VIC 3012 PHONE: 03 9315 1711 FAX: 03 9314 7159

VENISON MARKET DEVELOPMENT TOWARDS 2000

Objectives • To develop by appropriate R&D, a permanent position in the food service and specialist

consumer markets for Australian farmed venison. Address the need for market research to measure awareness of and attitudes to venison.

• To secure the positioning through the continued development of a program of quality enhancement using training and exchange of information to farmers, processors and marketers.

• To facilitate the entry into selected export markets by removal of regulatory and protocol constraints and provision of marketing support.

• To communicate the progress and activities in the program by way of regular reporting to all sectors.

Background

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Improvements to the quality and consistency of venison supplied to the food service markets bare being eroded by shortage of appropriate deer to supply venison and by lack of attention to producing product of good eating quality and processed and packed to correct specifications. Little qualitative market research had been conducted to highlight customer attitudes, and the only training and relevant information exchange to the industry was that conducted in the first venison market development project. Research Resource needs were researched and generic material produced for specific markets. Alliances were promoted and qualitative market research was conducted to establish customer attitudes and preferences. A program of public relations, communication and extension was instigated and followed by training workshops for producers and processors and separately for retailers. Focussed tutorials were conducted for the food and general media using a high profile chef. International customer awareness of venison was improved through trade show participation. Outcome As indicated in the final report, the stated objectives were achieved and general improvement in the image of the deer industry and venison product was observed. Implications Results of the project highlighted the need for constant monitoring of consumer attitudes, for a faster rate of improvement in venison processing, boning and packaging and assured eating quality and for adoption of new technology. Increase in deer numbers is critical to future market success and a halt in mass slaughter of female breeding stock must occur. RIRDC Project No: VMD-2A RESEARCHER: Lynelle R. Tume ORGANISATION: Lynelle Tume Consulting 16 Martingale Court CLEVELAND QLD 4163 PHONE: 07 3821 4200 FAX: 07 3821 4211

DEVELOPING VALUE ADDED VENISON PRODUCTS FROM FOREQUARTER

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Objective • To develop a range of value added venison products derived from the forequarter,

for the Australian domestic market, to increase carcass utilisation and demand of venison.

• To construct an industry manual of the value added products to encompass forequarter venison characteristics, formulations, methods of manufacture, processing equipment and product specifications to ensure effective research and development transfer to the manufacturing sector.

Background Venison from the forequarter makes up a considerable proportion of a carcass, and has proven troublesome for venison wholesalers to market. Furthermore, the value of forequarter meat is low, costly to store, and usually in low demand as a raw product. Research To develop the products described it was necessary to determine and describe with accuracy the characteristics of venison. Analysis of protein, fat content, pH, water holding capacity, toughness, muscle structure, and colour of meat, and characterisation of the various fatty acid components of deer fat, plus fat melting properties were determined. The product formulations presented in this manual are based on these analyses, and have been rigorously tested for repeatability. Outcomes The range of products described in the manual is not comprehensive, but represents a number of different types of product that can be utilised in various food marketing sectors. It has been designed so that scale-up production for the various formulations could be achieved easily by following the flow charts provided, with the proviso that these charts may change slightly depending on the equipment available. Implications There are both domestic and export marketing opportunities for the products described. In particular, the convenience foods (finger foods) represent perhaps only the tip of the iceberg for marketing potential in a world increasingly geared towards purchasing prepared meals. This study has demonstrated that forequarter venison is both suitable and readily available for manufacture of such products, and that product consistency is achievable. Large scale uptake of forequarter and trim may require industry pooling of this product, to make manufacture of various product lines economically feasible. The challenge is now with the deer industry to further develop the potential of these products. RIRDC Project No: UWS-8A

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RESEARCHER: Dr Robert Mulley ORGANISATION: University of Western Sydney - Hawkesbury RICHMOND NSW 2753 PHONE: 045 701 438 FAX: 045 701 255 EMAIL: r.mulley@uws.edu.au PUBLICATIONS: RIRDC Research Paper 96/8, (1996). A Manufacturers Guide to Venison Forequarter.

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ESSENTIAL OILS & PLANT EXTRACTS

(*COLIN: CHANGE FORMAT)

There is growing interest in essential oils in Australia. The current value of production (excluding tea tree oil but including the refining of imported eucalyptus oils) is $6-7 million farmgate and $20-25 million wholesale/retail a year. The principal foci for essential oil production are Tasmania and Victoria. Essential oils are largely used in the food flavouring and fragrance industries but their use in aromatherapy and other health care areas is growing. The success of the pyrethrum, poppy, and hop industries, with a combined farmgate GVP of some $27 million, suggests that there are significant opportunities for producing plant extracts from both native and exotic species. Australia has a comparative advantage as a reliable supplier of clean, good quality, unique oils and extracts based on the use of high technology in both production and extraction. Research Highlights for 1996-97 • Establishment of a breeding program for eucalypt oil production. • Harvesting and preparation of geranium for oil extraction. • Development of high value food and industrial products from coriander

seed. • Investigation into the commercial feasibility of evening primrose as an

alternative essential oil crop. • Development of a new commercial flavour product from Tasmannia

lanceolata.

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EVENING PRIMROSE AS AN ALTERNATIVE ESSENTIAL OIL CROP IN TASMANIA

Objective • To assess the potential for Evening Primrose (Oenethera spp.) as an alternative

essential oil crop in the Northern Midlands of Tasmania. Research The program evaluated the yield and quality of a number of varieties on commercial properties, and determined appropriate production techniques. Long term the project aimed to develop an evening primrose industry in Tasmania. Outcomes The world market for evening primrose is largely supplied by the UK, Canada and China (with China being the largest player). New Zealand was a producer (around 200 t/year) but is presently growing very little primrose due to depressed world prices. For Tasmania to be competitive on world markets primrose produced would need to yield in excess of 1 t/ha with a GLA exceeding 10%. This was not able to be achieved in the two years of the trial (primarily due to agronomic features of the crop). An alternative source of GLA on the world market is provided by a crop called Borage (Borago officinalis). Due to the difficulties encountered in producing evening primrose under Tasmanian conditions, borage was trialed in 1995-96. The results were extremely encouraging with estimated yields of up to 2 t/ha at one site (any yield over 0.5 t/ha is considered commercially viable). The quality of the borage seed was acceptable with oil yields ranging from 25 to 33% and GLA averaging approximately 24%. Borage was found to be readily easy to establish and grow, with little problem associated with weed control and disease. The major difficulty with borage production is determining appropriate harvest time, where the window of opportunity is as little as several hours. Implications The production of evening primrose will not be pursued by the research organisation of the local farming industry involved in this project, however the production of borage will be further assessed. Contacts with major pharmaceutical companies in both Australia and Europe have been established, with both extremely interested in assisting to develop a Tasmanian industry.

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RIRDC Project No: AMM-1A RESEARCHER: Tim Douglas ORGANISATION: Agricultural Management & Marketing Pty Ltd PO Box 41 PORT SORELL TAS 7307 PHONE: 004 287 032 FAX: 004 287 032

EUCALYPT OIL PRODUCTION - ESTABLISHMENT OF A BREEDING PROGRAM

Objective • To assist the establishment of a breeding program for eucalypt oil production in the

blue mallee (Eucalyptus polybractea) by means of five separate studies. Background The field production of eucalypt oil on a commercial basis in Australia is concentrated on the use of a single species, the blue mallee, in two areas - West Wyalong in NSW and St Arnaud/Inglewood/Wedderburn in Victoria. Originally production was based on field cutting of natural stands but recent development of plantations allows breeding to improve production. The five studies provided information to assist in the establishment of a breeding program. The ability to propagate material vegetatively is valuable in tree breeding programs. Clonal plantations using vegetatively propagated material, (usually cuttings), provide a quick method of getting genetically proven material into production. However previous studies indicated cuttings of blue mallee have no lignotubers and this could be a serious defect as the lack of a lignotuber might inhibit reshooting after harvest. Research and Outcomes A simple vegetative propagation facility has been established at West Wyalong and is operating successfully. The possibility of using the leaf residue after oil extraction as a potting mix in which to strike the cuttings has been studied. This material is readily available but unfortunately does not give good results and its use is not recommended. Detailed field examination of cuttings before and after harvest indicated that they do produce lignotubers but rather more slowly than do seedlings. Both cuttings and

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seedlings reshoot from the stem and not just from lignotubers. The buds providing the new shoots are those closest to the top of the stump regardless of whether these are in a lignotuber. The indications are that cuttings could be used in production plantations. The assessment of oil production and quality using a gas chromatograph was developed and compared to an older procedure - the ortho-cresole method. Both methods gave comparable results especially when ranking the trees. However the gas chromatograph required smaller samples of leaves and allowed large numbers of trees to be assessed more quickly. About 120 trees were assessed for oil production and quality in an area at West Wyalong which was to be converted to seed production. However this was not proceeded with as another area became available with much less risk of pollen contamination. The blue mallee proved more superior to two other species, E.kochii and E.plenissima from Western Australia. The relative performance of progeny of trees from Victorian and NSW sources of the blue mallee was compared, particularly for oil production per weight of leaf an oil quality. In almost all characteristics studied there were some good parent trees and some poor from each location. The differences between individual trees were so great that they overshadowed the differences between the locations. The recommendation was therefore to use high quality trees regardless of their origin and not to make any special attempt to use Victorian or NSW trees at West Wylong. Implications The studies have shown that a breeding program can be established to improve oil production in E. polybractea. Seed from both the NSW and Victorian origins should be used. RIRDC Project No: ANU-10A RESEARCHERS: Dr M U Slee Mrs C Davis Mr A Carter G R Davis Pty Ltd ORGANISATIONS: Department of Forestry “Tallimbalong” ANU RMB 554 CANBERRA ACT 0200 WEST WYALONG NSW 2671 PHONE: 02 6249 2224 FAX: 02 6249 0746 PUBLICATIONS: Slee, M U, Davis C C, Mitchell A G and Mutenduedzi M. (1993) “Oil production with

respect to leaf shape, size and weight in blue mallee (Eucalytus polybractea) at West Wylong, NSW, Australia.” Poster presentation 2nd European Symposium on Industrial Crops and Products. Pisa, Italy, 1993.

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Slee, M U, Davis C C, Mitchell and M Mutenduedzi. (1995). “Variation in leaf and oil production in Blue Mallee.” Proc. CRC-IUFRO Conference “Eucalypt Plantations: Improving Fibre Yield and Quality”, Hobart, Tasmania, 1995.251

Slee, M U and C C Davis. (1995). “Oil production in blue mallee (Eucalyptus polybractea) at West Wyalong, NSW”. Poster presentation ‘Tools or Toys - Applications of New Technologies in Forestry’, Ballarat, Victoria, April 1995.

TASMANNIA LANCEOLATA - A NEW NATURAL FLAVOUR PRODUCT

Objectives • To develop a technical database for commercial and horticultural development of the

species both as a naturally occurring forest resource and as a cultivated plantation crop. • To develop extraction and product preparation methodologies for commercial application

and to the high standard required by the flavour and fragrance industry. • To establish the species and its extracts as a natural source of high value, high purity

products for the flavour and fragrance industry. Background Tasmannia lanceolata (Poiret) A C Smith is an understorey shrub of wet sclerophyll mountain gullies and woodlands of Tasmania, Victoria and New South Wales. It bears a dark pea sized fruit, known colloquially as ‘Mountain Pepper’, and its leaves and fruit yield an extract with a powerful spicy aroma redolent of the wet forests from its natural habitat. The spicy, ‘hot’ character of the oil has immediate appeal as a distinctive replacement for the three main sources of spicy heat - capsicum, black pepper and ginger. In 1989 and 1990, samples of a number of extracts of selected Tasmannia lanceolata were prepared and taken by the Chief Executive of the Tasmanian company, Essential Oils of Tasmania, to flavour and fragrance houses in Europe, the United States and Japan for commercial assessment. Trial samples of approximately one kilogram would be necessary to establish potential use by fragrance and flavour houses in geographic areas identified by the initial survey. This aspect of the work would assist in the identification of joint partners for GRAS registration. Aboriginal usage and interest by early European settlers may assist in establishing a history of safe use. Research The preparation, extraction, analysis and identification of solvent soluble compounds from leaf material of Tasmannia lanceolata were examined. A preliminary survey of extracts of some members of the natural population of the species in Tasmania was conducted. Oil

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bearing structures were studied, and the progressive accumulation of a number of leaf extract constituents was monitored. The effect of various light levels and canopy structures was investigated. Market research was undertaken to gauge user preferences. Outcomes • Suitable methods for extraction were developed, along with an analytical technique for

polygodial. • A wide variety of extract yields and compositions were revealed, from even a small

selection of the available material. • Polygodial was shown to be stored within specialised structures scattered throughout the

leaf tissue, and characterised by distinctive size and shape and a thickened wall. • The seasonal variation of key compounds in the extract, and the data obtained relating to

dry matter accumulation enable the identification of a suitable harvest period within which leaf material will produce a consistent product an maximum yield.

• Results indicated that mature leaves were capable of recovering their photosynthesis ability after removal of overtopping leaves.

• There were definite indications that the market has a preference for extracts with significant levels of polyodial and other more subtle aroma characteristics. There is a need to register the product with appropriate regulatory bodies for full market acceptance.

Implications Clearly the marketing imperatives must be addressed as a matter of urgency if the product is to be used world wide. The development of a reliable means of assessing the desirable flavour, fragrance and compositional characteristics of the product is already underway, in the second RIRDC funded research project, building on the work completed during 1992-95. Key aspects of this work are the assessment of the rich variety of leaf extracts available from the natural population of the species and development of a plantation resource, and product registration for use in flavours and fragrances. RIRDC Project No: UT-6A RESEARCHERS: Professor R C Manary, Chris Read & Sandra Garland ORGANISATION: Dept. Agricultural Science University of Tasmania GPO Box 2520 HOBART TAS 7000 PHONE: 002 20 2723 FAX: 002 20 7609

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DETERMINING PESTICIDE MINIMUM RESIDUE LIMITS IN ESSENTIAL OILS

Objective • To develop analytical methods for the determination of the ten key pesticides; Goal

(Oxyfluorfen), Linuron, Mecoprop, Tramat (Ethofumesate), Folicur (Tebliconazole), Stomp (Pendimethalin), Carbaryl, Simazine, Carbendazim and Monocrototophos in essential oils and to test this methodology on field samples collected from trials of application rate and timing.

Background In a market which increasingly demands data to support assurance of quality, the competitive edge of Tasmanian products needs an effective base and recognised analytical capabilities. Research Experiments were undertaken to: • isolate and purify the active ingredients of pesticides; • develop analytical techniques to detect residues of pesticides in essential oils; • monitor 1994, 1995 and 1996 boronia harvests for the presence of residues of the main

pesticides used for the control of rust and insects; and • establish field trials to follow the degradation profile of pesticides in essential oil crops. Outcomes • Analytical techniques were developed for the analysis of 14 pesticides used in the

essential oil industry. • Trials of Folicur, Tilt and Starane monitored the levels of residue in crips from the time

of pesticide application through until harvest. • The products of harvests in 1993, 1994 and 1995 were monitored for the presence of

pesticide residues. • A marked decrease is the levels of Tilt residues detected in crops over successive years

was achieved through consultation with farmers. Implications Residues of some of the main fungicides used by the essential oils industry can be detected in the final oil product. Implementation of the pest management programs recommended, however, should not produce residue levels above the minimum acceptable levels

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standardised by the international regulatory bodies, such as CODEX and the European Union. Data from the time series studies will be used by industry to make informed decisions as the to minimum withholding period between pesticide application and harvest date. The analytical methods developed in this project are readily adaptable to extend these time series studies to many of the major pesticides used in the natural plant extract industry. A strong research base should be maintained to supply information about the long term implications of using chemicals to enhance crop quality and yield. Problems with the high level of Tilt residues in boronia concrete were highlighted during this study and improvements were realised by the next growing season. The obvious benefit of producing a quality extract with lower residue levels is accompanied by the reduced cost in lower application rates of pesticides required for effective pest management. RIRDC Project No: UT-8A RESEARCHERS: Professor R C Menary, S M Garland ORGANISATION: Dept of Agricultural Science University of Tasmania GPO Box 252C HOBART TAS 7001 PHONE: 03 6226 2723 FAX: 03 6220 7609

DEVELOPING HIGH-VALUE FOOD AND INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTS FROM CORIANDER SEED

Objective • To determine the technical and economic feasibility of establishing a new regional

processing industry in southern Australia based on the production and export of high-value essential oils, spices and other products from coriander seed.

Background Australian production of coriander seed in 1993 was approximately 3,500 t, mostly from South Australia and western Victoria. Most of this crop was being exported as whole seed to SE Asia. At that time, world prices for coriander products were relatively high, good yields were being obtained in some cropping systems and a continuing increase was forecast. Preliminary market and technical research indicated an opportunity for the growth and diversification of this emerging industry through the development of value-added products such as essential oils and spices.

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Research In a two-year project funded by RIRDC, Agriculture Victoria and Manesty Holdings Pty Ltd (S.A), product and process development research was conducted into the production of high-quality oils and spice products from various types of coriander seed. Both steam-distilled and carbon dioxide (CO²) - extracted oils were developed and evaluated, together with ground seed products. Further market research was conducted in relation to food, food ingredients and fragrance export markets in Japan, South-East Asia, Europe and USA, using product samples produced in the initial stages of the project. Outcomes The technical feasibility of using dense CO² to simultaneously extract and fractionate lipids and essential oils from Australian-grown coriander seed was demonstrated. Good yields of high quality steam-distilled essential oil and hammer-milled spice powder were obtained from the same material. Market research identified keen interest in these products from local and overseas food and fragrance companies. A significant fall in world prices for coriander oils occurred in 1994-95, largely due to increased production in Russia and eastern Europe. Concurrently, most coriander crops in southern Australia suffered severe yield losses, due to disease and lodging, during two unusually cool and wet summers. There agronomic problems were worse with the high-oil cultivars that are required for essential oil production. Research into ground coriander resulted in the establishment of a new farm-based industry in Maitland, SA, producing spice for domestic and export markets from material that was formerly sold as low-value unprocessed seed. Implications CO² extraction of coriander oil was not recommended for further development, due to unfavourable economic and agronomic factors associated with coriander production, processing costs and market prices. Production of steam-distilled coriander oil from locally grown crops might be commercially viable in southern Australia as part of a wider essential oil or spice business. There are good prospects for the continued growth of the SA ground spice industry alongside the established and successful commercial production whole coriander seed, subject to the maintenance of favourable work process and economic and sustainable crop yields. RIRDC Project No: DAV-72A RESEARCHER: Dr Martin Palmer ORGANISATION: Department of Natural Resources & Environment

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Sneydes Road WERRIBEE VIC 3030 PHONE: 03 9742 0251 FAX: 03 9742 0204

HARVESTING AND PREPARATION OF GERANIUM PLANTS FOR OIL EXTRACTION

Objective • To develop a mechanised system for the harvesting of Pelargonium graveolens

cultivated as a row crop in preparation for production of an essential oil. Background The oil containing glands on this cultivar are superficially located on the leaves and as such necessitate the careful handling of the crop to minimise evaporative losses prior to distillation. The importance of this redistillation evaporation is made even more significant by the low yield of this plant under even the most rigorous conditions (typical yield 0.08 %). As the plants regrow and allow three harvests annually the level of damage to the residual plant by the cutting technique is very significant from the viewpoint of subsequent plant pathology. Research Prior to the commencement of this project, a survey of different harvesting systems available commercially in Australia was conducted from the viewpoint of potential ability of these systems to cause premature release of essential oil to the atmosphere. Then trials were conducted of the most suitable systems measuring oil yields on a weight / weight basis utilising a hand harvested samples as the control. A reciprocating cutter bar was selected as the appropriate method for cutting the plant material in the field. A commercial hand operated grass seed cutter with a reciprocating bar was used to assess the stem damage in trial plots. Follow up over a six month period showed no statistically significant change in rates of plant pathology using this cutting system. At this point design of a harvesting system with a reciprocating cutter bar for a single row was commenced. Once again, after assessing what was commercially available, it was decided to use a conveyor belt to deliver harvested material to a field bin to minimise evaporative losses when compared to pneumatically conducted biomass. Outcome

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After three years and numerous modifications there is now a selipropelled single row harvester which collects biomass with minimal extraneous material. The field bin doubles as a distillation vessel to minimise handling. The harvester is powered by a four cylinder petrol engine (1600 cc) and uses hydraulics to control forward propulsion, cutter bar speed, cutting height, conveyor belt speed and steering. Implications This system could be modified to suit a variety of oil bearing crops. It also will have considerable significance in the harvesting of medicinal herb crops because of the minimal extraneous material collected during the harvesting process. This mechanised process wit allow Australia to compete more effectively against established cheap labour countries already producing geranium and other similar essential oils. RIRDC Project No: MIC-1A RESEARCHER: Dr Graham Michael ORGANISATION: Green Leaf Extracts Pty Ltd

Robinson Road MS 582 TOOWOOMBA QLD 4350

PHONE: 076 966 125 FAX: 076 966 124 EMAIL: Gmichael@t130.aone.net.au

GENETIC RESOURCES OF BORONIA MEGASTIGMA FOR ESSENTIAL OIL PRODUCTION, AND B. HETEROPHYLLA AND B. PURDIEANA FOR FLORICULTURE

Objectives • To locate natural populations of Boronia heterophylla, B. purdieatza and B.

megastigma and assess their conservation status. • To determine the floristic qualities of B. heterophylla and B. purdieana and essential

oil content and quality of B. megastigma in representative individuals from these populations.

• To cultivate propagated plants under different systems at various field sites to determine the requirements for optimum production of flowers and high quality essential oils.

Background

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The current boronia industry for both cut flower and essential oil production is based on a very narrow genome. The natural populations have diminished and the remainder is threatened. A broader genetic base is required to improve quality and productivity, extend the colour range and season of harvest. Research & Outcomes Many populations of Boronia heteroplzylla, B. purdieatza and B. megastigma have declined, died out or been replaced with agriculture or urban development. Most of the remaining populations were sampled. Virtually all B. heterophylla flower within a period of two weeks. This occurred across different field sites in the south west of Western Australia. Plant growth regulators could only shift flowering by 6 days and this is not commercially viable. Shading improved flowering slightly but this could not be recommended for commercial use. Two selections flowered outside the usual two week period. One flowered two weeks ahead of the commercial "Red" variety, is vigorous, produces good flowering stems, has a postharvest life of greater than 7 days without treatment, and has been submitted for Part A Plant Breeders Rights. Another selection appears to be late and it is being trialed in Denmark, WA. Virtually all B. heteroplzylla were red. However, several selections with pale pink flowers were identified in 1995/6. These will flower in cultivation in 1997. Most B. purdieana have a short or prostrate habit unsuitable for cut flower production. However tall, vigorous, floriferous forms were identified. Postharvest life is >7 days. They are difficult to propagate but have much better survival rate in the field in Mundijong than other Boronia. These superior selections will flower in cultivation in 1997. They will probably be suitable for planting in hot dry conditions, for which they are naturally adapted. Southern plantings in Western Australia did not grow and flower well. There was a considerable range in survival rate, plant vigour, flowering time, floriferousness, postharvest life, content of oil components and ease of harvest in B. megastigma. Two selections were exceptional in the categories leading to high, good quality oil yield and negotiations are underway for their sale and protection. RIRDC Project No: UWA-16A RESEARCHERS: Dr Julie A. Plummer & Prof John A. Considine ORGANISATION: University of Western Australia Plant Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture NEDLANDS WA 6009 PHONE: 09 380 1782 FAX: 09 380 1108 EMAIL: jplummer@cyllene.uwaedu.au

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RARE NATURAL ANIMAL FIBRES (*Colin: change format) This program can incorporate cashmere, mohair, alpaca fibre and camel hair projects. To date the R&D has been limited to mohair and cashmere since these industries fund R&D via means of levies on fibre sales. The financial return from cashmere, and to a lesser extent mohair, fell during 1996-97. Mohair production was reduced from about 435 tonnes in 1995-96 to an estimated 350 tonnes in 1996-97. This amount represents less than 2 per cent of world production. Cashmere production is less than 1 per cent of world production. The average reduction of about 20 per cent in Australia in the price of cashmere in 1996-97 is a result of the small market share and our vulnerability as a “price-taker”. Increasing the efficiency of production and the effectiveness of producing what is required in processing are means of increasing returns. Research Highlights for 1996-97 • Reports on the economics of commercial cashmere and angora goat

enterprises, and on a development program for the cashmere and mohair industries.

• Publication of a report on developing Faure Island goats to grow long

stapled cashmere-fibre quality, productivity and genetics. • Additional funding has been given to the University of WA to ensure, by

technical assistance and direction, that a high calibre breeding analysis occurs.

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DEVELOPING GOATS TO GROW LONG STAPLED CASHMERE

Objectives • To select from a diverse population of Faure Island goats, goats which produced

450g of saleable 19 uc dehaired cashmere or 1.1 kg of raw greasy 22 uc Faure fibre. • To determine the production and fleece characteristics of the base flock. • To estimate the heritability of the major traits that determine economic performance. • To measure the repeatability of fleece measurements over time. • To measure the progeny of the mating of Faure sires with feral cashmere type does. Background Strong cashmere and “cashgora” represent about 15% of the down sold by the Australian cashmere industry. Gross margin analysis prior to this project indicated that financial returns from “cashgora” production exceeded returns from cashmere production but this position has reversed. The population studied offered a potential for production of worsted length cashmere and for increasing cashmere production by crossbreeding, an area of research not scientifically explored by the cashmere industry. Research The research flock was grazed under commercial conditions near Horsham, Victoria. Selected bucks were single sire mated to known groups of measured does. Goats were shorn at 5, 10 and 17 months of age. Fleece samples were objectively measured and results used to select sires and dams for the breeding flock and to determine genetic data. Fibre was also trial processed. Outcomes All project objectives were achieved. The staple length of goats growing strong cashmere was > 7.5 cm sufficient to enable worsted spinning of this fibre. All the major economic traits were highly heritable including fibre style, down fibre diameter and down production. Generally it was not advisable to rely on the measurements of traits at 10 months of age because much of the additive genetic variations of the more important later trait was unaccounted for at the earlier age. Faure dams were superior to feral cashmere dams for almost all traits except mean down fibre diameter in which case there was little age. Following commercial processing dehaired strong cashmere tops had less than 2% of fibres greater than 30 uc.

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Recommendations for the preparation of further lots of strong cashmere for obtaining good processing performance have been made. Selected strong cashmere style Faure goats offer a valuable genetic resource for the production of long stapled strong cashmere. Implications Further development of goats to grow long stapled cashmere has the potential to significantly increase cashmere production and profitability. Preliminary processing has shown that long stapled cashmere produces acceptable textile fibre. Industry can obtain significantly greater financial benefits from this product by improved marketing. Further development of the cashmere industry depends in large part on the widespread application of genetic improvement programs and the careful use of crossbreeding. RIRDC Project No: DAV-45A RESEARCHER: Bruce McGregor ORGANISATION: Victorian Institute of Animal Science Agriculture Victoria 475 Mickleham Road ATTWOOD VIC 3049 PHONE: 03 9217 4260 FAX: 03 9217 4299 E-MAIL: mcgregorb@woody.agvic.gov.au PUBLICATIONS: McGregor, B A. (1996). The potential for Faure goats and for crossbreeding to develop

Australia’s goat industries, Proceedings of Seminar June 22, Horsham, Victoria. Ed. B A McGregor. pp 76. (Agriculture Victoria: Attwood).

Letts, S. (1996). Faure Goats. In: Landline 21st July 1996. (Australian Broadcasting Commission: Melbourne).

ECONOMIC STUDY OF THE CASHMERE AND MOHAIR INDUSTRY

Objectives • To identify factors to assist decisions on inventing into the raising of cashmere or

angora goats. • To determine gross margin returns for cashmere and angora goat enterprises. Background

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The likely returns from cashmere and angora goats compared to other enterprises is of paramount importance in investing in a livestock industry. It is also likely that some of the prejudice that many landholders seem to have against goats would disappear if superior returns are determined. Research An economist approach was used in this research, which had four main steps: • Calculation and comparison of Gross Margins on a per Dry Sheep Equivalent (DSE)

basis and on a per $100 of livestock capital basis. • If the results of the above analyses look attractive, then proceed to estimate the

capital required to get into the venture. • Preparation of a partial budget to calculate the return on capital from the investment. • If the partial budget is favourable, look to the longer term/preparation of a cash flow

projection and use of discounting to calculate a net present value and an internal rate of return. These results then have to be compared to other investments on the farm.

Outcomes and Implications Cashmere A cashmere enterprise is a realistic enterprise choice for many farmers seeking diversification and for farmers with specific weed problems that goats are known to control or eliminate. The market for cashmere fibre was depressed in the early 1990s but the fibre should always be in demand by the world’s increasing numbers of affluent people. However volatility in prices can always occur. The biggest impediments to larger goat industries in general are currently the capital required to get fencing right and altering negative perceptions or damage caused by goats. Angora On today’s prices, an Angora goat enterprise compares favourable with other enterprises on a per DSE basis especially with the use of the new Texan and South African blood lines. To achieve high gross margins management must be of a high standard. Investment into angora goats is a more attractive proposition when capital requirements for improvement, fencing, yards, shearing facilities are only small. Also the investment is particularly attractive if the goats play a part in a weed control program or pasture management program. However an analysis of historical prices paid for mohair show considerable volatility and most farmers would be wise to rely on other income besides that produced from angora goats. General For commencing either cashmere or angora enterprises one of the following situations should occur: • when overall carry capacity is increased because there is a lot of browse available on

the farm; • when weed control costs are reduced; • when the capital outlay to commence the enterprise is low; or

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• when the Gross Margins per DSE are higher for goats than the competing enterprises. RIRDC Project No: Consultancy Project RESEARCHER: Lloyd Davies ORGANISATION: NSW Agriculture PO Box 123 MAITLAND NSW 2320 PHONE: 049 302 435 FAX: 049 302 410

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TEA TREE OIL (*COLIN: change format) Tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia) is native to the north coast of New South Wales. Its oil has gained widespread therapeutic use for fungal and microbial infections but is not yet registered for use by the medical profession. The current annual production of tea tree oil in Australia is about 200 tonnes, having a farmgate value of around $10 million. Because of recent plantings in northern NSW and in North Queensland, it is likely that supply will exceed market demand, at least in the short-term, and hence depress prices. Current hopes for continued and increased market demand are largely based on acceptance of tea tree oil by the US Food and Drug Authority for first aid and health care. The outcomes of recent industry/RIRDC sponsored submissions are still not clear but a face-to-face consultation with the US FDA in 1995 indicated certain deficiencies in submissions to date. These deficiencies are currently being addressed. Research Highlights for 1996-97 • Publication of reports on the antimicrobial activity of tea tree oil,

demonstrating its efficacy in controlling a range of bacteria. • Achievement of significant increases in oil yield and quality by selecting

between tea tree lines of different provenance. Improved seed was widely sold.

• Completion of report on non-chemical control of weeds in tea tree. • Development of a sustainable pest management strategy for tea tree. • Development of a north Queensland tea tree oil industry.

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INSECT PEST MANAGEMENT IN TEA TREE

Objectives To develop an effective sustainable pest management strategy for the Pyrgo beetle and other pests of tea tree by: • correlating the incidence of Pyrgo in the field with weather parameters, and refining

the maximum temperature threshold values for larval and egg survival to account for field observations and to improve predictive modelling;

• evaluating a monitoring procedure for detecting Pyrgo in the field; and • screening selected insecticides and other chemicals for efficacy against Pyrgo in the

laboratory and the field. Background The tea tree industry of northern NSW and southern Queensland has developed over the last 20 years from a fledgling cottage industry into a substantial producer of some 260 tonnes of tea tree oil per annum. The early industry was based on bush harvesting but has now progressed to one of plantation culture using improved cultivars on more than 4,000 ha. Although the industry faces a number of problems, one of the more important affecting production is caused by a number of insect pests - the major one being Pyrgo beetle. Insect problems are recognised and acknowledged by most growers, but little is known about the ecology of Pyrgo, and this has limited the development and implementation of appropriate control strategies. The industry has been promoted as being “clean and green”, implying minimal or no use of insecticides, but this is belied by the substantial evidence (residues in the oil) showing that unregistered insecticides have been used on many crops. This is partly caused by the paucity of insecticides (only one is registered for use in NSW) legally available to growers, and there is clearly the need for a range of products to be available for use. If rational insect control strategies are to be developed and implemented for the industry, then it is important to have a better understanding of the ecology of the pests concerned. Once this is established, potential insecticide and other control measures can then be devised and evaluated. Research Considerable field and laboratory research has been undertaken over the last three years to investigate the various factors which, collectively, result in loss of foliage and oil production. These have included studies on the ecology of the insects concerned, on the development of systems for monitoring the first occurrence and incidence of insects in

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plantations, on screening cultivars for insect resistance, and on evaluating a range of insecticides and other chemicals for potential use in chemical control strategies. This latter activity was instigated part of the way through the project, when insecticide residues were detected in oil - from crops clearly treated (illegally) with insecticides not registered for the purpose. Outcomes There is now an excellent understanding of the ecology of Pyrgo and some of the other insects which also cause yield losses. A practical monitoring system based on sticky yellow traps has been developed and this will allow the more rational application of control strategies including the reduction in use of insecticide treatments. Several alternative insecticides have been evaluated, and been shown to provide more effective control than the current sole product (methomyl). Implications Growers now have a better understanding of the population dynamics of Pyrgo, and of the importance of other insect pests such as mites and psyllids. With the development of improved monitoring using sticky yellow traps, there is now the opportunity to detect the presence of Pyrgo earlier than on-plant inspections, to allow the identification of localised areas of beetle activity, and to reduce insecticide costs by rationalising their use. There may be an added opportunity for the industry to employ scouts to undertake this monitoring and to advise growers on the need to use insecticide treatments. Illegal use of non-registered insecticides is a potential “time bomb” that, if not addressed quickly, will seriously harm the industry. Several potential insecticide products have been evaluated and found to be more effective than the current permitted product, methomyl. Steps should be taken urgently to secure their registration for use on tea tree. This project has highlighted the need for further research on control of mites and psyllids, and on the screening of insecticides to determine their potential for leaving residues in oil. RIRDC Project No: DAN-91A RESEARCHER: Mr Gus Campbell ORGANISATION: NSW Agriculture PO Box 72 ALSTONVILLE NSW 2477 PHONE: 066 28 0604 FAX: 066 28 5209

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TOWARDS NON-CHEMICAL CONTROL OF WEEDS IN TEA TREE

Objectives • To survey tea tree growers to establish the range of weed problems encountered, and

the scope of current weed control techniques used in tea tree cultivation. • To identify the mechanisms by which weeds inhibit the growth and oil production of

established tea tree plantations. • To define practical methods of weed control for plantation managers, which minimise

the use of herbicides. Background The perception of the tea tree industry is that weeds inhibit plantation production in two phases - establishment and regrowth. The extent to which weeds affect the regrowth of tea tree by competing for light, nutrients and water has not been quantified, but the industry perception is that it is a real but variable problem. It is postulated that weed problems are linked to loss of fine roots of tea tree following coppicing. In these situations, the tea tree plant has weakened competitive ability against rapidly growing annual weeds until regrowth has been well established. The use of herbicides, as is currently practiced, is seen as damaging to the image of the product (tea tree oil), by growers and potential consumers. A range of cultural practices additionally used by growers, could form the basis of a non-chemical system of weed control in plantations. This study seeks to evaluate these alternatives. The information gained should provide guidance on when weed control is required during the regrowth cycle, and what the method used must achieve if it is to be successfully adopted. Research A wide range of pot and field experiments were conducted to provide more information on the nature of root and top growth in coppiced tea trees, to allow a better understanding of the physiology of the crop in competition with weeds at different stages of its regrowth. The response to nitrogen nutrition was also examined. Concurrently, other studies were undertaken to determine the effectiveness of various weed control strategies such as herbicide use (overall and strip treatments), cover crops, mowing, mechanical cultivation, and hand hoeing. These trials were undertaken at several localities over a three year period. Outcomes

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The results of these studies showed that weeds reduced tea tree leaf yields by an average 27% (range 9 to 47), but without affecting oil concentration or quality. This loss in yield is associated with competition for light, water and nutrients (especially nitrogen). Two features of the regrowth cycle of tea tree are thought to be relevant to the crop’s competitiveness after harvest: the first, “coppice vigour” (the high relative growth rate of new shoots from the cut stump) increases the crop’s ability to compete for light; while the second, death of fine roots about halfway through the regrowth cycle, reduces the crop’s ability to compete for water and nutrients in the latter half of the regrowth cycle. When all weed control strategies were compared, herbicides continued to provide the most effective control, while mechanical cultivation was the best of the non-chemical methods. Other strategies used by the industry may also be effective, but they need to be assessed against these two standards. Implications While the use of herbicides still provides the most effective method of weed control, non-chemical methods can also be used but, irrespective of the method selected, it is imperative that it be implemented in the latter half of the regrowth cycle when competition from weeds is greatest. RIRDC Project No: US-20A RESEARCHERS: Dr BG Sutton & Dr RD Cousins Dr J Murtagh ORGANISATION: School of Crop Sciences Agricultural Waste Mgt Sydney University NSW 2006 GOONELLABAH NSW 2480 PHONE: 02 9692 2050 066 251 510 FAX: 02 9692 4172 066 245 207

BREEDING AND SELECTION OF AUSTRALIAN TEA TREE FOR IMPROVED OIL YIELD AND QUALITY

Objective • To select and breed seed for economic gains in oil characteristics. Gains in yield and

quality are considered essential if the Australian tea tree industry is to prosper against overseas competition and the downward pressure on oil prices.

Background

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The Australian tea tree industry has developed from bush production to plantation production. Seed for planting is collected from natural populations using only rudimentary selection to ensure that oil quality meets industry standards. The yields of oil from plantations are variable; there is much scope to improve both the amount and quality of the yield. Research During the first three years of the project (1993-1996), seven field trials were established to determine the genetic variability in oil yield and quality. Two of these trials were then developed as seed orchards to provide improved seed to the industry. A natural stand of 783 trees was sampled, trees were analysed and ranked for oil concentration, terpinen-4-ol and cineole. Selecting the best 74 trees for seed production provides a selection pressure of >1:10. This ratio will enable genetic gain for selected traits. A progeny trial of 204 families will be further tested for oil characteristics, superior trees selected and inferior trees culled to prevent them breeding with superior trees. The superior trees will grow on and flower to produce genetically improved seed. The coppicing ability of families grown at different sites will also be used to select superior families in the orchard. Outcomes Variation of key commercial traits were significant at the provenance, family and individual tree levels. Heritability (narrow sense) was high (0.51) for oil concentration, moderate (0.37) for cineole% and low for the growth parameters of plant height (0.21) and stem diameter (0.14). No adverse genetic correlations were found between oil concentration and plant height and diameter. The performance of families across two sites (family x site interaction) was reasonably consistent, indicating that it will be possible to select families with good general adaptability in a single breeding population, thus avoiding the extra cost of establishing multiple breeding populations in different environments. The best performing provenances were identified and seed from these areas will be released to the industry. The controlled pollinations in 1995 have produced seeds, indicating that the methodology used has potential. Implications All the indicators from the first phase of breeding point to very substantial economic gains being achieved by the breeding project. Three years is a very short time in tree breeding and more time is needed to produce the much improved seed required to ensure the successful development and survival of this industry.

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RIRDC Project No. DAN-87A RESEARCHERS: John Murtagh Gary Baker John Doran ORGANISATION: Agric. Water Man. NSW Agriculture CSIRO 2 Sunnybank Av. Wollongbar Agric. Inst. PO Box E4008 Goonellabah NSW 2480 Wollongbar NSW 2477 Kingston ACT 2604 PHONE: 066 251510 066 261104 02 6281 8319 FAX: 066 245207 066 283264 02 6281 8266 EMAIL: bakerg@agric.nsw.gov.au John.Doran@ffp.csiro.au PUBLICATIONS: Doran, J. C. (1995). Estimating seed quantities for tea tree plantations. Australian Tea

Tree Industry Association Newsletter, April 1995. Doran, J. C., Baker, G. R., Murtagh, G. J. Williams, E. R. and Morris, S. G. (1996).

“Breeding and selection of Australian Tea Tree for improved oil yield and quality 1993 to 1996” Review Report for the Rural Industries Research And Development Corporation and the Australia Tea Tree Industry Association.

Doran, J. C., Baker, G. R., Murtagh, G. J. and Southwell, I. A. (1996). “Breeding and selection of Australian Tea Tree for improved oil yield and quality” Final Report for Rural Industries Research And Development Corporation.

SIGNIFICANCE OF CINEOLE FOR THE BIOACTIVITY AND IRRITANCY OF TEA TREE OIL

Objective • To increase the market demand for tea tree oil by measuring and documenting data

on the skin irritancy and minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of different grades of tea tree oil that might be required by regulatory bodies like the USFDA for monograph acceptance.

Background Approximately 200 tonnes of tea tree oil, valued (farm gate) at $10m, are currently produced in Australia per annum. The product is used as an antimicrobial antiseptic oil or formulated into value added creams, shampoos, soaps, mouthwashes, toothpastes etc. A significant rural industry is being established around the propagation, production, processing, formulation and marketing of tea tree, the oil and its products. Plantations are expected to yield 400 tonnes pa by the late 1990s. However, one factor hindering the broadening of the tea tree oil market base is that oil reach in cineole is considered to be of high skin irritancy and therefore not of a marketable standard.

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Research Standard clinical procedures were used to test cineole and tea tree oil for skin irritancy. Twenty five human subedits were subjected to occlusive patch testing applied to the upper arm or back for five days per week for three consecutive weeks. The patch was removed at 24 hour intervals and any skin reaction noted. Subjects reacting allergically to the test substances were withdrawn from the irritancy trial and were used in further testing for allergic reaction to individual components or fractions. More than 20 strains of bacteria were used to test numerous tea tree oils with varying levels of cineole concentration for antimicrobial activity. Outcomes and Implications The results of this research have major implications for the industry. Some years ago, oils with 5-10% cineole were perfectly acceptable in the marketplace. In recent years though, buyers have been seeking oils with less than 5% and sometimes less than 3%. This research shows clearly that there are no grounds for promoting low cineole oils other than for avoiding low terpinen-4-ol oils. If all buyers could be convinced of this, more tea tree oil could be offered for sale, providing a yield boost to many producers. The results of the project should aid the marketing of tea tree oil. It documents: 1) the absence of skin irritancy for formulated preparations; 2) the non-allergenic nature of most tea tree oil constituents; 3) methods for the removal of some possible allergens; 4) a wider range of tea tree oil-susceptible microorganisns; 5) specific MIC values for a range of oils; and 6) enhanced MIC values for specific oils. RIRDC PROJECT No: DAN-104A RESEARCHER: Dr Ian Southwell ORGANISATION: NSW Agriculture Wollongbar Institute WOLLONGBAR NSW 2477 PHONE: 066 26 1224 FAX: 066 28 3264

DEVELOPING THE NORTH QUEENSLAND TEA TREE INDUSTRY

Objectives • To facilitate the rapid development of the knowledge base on the production of tea

tree oil in the Mareeba Dimbulah Irrigation Area, Qld.

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• To develop guidelines for irrigation scheduling for maximising oil yield and quality. • To establish a gene pool of selected superior plants. Background Tea tree oil production is a relatively new industry on the Atherton Tablelands in North Queensland. Interest in tea tree oil production was generated as an alternative crop for tobacco. The production systems being used now are based on New South Wales information, use high densities, and are irrigated. Due to differences in climate and soil types it is essential to adapt the findings from New South Wales research work for North Queensland conditions. Environmental and management effects, particularly irrigation, look to have a major impact on oil yields. Research Information on tea tree production has been gathered from key researchers working with tea tree. A soil moisture monitoring system (Environscan) has been used to investigate water use and water requirements of tea trees in North Queensland. Data has been collected on oil quality and quantity and the factors affecting it. Several seedlings have been identified as having superior oil concentration and quality. Superior planting material has also been sourced from the tea tree breeding program and is being evaluated at two locations in the Mareeba Dimbulah Irrigation Area. Outcomes Information was presented to growers via field days, newsletters, progress reports, presentations at growers' meetings and farm visits. Irrigation scheduling guidelines have been developed. Mature trees use 0.8-1.0 times the pan evaporation rate which is equivalent to a total water requirement of I OML/ha/year or 7.5ML/ha/year when rainfall is subtracted. Major factors influencing oil concentration and hence yields identified include genotype, time of year, nutrition, irrigation, and seedling vs coppice growth. Implications This project has helped with the very successful development of the North Queensland tea tree oil industry. There has been a rapid expansion of the industry and yields and oil quality have been excellent. RIRDC Project No: DAQ-184A RESEARCHER: James Drinnan ORGANISATION: Queensland Department of Primary Industries

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PO Box 1054 MAREEBA QLD 4880 PHONE: 070 928555 FAX: 070 923593

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WILDFLOWERS AND NATIVE PLANTS

(*COLIN: change format) Wildflowers are now cultivated in all states, but Western Australia still accounts for about half of Australia's annual wildflower production of around $30 million (farmgate). The relative importance of bushpicked flowers is declining, even in WA, and now represents only about 16 per cent of the total value of wildflower production. In 1995-96, exports of wildflowers and native plants amounted to about $30 million. The key commercial wildflowers are Geraldton wax, kangaroo paw, Stirlingia, Thryptomene, and species of Banksia, Leucadendron and Protea. The major markets are Japan, the USA, Germany and the Netherlands. A Five-year R&D Plan for wildflowers and native plants is now in place following discussion with the industry and the research community in six states. Research Highlights for 1996-97 • Underwriting of a successful national conference on wildflowers. • Selection of banksia cultivars for floriculture. • Production, management and handling of quality new native cutflowers

for export. • Prevention of postharvest flower drop in Geraldton wax. • Development of a quality assurance system for the production of native

flora.

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PREVENTING POSTHARVEST FLOWER DROP IN GERALDTON WAXFLOWER

Objective • To investigate the cause of postharvest flower drop in Geraldton waxflower and its

control through improved management (eg. chemical treatments) and handling (eg. packaging) practices.

Background Postharvest flower drop is a major problem affecting Geraldton waxflower, which is Australia’s most economically significant native cut flower crop grown for export. On arrival at overseas destinations, consignments are frequently found to have moderate to severe levels of flower drop. Anti-ethylene treatments such as silver thiosulphate (STS) pulsing and naphthalene acetic acid (NAA) dips do not provide adequate control, as these treatments target the symptom of the disorder rather than the cause. Preliminary studies led to development of the hypothesis that latent infection by Botrytis cinerea leads to production of endogenous ethylene when the fungus is released from quiescence. In turn, this ethylene causes the shedding of seemingly healthy flowers. That is, flower drop occurs before visible symptoms of pathogen invasion are evident. Research Three areas of research were initiated in the search for effective control measures for fungal pathogens and flower abscission: the use of alternative and novel fungicides; the use of calcium treatments to suppress fungal development; and the manipulation of the environment inside flower packages in order to limit fungal development and growth during handling and transport. Outcomes Increased inoculum levels were shown to exacerbate the problem of postharvest flower drop in Geraldton waxflower. Alternative fungicides, to the commonly used Benlate and Rovral products including Euraren and Bravo were effective in reducing pathogen invasion of waxflower. Scala, a new fungicide, also showed promise for controlling postharvest pathogens of waxflower. Maintaining temperatures at 5 degrees C or less during the handling and transport of waxflower effectively controlled disease development and flower drop.

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While postharvest pulsing of waxflower with STS alleviated the problem of flower drop by inhibiting ethylene action, packing ethylene scrubbers with flowers did not reduce flower drop. Package design with extra ventilation holes strategically located near the flower heads reduced both relative humidity and ethylene levels, and lowered disease severity and associated flower drop. Pre- and postharvest applications of calcium did not reduce pathogen-induced flower drop in waxflower, a result contrary to that obtained with roses. Implications Strict pre- and postharvest hygiene measures aimed at reducing the level of fungal inoculum (especially B. cinerea) are required on the farm. Alternation of the fungicides used for pre-harvest applications is recommended, and Rovral should be reserved exclusively for use in the packing shed. Effective low temperature control and cold chain maintenance are necessary to reduce postharvest disease development. An integrated strategy of careful temperature management combined with active relative humidity control (<100%) and protection against ethylene is required to eliminate the risk of postharvest flower drop. Further research in collaboration with a package manufacturer aims to develop a commercial package for export flowers in which the internal relative humidity and ethylene levels (inside the package) are reduced to discourage disease development and associated flower drop in waxflower. RIRDC Project No: CSH-42A RESEARCHER: Dr Daryl Joyce ORGANISATION: Department of Plant Production The University of Queensland Gatton College LAWES QLD 4345 PHONE: 07 5460 1236 FAX: 07 5460 1455

SELECTING BANKSIA CULTIVARS FOR FLORICULTURE

Objectives • To select superior genotypes. • To refine vegetative propagation methods. • To undertake screening and second stage testing. • To register new cultivars.

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Background At present approximately 30% of banksias sold as cut flowers are bush picked. This is undesirable for the industry as the quality is generally low, and this contributes to a poor reputation overseas. Moreover, there is increasing pressure to conserve natural habitats. The cut flower industry depends upon productivity, novelty and flexibility to win and maintain markets. The first producer to market a new cultivar will have these advantages. Research Selection procedures were based on statistical methods, and criteria for selection included bloom colour, quality, size and symmetry; stem length, straightness and thickness; and leaf shape and conformation. A major aim of the selection program was to increase the period of bloom production of Banksia coccinea, b. menziesii, b. hookeriana and B. prionotes. Experiments were set up to investigate methods of vegetable propagation for each promising selection using hormone treatment, mist propagation and bottom heat. New cultivars were registered for Plant Breeders Rights, sub-licensed to a nursery for multiplication and sale to producers. Outcomes The Banksia selection program has resulted in the registration of the first three cultivars for cut flower production. Waite Orange is a hybrid banksia with a flowering time intermediate between that of B. hookeriana and B. prionotes. Waite Crimson is a mid season dark red B. coccinea bloom, and Waite Flame is an early season orange-red B.coccinea. Cuttings of all have a high rooting percentage of 70-80%. Further advanced stage selections have been identified for B.coccinea with bloom colours including scarlet and pink, and with a range of bloom size. Small blooms may be cheaper to export and so have a profit advantage. Rooting percentage of cuttings of these selections varies from 5-60%, and more research is needed to develop optimum propagation conditions. Advance stage selections with high yield and quality, and bloom colour stability have been identified for B. menziesii. The colours of the selections are stunning, and include yellow, apricot, pink, wine and bronze. The maximum rooting percentage so far achieved for these selections is 20% and further research is needed to improve the strike rate. Advance stage selections with high yield and quality have been identified for B. prionotes. Strike rates of up to 70% have been achieved. Implications

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The cut flower industry in Australia could experience up to fivefold increases in productivity over a 20 year period as a direct result of the development of improved cultivars. This figure is based on current selection data which indicate high plant to plant variability in bloom number and quality. The majority of plants in commercial plantations are producing sub-optimally, thus reducing the yield to the grower in relation to inputs. Advantages will include increased productivity due to higher yield, quality and reliability of the product, particularly for the export market. A reduction in the number of discarded or second rate blooms, and an increase in desirability to the consumer of improved cultivars all contribute to the benefits. The propagation and marketing rights for all three cultivars Waite Orange, Waite Crimson and Waite Flame have been sublicenced to Proteaflora Pty. Ltd. in Victoria. RIRDC Project No: UA-26A RESEARCHER: Professor M. Sedgley ORGANISATION: The University of Adelaide Department of Horticulture, Viticulture and Oenology Waite Agricultural Research Institute GLEN OSMOND SA 5064 PHONE: 08 8303 7248 FAX: 08 8303 7116

GERMANY - A MAJOR EXPORT MARKET FOR THE AUSTRALIAN WILDFLOWER BANKSIA

Objective • To improve the profitability and international competitiveness of the Australian

floriculture industry’s trade with Germany. Research This was achieved by a visit to Germany to develop an in depth understanding of German industry infrastructure, current changes and future directions in consumer demands. Using a carefully designed questionnaire, some problems were identified which the industry must address if these benefits are to be realised. Eight questions were asked regarding the perception of quality of the product. These were: 1. uniformity of grading 2. stem number per bunch 3. durability/freshness

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4. stem to head ratio 5. unblemished flowers and leaves 6. pest and disease free 7. optimal stage of flowering 8. general appearance Outcomes The study found that there was interest and enthusiasm for Australian banksias in the German market, and that our industry can successfully supply the market with increased volume. One of the major uses of banksias in Germany is one which hardly exists in Australia. It is the use of banksias as grave decorations in wreaths and other arrangements. This is an important part of the German industry, and banksias are favoured because of their long shelf life and their complementary appearance in combination with conifer foliage and cones. The responses from the questionnaire indicated that only durability/freshness was acceptable. In all other parameters the product was perceived as deficient. Items 1, 5, 6 and 7 are all aspects which can be addressed immediately by the industry, and this must be done if we are to maintain and develop this important market. Items 1, 4 and 8 are factors which must be addressed via selection and breeding, and with the development of clonal plantings to reduce variability. It was also identified via the questionnaire that insufficient information is provided with the blooms. Material sought by German importers included information on care and storage, on complementary material, times of availability, assortment available and consumer preferences. This is a matter which must be addressed immediately by the industry. Implications There is ample opportunity for increased share of the German market for banksias. If this is to be achieved, then the industry must address the concerns identified by this survey. RIRDC Project No: UA-33A RESEARCHERS: Professor M. Sedgley, Ms. Raelene Mibus, Dr. Larry Lockshin ORGANISATION: The University of Adelaide Department of Horticulture, Viticulture and Oenology Waite Agricultural Research Institute The University of Adelaide GLEN OSMOND SA 5064 PHONE: 08 8303 7248 FAX: 08 8303 7116

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EFFECT OF PHENOTYPE AND GENOTYPE ON THE POSTHARVEST QUALITY OF NATIVE AUSTRALIAN CUT FLOWERS

Objective • To investigate the effect of phenotype and genotype on the postharvest quality of

native Australian cut flowers, concentrating on Chamelaucium. Background In the mid to late 80s Australian cut flowers had a general reputation of poor quality on overseas markets. This project was set up to bridge the gap between the agronomy and its effect on postharvest performance. Research Eight species of Chamelaucium,and thirteen cultivars of C. uncinatum and C. floriferum, were grown in a common garden experiment. These plants were evaluated for vaselife both fresh and after 14 days cold storage. Rooted cuttings from a single plant of C. uncinatum were grown in five levels of a complete fertiliser, five levels of nitrogen, four levels of irrigation, and four environments. Outcomes Genotype accounted for c. 60% of the variation of fresh vaselife. The mean values for leaf and flower vaselife of the genus were 13.6 and 12.9 days respectively and for C. uncinatum cultivars were 12 and 10.6 days. Leaf vaselife was more dependent on preharvest conditions than was flower vaselife. Storing cut stems for 14 days at 0 degrees C was generally detrimental, reducing post storage vaselife by 40%. The effect of storage was genotype dependant and the responses of leaves and flowers were independent. Preharvest water stress reduced the number of flower buds initiated and stem length, but increased substantially both flower and leaf vaselife. Reducing the amount of irrigation water to 60% of evapotranspiration for the six to seven weeks prior to harvest, enhanced vaselife, reduced vegetative on-growth and had little impact on stem length or the number of flowers open. The level of nitrogen strongly influenced the number of flowering stems, number of flowering stems, number of flowers, and to a lesser extent stem length. Flower and leaf vaselife increased for N levels up to 15g nitrogen per two year old plant.

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The growing environment also significantly affected plant form, flower and leaf vaselife, maintenance of fresh mass and vase solution uptake. The longest flower vaselife, 16.5 days, was recorded by stems grown in the wind protected area. The largest number of stems were produced in the high light environments. Wilting, postharvest, for up to 24 hours, contributed only 15% to the variation for flower vaselife and 21% of leaf vaselife. Postharvest dehydration for up to 24 hours did not adversely affect the vaselife of C. uncinatum ‘Purple Pride’. RIRDC Project No: UMU-4A/UWA-15A RESEARCHERS: Prof. J. Considine (Project Leader), Mrs L. E. q Manning ORGANISATION: University of Western Australia School of Agriculture NEDLANDS WA 6009 PHONE: 08 9380 1782 FAX: 08 9380 1108 PUBLICATIONS: Manning, L E. (1995), ‘Genetic and environmental influences on the vaselife of

Chamelaucium spp’ Unpublished Msc (Horticulture) thesis. University of Western Australia (submitted).

MANAGING POSTHARVEST TEMPERATURE IN CUTFLOWERS

Objectives • To define the extent, commercial significance, and implications of temperature

control problems during postharvest handling and transport of Australian cutflower exports.

• To provide information on commercial approaches to postharvest temperature control practised by the world cutflower trade.

• To assess the effectiveness of existing, and the opportunities for improved, commercial temperature management as practised by the Australian cutflower industry.

• To report on cutflower temperature management research overseas, and on potential collaborative research and development links.

Background

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Australia has a rich and unique native flora, and many species are in demand overseas as cutflowers. However, largely due to inconsistent postharvest temperature management, consumers overseas are often disappointed with the quality of Australian floriculture products. Research Published temperature management literature was collated, Australian exporters were surveyed and/or interviewed, and selected research and industry personnel in The Netherlands, Israel and California were visited and interviewed. Outcomes Although the principles of good temperature management systems are well established, they are not being applied for Australian floriculture products. For example, refrigerated road transport is readily available in Australia, but is not always utilised. Lack of coolstorage immediately before air shipment, during air transport and immediately after air shipment is another problem area. Deficiencies in coolstorage and refrigerated transport of Australian products after import also exist. The problem of poor temperature management in the receiving country is seemingly one that is partly lack of will and/or interest, since Australian flowers are mostly exported to economically developed countries. Scheduling for rapid handling and transport is an integral part of good temperature management, and exporters generally thrive to move product as rapidly as possible. Good temperature management involves considerable expense (e.g farm coolrooms, refrigerated transport). Nevertheless, the lesson from overseas (e.g The Netherlands) is that this commitment should be made if Australia is to maintain and expand cutflower exports. Currently, the data base for Australian flowers describing relationships between temperature and time and quality is essentially non-existent. Similarly, thorough documentation of temperature profiles associated with exporting to various markets or in various seasons has never been undertaken. Without such information, informed cost-benefit analysis cannot be carried out. Implications The Australian industry is advised to facilitate: • research and development towards establishing information/data bases upon which

sound and objective financial decisions relating to temperature management protocols might be based;

• development of novel temperature management protocols likely to afford Australia a competitive advantage in the marketplace; and

• both extension of information on the principles of temperature management and education on the unique postharvest characteristics of Australian cut flowers to all personnel, both in Australia and overseas, who are involved in the postharvest

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handling chain. Researchers in The Netherlands, Israel and California have expressed a genuine willingness to collaborate where practical and as appropriate.

RIRDC Project No: Consultancy Project RESEARCHER: Daryl Joyce (formerly with CSIRO Division of Horticulture) ORGANISATION: Department of Plant Production The University of Queensland LAWES QLD 4343 PHONE: 07 5460 1236 FAX: 07 5460 1455

DEVELOPING A QUALITY ASSURANCE SYSTEM FOR THE PRODUCTION OF NATIVE FLORA

Objectives • To develop, document and implement a Quality Assurance System which complies

with AS/NZ 9002: 1994 for an existing producer of native flora. • To develop a generic Quality Assurance Manual that is transferable to other native

flora producers. Background If Australian native flower growers are to maximise the export and domestic market they need to improve their product quality. Most native flora producers believe that they can improve their product quality by increasing inspection. However, final inspection does not prevent inferior product being produced in the first place. Quality needs to be controlled at the source, thus preventing the waste of time, energy, resources and money producing faulty product. A Quality Assurance System incorporates the total organisation and takes in all characteristics of the business and production process from order to delivery. A Quality Assurance System will enable growers to efficiently produce a quality product and market it with confidence. Research A number of meetings were held with a native flower producer in the Grampians, Victoria. This enabled the project leader to become familiar with the operation and develop a flow chart for the farm.

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Literature was reviewed on Quality Assurance Systems in similar operations, liaison undertaken with both the Australian Standards Association and Lloyd’s Register Quality Assurance Ltd. Outcomes The implementation of a Quality Assurance System will: • improve efficiency and effectiveness of the operation; • enable greater communication between owners, staff, suppliers and customers; • improve customer satisfaction; • reduce re-work and waste; • develop a quality aware team; • produce a quality end product; • give the business a marketing advantage; and • increase business profitability. Implications The lack of quality systems for the Australian native flower industry is often cited by industry leaders as a problem impacting on the competitiveness in the international marketplace. The quality of native flora can be improved by implementing a Quality Assurance System. The Model Manual produced is applicable to all native flower growing operations. RIRDC Project No: MEN-1A RESEARCHER: Mr Chris Mennie ORGANISATION: RMB 1242F MARYBOROUGH VIC 3465 PHONE: 03 5461 4127 FAX: 03 5461 4127

WATER REQUIREMENTS AND GROWTH OF GERALDTON WAX IN AN ARID ZONE ENVIRONMENT

Objectives • To describe the morphological adaptive changes that occur in response to water deficit. • To compare the structure of the plant with other plants from Mediterranean and other

climatic zones. • To measure whole plant use under field conditions using the non-destructive heat balance

method for determining stem water use. • To determine optimum irrigation strategies for field and containerised plants.

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Background Geraldton wax is the most important flower grown for export from Australia. At the time this work began there were no guidelines for irrigating the crop and the general view was that irrigation was only needed for establishment. Research Basic studies revealed that the wax flower plant, while able to survive deep levels of water deficit for short periods was not as well adapted to water deficits as many other plants that originate in arid or Mediterranean climates. It has a relatively poorly developed stomatal control and transpires freely. The stems have a high conductivity that is consistent with a high water use. Adaptation to water deficits is firstly by accumulation of solutes (sugars and amino acids) but to a low concentration compared to many other drought adapted plants; secondly by a high elastic modulus of stems which resists a large reduction in water content; and thirdly by progressive reduction of growth and stem elongation, shedding of leaves and ultimately of branches. These adaptations are not consistent with the maintenance of commercial productivity and quality. In pots studies, cv. Alba showed a doubling of growth and productivity as water availability was raised from 25% of pan evaporation to 75% wile cv. Purple Pride showed a three-fold increase. In the field, vigorous cv. Purple Pride showed a four-fold increase in flower number as water availability was raised from 25% to 75%, despite the fact that the plants were obtaining significant volumes of water from the free aquifer, as much as 12 L of water per day originated at depth in this situation. Daily water use was a high as 20 L per day for 4 year old plants. Thus we recommend a crop factor of 75% for Geraldton wax growing under an arid zone, Mediterranean climate. Implications The implications of this study are that consideration will need to be given to provide adequate water for native plants such as Geraldton wax to ensure maximum productivity and as a “rule of thumb” that 75% of the daily evapotranspiration will provide an initial guide under Mediterranean climatic conditions. Irrigation requirements may need to be re-evaluated under other climatic zones. It is also important to distinguish between plant capacity to survive under arid conditions and minimum water available to maximise productivity. Native plants should be treated in the same manner as exotic plants when examining the requirements for water. RIRDC Project No: UMU-12A RESEARCHER: J A Considine and K Akilan ORGANISATION: Plant Science The University of Western Australia

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NEDLANDS WA 6907 PHONE: 09 380 1782 FAX: 09 380 1108 EMAIL: consid@cyllene.uwa.edu.au

MANAGEMENT OF BUSH STANDS FOR CUTFLOWER AND FOLIAGE PRODUCTION

Objective • To improve the production and export quality of selected cutflower and foliage plants

harvested from natural bush areas in Western Australia through the development of suitable management techniques.

Background Native wildflowers account for over 90% of flower and foliage exports from Western Australia, and in 1992 approximately 40% of that came from natural bush stands on public (65%) and private (35%) land. Due to disease and conservation concerns, restrictions are increasing on the range and volume of product that can be sourced from public land. As many of these species cannot be cultivated because of propagation or economic issues, there is increasing interest in accessing material of selected species from private land. However, there is no information on suitable management techniques to provide for sustainable and economic production from natural bush stands on private land. Research The effect of various management techniques including pruning, fertilising and slashing was examined on four species endemic to the south west area of Western Australia, namely Banksia baxterii, Beaufortia sparsa, Agonis sp. (course tea tree) and Leptocarpus scariosus. Outcomes Pruning established B. baxterii plants growing in natural bush can increase marketable flower yield. The severity of pruning is critical, especially in periods of drought stress on unirrigated plants. Pruning down to a stem diameter of 10 to 12mm appears optimal. Unirrigated B. baxterii plants transplanted and grown in cleared land will grow up to 35 times faster than plants of the same age growing in adjacent natural bush. In addition, commercial flower production occurs up to 3 year earlier on plants growing on cleared land. Slashing and fertilising B. sparsa and Agonis sp. will improve flower production in managed bush areas. Various genotypes were selected, including natural Agonis sp. hybrids which

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extend flowering periods, and in the case of B. sparsa, provide a range of flower colours not widely represented in the natural bush. None of the management practises examined improved the yield or quality of L. scariosus. Further work needs to be done, but preliminary indications are that continuous harvesting of this species from natural bush is not sustainable. Implications • For B. baxterii, it is recommended that while bush management is viable on older bushes,

establishing young plants on cleared land will give better and earlier production. • Slashing and fertilising B. sparsa and Agonsis sp. will improve flower yield. • Further work needs to be done on L. scariosus to bring it into cultivation. RIRDC Project No: DAW-40A RESEARCHERS: A M Fuss & AL Morgan (1993-94) CJ Robinson & MG Webb (1995-96) ORGANISATION: Agriculture Western Australia 444 Albany Highway ALBANY WA 6330 PHONE: 098 928 444 FAX: 098 412 707 PUBLICATIONS: Morgan, AL. (1994). Bush management project. The Floriculture Industry Newsletter 31:8-

9. Agriculture Western Australia. Robinson, CJ. (1995). Know your tea tree. The Floriculture Industry Newsletter 35: 14-16.

Agriculture Western Australia. Webb, MG. Robinson, CJ. Morgan, AL. Fuss, AF. and Smith, RS. (1996). Some

management strategies for growing Banksia baxterii. IV International Workshop for Australian Native Plants. Proceedings pp. 259-262. University of Western Australia.

NUTRITION OF PROTEACEAE USED IN CUT FLOWER PRODUCTION

Objectives • To establish leaf nutrient standards for management of fertilisation of Proteaceae

using foliar analysis. • To understand the physiological basis for the nutrient requirements of Proteaceae,

particularly phosphorus.

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• To develop physiologically-based diagnostic tools which are applicable to all Australian native species.

• To produce a booklet for growers on nutrient standards and diagnostic tests for management of fertilisation.

Background Export earnings from native cut flowers and foliage in Australia were estimated to be worth $50 million for the 1990-91 financial year. Flowers of the Proteaceae constitute a considerable proportion of the market, both locally and overseas. The nutritional requirements of Australian and South African natives used in cut flower production are very poorly understood and fertiliser management is not scientifically based. The development of leaf nutrient standards and rates of NPK fertiliser applications for optimum growth of Proteaceous species are important in achieving better quality and maximum production. Research The research consisted of a greenhouse study in which eleven Proteaceous species were grown at eight levels of controlled release NPK fertiliser over a period of six months. Data collected on shoot dry weights and tissue nutrient contents were used to determine the fertiliser rates needed for optimum growth under these conditions. Outcomes The research showed that Proteaceous species have both a lower requirement for and lower tolerance to fertiliser compared with plant species from other families. However, all eleven species grew better with applied fertiliser than without fertiliser, and large differences were found in responsiveness and sensitivity even within the same genera. Only three species, Adenanthos sericeus, Banksia hookeriana and Protea cv. Masquerade did not exhibit symptoms of nutrient toxicity or reduced growth at the recommended fertiliser rate for P sensitive species (5 kg/m3). A. sericeus was unaffected at rates more than three times the recommendation. The range of leaf P concentration (0.09-0.2%), for all species at optimum growth was below the adequate range for most non Proteaceous ornamentals. This was also the case for nitrogen and potassium. Target leaf N, P and K concentrations varied between species. Standards for management of fertilisation of Proteaceae using foliar analysis were established. Leaf nutrient standards for optimum growth of 11 Proteaceous species were determined for 14 nutrients. Symptoms of toxicity were identified and with the nutrient standards, were included in the Grower’s guide to Proteaceous species. Additionally the findings from this research were presented at the IV National Workshop for Australian Native Flowers, 28-30 September 1996, at the University of Western Australia, Perth.

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Implications Differences in the responsiveness and tolerance to fertiliser found between species, in this study, emphasise the importance of tailoring fertiliser programs for each species to ensure maximum production. Relationships between leaf nutrient concentrations and responses to fertiliser clearly demonstrate the value of leaf analysis as a tool in managing the nutrition of these plants. Specific knowledge found on optimal nutrition will aid the consistent production of quality plants and cut flowers. RIRDC Project No: UWS-1A RESEARCHER: Dr Anthony M Haigh ORGANISATION: School of Horticulture University of Western Sydney, Hawkesbury Locked Bag 1 RICHMOND NSW 2753 PHONE: 045 70 1254 FAX: 045 701 314

PRODUCTION, MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING OF QUALITY NEW NATIVE CUTFLOWERS FOR EXPORT

Objectives • To increase the diversity of cutflower exports to allow the continued expansion of the

native Australian cutflower industry. • To compile agronomic and economic information to determine those species of

native Australian wildflowers with potential for cultivation. • To develop methods of propagation and plant establishment for those species. • To develop ways to optimising saleable stem production through irrigation, nutrition

and pruning. • To develop protocols for maintaining postharvest stem quality. • To test market cultivated product and provide data on the marketability of these

species. • To encourage and promote the increased plantings of new cutflower and foliage

species showing positive response to cultivation through publications and grower magazines and field day demonstrations.

Background The Australian cut flower industry has gone through a period of rapid growth over the past 10 years. This was based mainly on cultivation of Chamelaucium, Banksia and

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Anigozanthos. New flowers are urgently needed which provide a choice of flower over an extended season to continue to stimulate market interest in Australian cut flowers. Following discussions with the industry, over 200 native species with export potential were identified. Some of these have been already been marketed (from bush picked material) to a greater or lesser extent and are considered to be worthy of more attention. With access to areas of crown land for picking wildflowers diminishing there is an urgent need for developing methods to bring many of these species into cultivation. Cultivation offers the advantage of maximising production, guaranteeing supply of flowers or foliage, and ensuring postharvest flower quality during export. Research Five species were chosen namely: Adenanthos cuneatus (native temp or flame bush), Conospermum eatoniae (blue smoke bush), Hypocalymma robustum (Swan River myrtle), Pimelea physodes (Qualup bell), Podocarpus drouynianus (emu bush). The majority of these flowers are presently bush picked and therefore, stem production and flower quality is far from optimum. The research approach consisted of selecting superior plant types; developing method of propagation and establishment; optimising stem production and quality through irrigation, nutrition and pruning; and developing suitable methods of postharvest handling for each species. Outcomes Of the wildflowers tested blue smokebush responded best to cultivation and stem production was optimised planting in bed with a density of 4 plants/m2. Blue smokebush were propagated by tissue culture methods and were best established in spring to summer. Stems growth was rapid over summer /autumn with flowering and production of marketable stems in their first year. Plants responded to pruning quadrupling stem numbers in subsequent seasons. Blue smokebush was sensitive to high fertiliser application. Stems needed to be kept in water after picking and vase life was at least 12 days. Preliminary indications are there is good market response to blue smokebush in Australia and Japan. Qualup bell, which displayed a spectacular burgundy/yellow bell flower, was difficult to propagate with strike rates highest in autumn. It was floriferous in cultivation although stem length was short (i.e. less than 50 cm) and had 12 days vase life. Swan River myrtle propagated easily and stem growth was slower than other flowers trialed and required at least 3 years to reach 60-65 cm. This flower responded to high fertiliser application. Vase life was short (5 days) and careful handling was needed to prolong vase life, picking while some flowers were in bud were found to prolong vase life.

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Native temp was found to be high water user and maintained their brilliant leaf colouration under cultivation and had a use as afresh cut foliage having a vase life of 14 days. Emu grass grew extremely slowly and was considered a longer term (estimated as 5-10 years) option as a foliage crop. It was more suited to cooler climates giving a deeper greener foliage colour in part shade than in full sun. Implications This study demonstrated that it is possible to successfully cultivate new wildflowers and that their response depended on the climatic and cultural conditions of the site selected. It is also possible to modify the growing environment by such methods as using shade covers to reduce light and temperature, soil mulch to moderate soil temperature and soil moisture levels, and increased frequency of water application to maintain soil water to the plant thus allowing these wildflowers to grow in an ‘alien’ environment. There was a definite advantage in growing wildflowers in several locations to spread flowering times and extend the picking season. For example the length of picking season of Qualup bell could almost be doubled by growing plants at different latitudes. RIRDC Project No: DAW-51A RESEARCHERS: Dr. K.A. Seaton, Mr M G.Webb ORGANISATION: Agriculture Western Australia Horticultural Science Plant Research and Development Services Baron Hay Court SOUTH PERTH WA 6151 PHONE: 08 93683244 FAX: 08 93672625 PUBLICATIONS: Seaton K. A. (1996) Conospermum in the search for the new wildflower. Aust. Hort.

June-July 1996. 4(6): 47-48. Seaton K. A., and Webb, M. G. (1996). Development of conospermum for cut flower

markets. In ‘IV National Workshop for Australian Native Flowers’. Perth, 28-30 September 1996. (Ed. P. Watkins) (The University of Western Australia). p191-196.

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PRODUCTION OF QUALITY PHOTOGRAPHS OF AUSTRALIAN FLOWERS & FOLIAGES

Objective • To secure a top quality photographic library of Australian flowers and foliages.

Photographs to be suitable for national and international display and for use by the Australian flower industry for such purposes as marketing, quality management and training.

Background With the advent of increased floricultural exports from Australia, it became apparent that industry did not have a collection of quality photographs to effectively promote Australian flora in the international marketplace. Research Over a two year period, a collection of quality photographs of Australian flora suitable for export was compiled including the photographs suitable for Standards Australia future publications. The majority of native flowers, foliages and African proteaceae were supplied from throughout Australia by members of the Flower Export Council of Australia Inc. (FECA). Other products were sourced in season from Flemington Markets in Sydney and from the Australian National Botanical Gardens in Canberra. Photographs were taken in studio conditions in Sydney (at the premises of The Australian Flower Company), Canberra (Australian National Botanic Gardens) and Perth (FECA office). In most cases three photographs were taken for each species, including photographs of the product as a bunch, a single stem and close up of the flower head. Duplicates of each shot were made for the establishment of a slide library for industry. Over 200 taxa were photographed. All photographs were shot with a standard matt black background. Overall the quality of the photographs was very good, Iain Dawson is to be commended for his photographic expertise during the project. Outcomes Photographs from the project have been used in the production of the 'Australian Flowers' booklet, by RIRDC for their reports, by researchers for use at conferences and, by individual businesses and exporters to promote their products. It is planned to use the photographs in the future production of an Australian Export Poster, and a promotional CD ROM featuring Australian Floral Design using Australian flora.

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The project photographs are now stored in plastic sleeves and ring back folders in the FECA office in Perth. Slide photograph copies are available for a fee from the photographic library upon request. RIRDC Project No: FEC-1A RESEARCHER: Mr Kim James ORGANISATION: The Flower Export Council of Australia Inc. PO Box 137 NEDLANDS W.A. 6009 PHONE: 08 9324 1778 FAX: 08 9324 1779

NATIONAL WORKSHOP FOR AUSTRALIAN NATIVE FLOWERS

Objectives • To hold a national workshop for Australian native flowers in Perth to coincide with

the International Society for Horticultural Science New Floriculture Crops Symposium.

• To encourage interaction between growers and researchers both nationally and internationally.

Background The Western Australian Wildflower Producers Association had planned to organise a national workshop on Australian native flowers in Perth during 1997. With the announcement that an ISHS Symposium on Floriculture was to be held in October 1996, it was considered opportune to hold the workshop immediately prior to the Symposium. This would allow international participants in the Symposium to attend the workshop and to contribute papers. Support by way of a cash advance was sought from RIRDC to finance start-up costs prior to positive cash flow from registrations. Outcomes • The workshop was held at the University of Western Australia, 29-30 September

1996, followed by a one day tour of four commercial producers/nurseries. A poster and trade display was available throughout.

• The workshop was organised by a committee comprising Philip Watkins (Sunglow Flowers Pty Ltd) as Chair and Nine Foulkes-Taylor (Plantation Wildflowers), Julie Plummer (University of Western Australia) and Chris Newell (WA Wildflower

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Producers Association). The Secretariat was provided by Kaye Rebola of UWA Extension Conference Management.

• 52 oral papers and 7 poster page book. Copies may be purchased from WA Wildflower Producers Association

• 160 delegates attended, 51 from overseas and 109 from Australia. 73 delegates were from industry and 87 from research organisations and government.

Implications Australian native flowers are clearly internationally produced and traded products and constitute a significant proportion of new floriculture crops being developed internationally. Delegates attended from Denmark, Italy, Germany, Israel, Thailand, Japan, Indonesia, India, USA, New Zealand, Greece, Panama and Brazil. Research and controlled breeding of Australian native flowers is also underway internationally. The workshop provided Australian growers and researchers with an opportunity to gain a global perspective both through the formal sessions and informally. Continued monitoring of international developments will be necessary for growers to remain viable and relevant to the marketplace. The proceedings provide an up-to-date collection of research papers presented in a grower friendly format. RIRDC Project No: WNP-1A RESEARCHER: Mr Philip Watkins ORGANISATION: Western Australian Wildflower Producers Association

PO Box 716 CANNINGTON WA 6107

PHONE: 08 9525 1800 FAX: 08 9525 1607

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ESTABLISHED INDUSTRIES

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CHICKEN MEAT The Australian chicken meat industry produces approximately 460,000 tonnes of chicken meat annually with a retail value in excess of $2 billion. Production has increased dramatically over the past thirty years, to the point where chicken meat is now Australian consumers’ second most popular meat. Most production is consumed domestically. Opportunities for increased exports are believed to lie mainly in the further processed products area. The major challenge likely to be faced by the industry in the next few years relates to the need for it to restructure its operations and improve its international competitiveness in the face of possible future imports of cooked chicken meat products and to its need to address concerns being raised in the community with respect to its environmental performance. Research Highlights for 1996-97 • Identification of improved diagnostic procedures to more effectively

understand and control avian colibacillosis disease. • Investigation into developing an improved assay for the chicken anaemia

virus. • Investigation into the manipulation of female embryos to improve growth

rates of broilers.

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AVIAN COLIBACILLOSIS IN AUSTRALIA: UNDERSTANDING AND CONTROL

Objectives • To establish methods for distinguishing strains of E.coli (which can cause

colibacillosis) in chickens from those which cannot. • To find the genes responsible for virulence in E.coli. • To produce strains of E.coli which had the virulence genes deleted, and hence could

no longer cause disease. • To examine whether the virulence associated genes could be used to rapidly

distinguish virulent and avirulent E.coli. • To assess the use of the E.coli strains lacking the virulence genes as vaccines to

prevent colibacillosis. Background Colibacillosis is a complex disease of major economic importance to the Australian poultry industry, conservatively costing $6 million per year. By focussing on genes carried on virulence plasmids of pathogenic avian E.coli this project aimed to provide the industry with tools to more effectively control this disease; namely improved diagnostic procedures to accurately distinguish disease causing strains, and plasmid cured strains which might be used as attenuated vaccines. Research The role of plasmid encoded genes as virulence determinants was assessed by comparing the virulence of plasmid cured variants (produced in the course and an earlier CMRDC project) with the wild-type strain and with variants into which plasmids had been selectively reintroduced. The potential of the virulence associated plasmids as DNA probes was also assessed. E.coli isolates collected and categorised (using techniques such as antibiogram analysis and multilocus enzyme electrophoresis) during a longitudinal epidemiological study and from outbreaks of colibacillosis in the predecessor project, were used for this purpose. The suitability of plasmid cured variants as potential vaccine strains was also assessed. Outcomes A reliable aerosol challenge method for reproduction of avian colibacillosis was developed. It was shown that different field isolates of E.coli ranged from highly virulent to avirulent and that changes in the virulence of E.coli isolated from a single

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flock of broiler breeders was linked to the administration of antimicrobial agents to the birds. Virulence genes were found on a single plasmid, which could be removed from virulent strains of E.coli, such that they no longer caused disease. It was found that the plasmid could not be used as a probe for detecting virulent E.coli because it was too large to be sufficiently specific. The use of killed vaccines made from virulent E.coli and avirulent E.coli (with the virulence genes removed) was assessed. It was found that administration of either of these vaccines to hens could help prevent colibacillosis in chicks. Implications This project has established that only specific strains of E.coli, carrying particular genes, can cause colibacillosis, and that the disease can be controlled by vaccination. Further work is necessary to develop a commercially viable vaccine, and to develop a sensitive and specific probe to detect virulent strains of E.coli, but it is clear from this project that these are achievable aims for future work. RIRDC Project No: UM-20CM RESEARCHERS: Dr Kevin Whithear ORGANISATION: Department of Veterinary Science Veterinary Clinical Centre University of Melbourne WERRIBEE VIC 3030 PHONE: 03 9742 8265 FAX: 03 9741 0401 PUBLICATIONS: Ginns, C. A., Browning, G. F., Benham, M. L., Anderson, G. A., and Whithear, K. G.

(1996) - Antimicrobial resistance and epidemiology of Escherichia coli in broiler breeder chickens. Avian Pathology, 25:593607

Ginns, C. A., Browning, G. F., Benham, M. L. and Whithear, K. G. - Development and application of an aerosol challenge method for reproduction of avian colibacillosis. Submitted.

Ginns, C. A., Browning, G. F., Benham, M. L., Anderson, G. A., and Whithear, K. G. - Plasmid mediated virulence in avian colibacillosis. In preparation.

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EMBRYONIC MANIPULATION TO IMPROVE GROWTH RATE OF BROILERS

Objectives To test the following two hypotheses: • Genetic female embryos can be manipulated during their development so that they

will grow testes and hatch as males. • That these transformed females will grow more efficiently that normal females and

potentially as well as normal males. Background There are significant economic advantages to the broiler industry in having a greater proportion of male chickens than female chickens in each hatch. For instance, male broiler chickens grow more rapidly, are more efficient at converting food to muscle tissue and are less fat than female broiler chickens. As a consequence, males can be slaughtered up to five days earlier than females. The financial benefit of this earlier marketing can be up to 5 cents/day which, for an average broiler farm of 60,000 birds, translates to $7,500 extra profit per batch if all the birds were male. The successful manipulation of genetically female embryos will result in their transformation into males which should exhibit superior growth characteristics compared to untransformed females. Furthermore, since all eggs would be treated similarly it is possible that genetic male embryos will also exhibit improved growth characteristics. The availability of multi-egg injectors should make it feasible for the industry to readily adopt any transformation procedures which are developed. Research In this project two approaches were used to manipulate sexual development in genetic female embryos. The first employed substances, called aromatase inhibitors, which prevent the formation of oestradiol by the developing embryo. In the second approach, testicular tissue from 14-day-old developing embryos was transplanted into 3 to 5-day-old embryos. This technique simply acts as a model in which, theoretically, all the factors which control testicular differentiation and development are presented to the developing genetic female embryo. Obviously this procedure would not be a practical approach on a commercial scale. However, if successful it could lead to the isolation and identification of the “transformation factors” in testes. The use of the factors may be a viable option on a commercial scale. Outcomes

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It was found that transformation of genetic females to males could be achieved using aromatase inhibitors. Aromatase inhibitors are substances which prevent the formation of the female hormone oestradiol. However, at the concentrations used in these experiments the aromatase inhibitors appeared to have toxic effect leading to high embryonic mortality. This apparent toxicity was reduced when a cross-bred layer strain was used. While aromatase inhibitors appeared to result in transformation of the gonads of genetic females examined at hatch, we were unable to detect “abnormal” looking or transformed gonads in older birds, suggesting that the effects of the aromatase inhibitors may not have been permanent or complete. When testicular tissue was implanted into developing embryos the success in transforming females into apparent males was approximately 30%. On gross post mortem examination these transformed genetic females had two apparently normal looking testicles and plasma testosterone concentrations equivalent to genetic males, suggesting that the testes were functioning as normal male testes. While the growth rate of these transformed females was about 8% higher and the abdominal fat pad was smaller than untreated females, these differences were not statistically significant. Implications Clearly more work is required to modify the procedures to achieve a high rate of transformation. However, with the advent of multi-egg injectors it is now possible to manipulate developing embryos on a large scale. There are likely to be significant economic advantages to the broiler industry in having a greater proportion of male chickens than female chickens in each hatch. RIRDC Project No: DAV-35CM RESEARCHER: Dr David Hennessy ORGANISATION: Victorian Institute of Animal Science 475 Mickleham Road ATTWOOD VIC 3049 PHONE: 03 9217 4200 FAX: 03 9217 4299

AN IMPROVED ASSAY FOR CHICKEN ANAEMIA VIRUS

Objectives • To improve in vitro expression of the gene which codes for the major antigen of

CAV.

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• To formulate an ELISA to measure antibody to CAV using recombinant protein. • To validate the assay, thereby completing the development of a reliable test for the

detection of antibodies to CAV. Background Chicken anaemia virus (CAV) causes an immunosuppressive disease of poultry and, as a consequence, exacerbates infection by other microorganisms. It has been estimated that CAV infection results in lower body weights and higher mortality. Infection appears to be controlled in the chicken by the presence of serum antibody. It is therefore possible to achieve improvements in performance by ensuring that breeder flocks have an adequate level of immunity as a result of vaccination or natural exposure. Monitoring antibody levels in breeder flocks is important to ensure the virus is not passed onto the flock's progeny. It has proven very difficult to develop a reliable test for the detection of antibody to CAV. The development of such a test (an antibody ELISA test) has been hampered by difficulties encountered in growing CAV in vitro in a manner suitable for ELISA antigen preparation. Current assays use native virus grown in tissue culture. The hypothesis behind this work was that the use of alternative antigens would improve the reliability of the assay. The strategy adopted in this project therefore was to attempt to produce a more reliable source of antigen by expression of viral genes which had been cloned into E.coli or baculovirus. Research The genes coding for the major viral proteins of CAV were cloned and expressed in various expression systems. The recombinant proteins so produced were then used as the antigens in ELISAs of various formats and tested against a panel of known positive and negative sera for CAV. Initial analysis of some of the expressed proteins demonstrated strong reactions with CAV positive sera. The antigens were tested in an ELISA after optimisation of the conditions. However in all systems there were substantial problems in terms of non-specific (or background) reactions with chicken serum. An intense effort was initiated to reduce or remove these high backgrounds but with only limited success. Outcomes and Implications The initial hypothesis was that the problem with the specificity of the CAV ELISA could be solved by the use of alternative specific antigens. However, it now appears that the major problem is in the nature of the sera. It is clear that this background problem requires further investigation. Unfortunately, until this problem is resolved the industry will have to rely on tests for CAV infection which are not entirely satisfactory in terms of their specificity and cost.

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RIRDC Project No: CSU-14CM RESEARCHER: Dr Stephen Prowse ORGANISATION: CSIRO Animal Health Private Bag 24 GEELONG VIC 3228 PHONE: 03 5227 5273 FAX: 03 5227 5555 EMAIL: stephen.prowse@aahl.dah.csiro.au PUBLICATIONS Coombes, AL & Crawford, GR. (1996). Chicken anaemia virus: a short review. World's

Poultry Science Journal 52, 267-277. Coombes, AL & Crawford, GR (1996). Chickens don't weigh up. Microbiology

Australia 17(3), 11-12. Crawford, GR. (1996). Development of an Australian ELISA for chicken anaemia virus.

Australian Veterinary Poultry Association (AVPA) Scientific Meeting, Gold Coast, April 1996.

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EGGS The Australian egg industry comprises 900 producers, has an annual output of 200 million dozen eggs and a gross value of production of $280 million per year. Approximately 85 per cent of all eggs produced are sold in shell form, primarily through grocery chains. The balance are processed into liquid, frozen and dried egg products for use in food service and processed food sectors. The industry is undergoing significant change due to the deregulation of marketing in a number of states. In general, individual enterprises are becoming fewer in number and larger in size. However, there are also new entrants into the industry, especially in the alternative lifestyle markets. This, in conjunction with the recent relaxation of quarantine laws to enable the importation of overseas stock, has resulted in a need for new research to address the changing requirements of the industry. Research Highlights for 1996-97 • Identification of beak trimming techniques for preventing regrowth and

minimising chronic pain after trimming. • Development of three computer models to forecast the effects of different

flock replacement policies to help stabilise egg supply and prices. • Identification of potential egg yolk products for commercial production in

Australia.

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PRODUCING TRIAL DISTANCE LEARNING MATERIALS FOR THE POULTRY INDUSTRY

Objective • To develop two distance education units as a trial to see how industry would respond

to this delivery mode. The units decided upon with industry were “Health and Welfare” and “Layer Management”.

Background The need for distance education materials was identified when promoting the Poultry Production Traineeship to the Egg Industry. Many producers, both large and small, wanted training to be available at the workplace so that employees were not away from the farm for any length of time. During this industry liaison, it was decided to target the units at farm managers [Australian Standards Framework (ASF) Levels 3-4] rather than poultry traineeship students. Research To guide the project a steering committee called the Poultry Education Committee (PEC) was formed. Instructional design was an important component of the unit’s development. This included the following processes: • aligning work with National Competency Standards; • aligning work with the developing National Curriculum; and • developing case studies, exercises, review questions, assignments and graphics. The currently available teaching materials were analysed and exact needs determined. Training materials were developed which included case studies, examples and exercises. Suitable photographs and diagrams were obtained and the resources were built into easy to use training packages. Industry feedback was sought and the materials refereed before their final production. Outcomes By using national competencies and curriculum, the materials developed can be used with nationally accredited training modules. Instructional strategies, such as case studies, make learning easier. The structure of a course called Commercial Layer Management was established during the project. This includes the two units from this project. The units in the course are:

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UNIT NAME A Breeder and Hatchery Management B Land Use, Housing and Equipment C Health and Welfare D Feeding Practices E Brooding and Rearing Pullets F Layer Management G Running the Business I H Running the Business II I Industry Issues J Products and Marketing

Two hundred and fifty of each of the Health and Welfare and Layer Management units have been produced. This achieves the objectives set for the project. Promotion of the units is now taking place. Implications Implementation of the units by industry is vital to the success of the project. The units will be available in the following modes: • Stand-alone distance education units with no assessments • Assessed distance education to individuals • Assessed distance education units to groups as part of a structured training program The third option is preferred from an educational viewpoint. This option will involve the formation of groups of students who can meet on a regular basis to discuss the course material. It also involves the use of workplace assessment to test the implementation of the information learnt in the workplace. Funding of seven further units is required to complete development of the Commercial Layer Management course. This will provide the industry with an accredited distance education training package for managers or those wishing to become managers. Thought should be given to development of support materials such as video and audio tapes. The potential of the Internet and CD-ROM as delivery modes also requires consideration. RIRDC Project No: DAN-38A RESEARCHER: Mr Geoff Creek ORGANISATION: Murrumbidgee College of Agriculture PMB YANCO NSW 2703 PHONE: 026 9530299 FAX: 026 9530268

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IDEAL DRINKING WATER TEMPERATURE FOR LAYERS

Objective To provide producers with practical information on the optimum drinking water temperature required to achieve maximum performance and efficiency in poultry in both hot and cold environmental conditions. Background Anecdotal reports from the egg industry in Australia indicated that many laying strains, particularly the imported laying strains, were having difficulty acclimatising to heat wave conditions and were not consuming adequate amounts of drinking water and feed during hot weather. During hot weather egg farmers focus most of their attention on minimising heat stress on hens by cooling sheds. It is possible that the drinking water was too hot for layers and they found water aversive to drink. Research Four experiments were conducted; three examined the effect of cool drinking water on production and shell quality of heat stressed hens, while the fourth examined the effect of warm drinking water on production and shell quality of hens housed under winter conditions. The first experiment used the Tegel Tint strain; the second experiment used both the Tegel Tint and Tegel Brown strain, while the third trial used the imported Isa-Brown strain. The Tegel Red strain was used for the warm water studies. Rate of lay, food intake, body weight and shell quality characteristics were measured in heat-stressed laying hens provided drinking water at 5, 10, 15 and 30°C from 31-42 weeks of age in experiments 1 and 2, and 58-66 weeks in experiment 3. Food intake, egg weight, rate of lay and shell quality characteristics were measured in cold stressed (8-15°C) laying hens (30-37 weeks of age) provided drinking water at 10 and 30°C. Outcomes Cool Drinking Water • In all experiments, hens given chilled drinking water (15°C or less) consumed more

food and produced thicker and heavier shells than hens given drinking water at ambient temperature (30°C).

• As the hen acclimatised to the high temperature there was a decline in the effectiveness of cool drinking water to stimulate an increase in food intake. The exception to this was the Isa-Brown strain which continued to maintain benefit from the cool water throughout the trial.

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• Results from these studies suggests that there is potential for using chilled drinking water to stimulate food intake and improve shell quality of heat-stressed hens. The combination of high ambient temperature and high drinking water temperature (a common occurrence in Australian layer sheds) should be avoided.

Warm drinking water • Initially hens given warm drinking water (30°C) produced significantly thinner shells

than hens given drinking water at 10°C. Thereafter shell quality was not different between the treatments.

• In a further experiment, hens (58-65 weeks) were housed in climate rooms with a temperature range of 18-20°C and provided drinking water at 10 and 30°C. Shell quality was initially improved with provision of warm water.

• These experiments showed that warm drinking water could have either negative or positive affects on shell quality. Shell quality in winter may be dependent on the interaction between air temperature, age of bird and drinking water temperature.

Implications Australian egg farmers should monitor drinking water temperature in their sheds in addition to ambient temperature and consider providing cool water to hens, particularly during heat waves. Relatively inexpensive ways to assist in keeping drinking water cool are to regularly flush drinking water lines, keep incoming water lines out of direct sunlight, insulate water lines, use ice in header tanks and ensure water storage tanks are well shaded. A more expensive, but more effective option is to install an external water-cooling unit to maintain drinking water at 15°C during heat waves. It is recommended that a feasibility trial be conducted to determine whether it is economically viable to install a drinking water plant on a commercial egg farm. RIRDC Project No: DAS-24E RESEARCHER: Phillip C Glatz ORGANISATION: South Australian Research & Development Institute Pig & Poultry Production Institute Roseworthy Campus University of Adelaide ROSEWORTHY SA 5371 PHONE: 08 8303 7786 FAX: 08 8303 7977

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INFECTIOUS BRONCHITIS: EFFECTS AND PREVENTION IN LAYING HENS

Objective • To investigate the significance of infectious bronchitis virus infection in Australian

laying flocks. Background Recently, throughout the world, infectious bronchitis viruses have caused problems in vaccinated laying flocks. The current Australian industry practice is to vaccinate against infectious bronchitis with live vaccines during rearing. Some farmers find it necessary to vaccinate laying flocks against infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) during production. Research Samples were collected from 23 laying flocks in south-east Australia. The flocks were clinically normal or affected with urolithiasis, respiratory disease, egg production drops, wet manure, egg shell quality problems or egg albumen problems. Isolation of IBV was attempted from 79 tissue pools and IBV antigen was detected in 6 of these pools (by Dr Jagoda Ignjatovic, CSIRO Division of Animal Health). Further work is progressing to improve and confirm isolation of any infectious bronchitis viruses present in the samples and to determine the clinical significance of the isolates. The difficulty in isolating IBV from layers is similar to the problems experienced with recent isolation attempts from broilers in Australia suggesting that viruses with similar characteristics are involved. Outcomes There was no evidence in the flocks investigated to indicate that the development and introduction of a killed IBV vaccine would be economically beneficial in the Australian layer flock. Implications It is recommended that further work be undertaken to characterise the IBV isolated from Australian layer flocks using the methodology developed and applied in this project. RIRDC Project No: DAV-35E RESEARCHER: Dr Chris Morrow

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ORGANISATION: Victorian Institute of Animal Science Agriculture Victoria 475 Mickleham Road ATTWOOD VIC 3049 PHONE: 03 9217 4200 FAX: 03 9217 4299

EGG BASED REPELLENTS

Objectives • To conduct trials to assess the phytotoxicity of AD-3 repellent to a wide variety of

trees commonly used in horticultural production. • To conduct pen trials to identify the active agent in AD-3 repellent. • To assess the efficacy of omega-3 egg powder as a repellent for rabbits and

wallabies. • To conduct a large-scale field trial to determine the efficacy of AD-3 and WR-1 in

pine and eucalypt plantations in Victoria, and to implement preliminary field trials of AD-3 and WR-1 in Tasmanian plantations.

Background Browsing damage to new seedlings or established plots causes significant concern to plantation managers who, in an effort to protect their stock, frequently resort to various methods of lethal control. This action is becoming increasingly criticised by sections of the community. In an effort to reduce reliance on lethal control the Vertebrate Pest Research Unit (VPRU) began work on the development of an environmentally friendly, efficacious and inexpensive browsing repellent. Outcomes The culmination of this investigation has been that two browsing repellents (WR-1 and AD-3) have been identified and patented in Australia and New Zealand. Preparations for product registration by the National Registration Authority (NRA) are being undertaken at the time of writing. WR-1 is being used by thirty collaborating organisations on an estimated 450,000 seedlings. A permit to trial agricultural chemicals has been obtained from the NRA to cover this work. AD-3 is yet to be externally field-tested but a trial application is soon to be lodged with the NRA.

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Omega-3 egg powder was not found to be significantly more repellent to rabbits or wallabies compared with whole egg powder. Experiments to isolate the active agent in AD-3 were inconclusive and suggest that repellency may be related to complex fermentation in situ. Discussions have been held with four Tasmanian forestry companies regarding a possible large-scale field trial of both repellents in 1996-97. It is hoped that negotiations will proceed in time for the 1997 planting season. The phytotoxicity trial of orchard species was initiated in March 1996 and eleven monthly assessments have been taken. This trial has recently been completed but data analysis is yet to take place. Implications Both repellents currently offer a practical technique for the mitigation of seedling damage. Given the proven efficacy of these products in pen and field trials it is likely that these repellents are marketable. The repellents offer the egg industry another value-added product with large sales potential. RIRDC Project No: KTR-1A RESEARCHER: Dr Clive Marks ORGANISATION: Keith Turnbull Research Institute PO Box 48 FRANKSTON VIC 3199 PHONE: 03 9785 0148 FAX: 03 9785 2007

GENETIC RELATIONSHIPS AND PATHOGENICITY OF INTESTINAL SPIROCHAETES INFECTION IN AUSTRALIAN POULTRY

Objectives • To determine whether intestinal spirochaetes occur in Australian poultry. • To isolate, characterise and identify Australian, if found, and overseas spirochaetes

and to test their pathogenicity. Background

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Intestinal spirochaetal bacteria colonise the large intestine of a variety of animal species. Reports from Europe and the USA have associated intestinal spirochaetes with diarrhoea and loss of production in laying birds. However, up until now these bacteria have remained poorly characterised, and it is not clear whether reports implicating involvement of spirochaetes in cases of clinical disease even refer to spirochaetes of the same species. Although some isolates have been used in experimental reproduction of disease in both Europe and the USA again it was not known how these strains were related to each other, if at all. Up until now no attempt has been made to look for intestinal spirochaetes infecting Australian poultry, and, were these organisms present, their exact identity and clinical significance would be uncertain. Research Samples were collected from 37 layer flocks and 30 broiler breeder flocks in Western Australia showing no sign of disease or diarrhoea and/or losses in production. These samples were tested for presence of spirochaetes. Isolates were then characterised and seven Australian isolates were tested for pathogenicity in 20 day-old broiler chicks and one was also tested in 10 adult birds approaching lay. Outcomes Colonisation with intestinal spirochaetes was found to be common with 35% of layer flocks and 53.3% of broiler breeder flocks being positive. Furthermore, a statistically significant association was found between colonisation and poor performance with spirochaetes isolated from 64% of 25 flocks recording signs of diarrhoea or reduced production, but only from 28% of 25 flocks considered clinically normal. A total of 56 isolates were characterised by appropriate phenotypic tests, and were analysed genetically using multilocus enzyme electrophoresis. Pathogenicity studies demonstrated that intestinal spirochaetes from three different groups have pathogenic potential in chicks, causing diarrhoea, and that the isolate tested in adult birds (Serpulina intermedia) can cause wet droppings and significant loss of egg production in laying hens. Implications Infection with spirochaetes has been shown to be a potential cause of significant economic losses to the poultry industries. Further work is required to determine the occurrence in states other than Western Australia and to investigate means to control these common but previously unrecognised pathogens of Australian poultry. RIRDC Project No: UMU-3E RESEARCHER: Dr David Hampson ORGANISATION: Murdoch University

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School of Veterinary Studies South Street MURDOCH WA 6150 PHONE: 08 9360 2287 FAX: 08 9310 4144

DEVELOPING EGG YOLK PRODUCTS TO MATCH LOCAL AND EXPORT MARKET OPPORTUNITIES

Objectives • To investigate potential new applications for egg yolk or modified egg products,

based on scientific literature, patent applications and marketing information from international.

• To review the information obtained in this study and prepare a proposal for experimental studies of selected applications to assess their technical feasibility.

Background A declining consumption in eggs is a general tendency observed in all Western countries. Reduced demand for shell eggs in Australia is particularly apparent among domestic consumers, with egg consumption remaining relatively stable within large organisations and the food service industry. To address this situation, the egg industry in Australia needs to investigate the factors contributing to the declining market of shell eggs and egg-based products. The investigation should not be limited to the current Australian market but it should also include international markets including both countries where the living conditions and cultural backgrounds are either similar to or are different from those in Australia. After analysing these factors based on social and environmental changes in conjunction with increasing nutritional knowledge and technological progress, some suggestions can be made about future market opportunities for the Australian egg industry. Research A comprehensive survey was undertaken of scientific literature, patent applications and marketing information from local and international sources. This information was analysed to identify some food product and process development initiatives that may assist in arresting the decline in overall egg consumption and industrial utilisation in Australia. The study focussed mainly on technological aspects of the various developments and opportunities apparent from the literature. No new market research has been conducted as part of this study, although some comments in relation to apparent

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market opportunities and aspects of commercialisation have been included where appropriate. Outcomes The research identified potential products that may be able to be developed for commercial production in Australia. Implications The possibility exists to increase demand for eggs in Australia by developing products that suit changing lifestyles and cultural influences. RIRDC Project No: AFS-1A RESEARCHER: Dr Hung Tran ORGANISATION: Australian Food Industry Science Centre Private Bag 16 Sneydes Road WERRIBEE VIC 3030 PHONE: 03 9742 0121 FAX: 03 9742 0250 EMAIL: hungt@food.agvic.gov.au

MOLECULAR TYPING TO TRACE CONTAMINATION OF EGG PRODUCTS BY BACTERIA

Objective • To demonstrate the application of molecular typing in epidemiology studies to trace

contamination of liquid egg products by bacteria. Background The Australian egg industry has developed niche markets for processed egg products in Asia. To satisfy new market-driven product specifications, improved microbiological monitoring methods are required. Conventional microbiological methods are used to culture and identify bacteria of spoilage and public health significance. Additional methods in conjunction with epidemiology studies are needed to trace sites of contamination and provide information to prevent future contamination outbreaks. Molecular typing, used in medical epidemiology for tracing the spread of disease, is

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applicable for the study of a wide range of bacteria as part of a Quality Assurance program in the egg industry. Research This project applied a ‘fingerprinting’ (RAPD-PCR) method to type bacterial isolates obtained from pasteurised egg and cracking plant samples. Outcomes The work demonstrated the effectiveness of the RAPD-PCR method to trace and relate strains of bacteria isolated from the final egg product and production process. Two sets of two isolates with matching DNA ‘fingerprinting patterns’ were confirmed using eight different DNA primers. These matching fingerprinting patterns provided evidence for a likely common contaminating source for these isolates obtained from the final product and from the production process. On average, isolates yielded approximately ten prominent fingerprinting bands. Matching bands were evident by eye and confirmed using comparative computer software. Implications The technology may be generically applied to a range of bacteria. Although DNA-based diagnostic tests exist for specific organisms (eg. E. coli), these methods measure the presence or absence of the specific organism. The RAPD-PCR technique enables strains to be identified and is relatively simple compared with other molecular typing methods. This typing information is valuable as part of epidemiology studies to determine sites and likely future routes of product contamination.

RIRDC Project No: DAW-67A RESEARCHER: David Hodgson, Bernard Egan and Phil Steel ORGANISATION: Agriculture Western Australia Locked Bag No 4 BENTLEY DELIVERY CENTRE WA 6983 PHONE: 08 9368 3561 FAX: 08 9474 2479

COMMERCIAL IMPLICATIONS OF SOURCE AND FORM OF DIETARY CALCIUM AND EVALUATION OF IMPORTED AND AUSTRALIAN LAYER STRAINS

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Objectives • To compare egg production, feed conversion efficiency and profitability between

imported and Australian layers. • To evaluate three methods of supplying calcium (ground in commercial layer mash;

particulate (limestone or oyster chip) with calcium-insufficient mash) in imported and Australian strains of layers.

Background The importation of new layer strains into Australia has resulted in the need to assess the relative profitability of these strains under Australian conditions and to investigate methods of improving their performance. Research A commercial-scale layer trial was conducted to compare the performance of imported and Australian strains of layer subjected to identical conditions and assessed on an economic basis. This study incorporated dietary treatments to investigate the effects of the form of presentation of dietary calcium on productivity and profitability of the various strains. Outcomes Information on the performance of different strains in a variety of parameters and the effects of feeding different forms of calcium are now available for producers to help them assess which strain and calcium source are most likely to suit their needs. This information includes the following major findings for the conditions under which the study was conducted: • Imported strains had significantly higher mortality than Australian strains when

maintained under the same conditions. • Imported strains were earlier maturing, had better feed conversion ratios, gave

higher eggmass production and were more profitable than Australian strains despite their higher mortality.

• Layers fed diets containing granular calcium produced slightly larger eggs with stronger shells than those fed diets containing ground calcium.

Implications This study has shown that flocks of imported strains of layer managed to current industry practices can exhibit very efficient egg production but may experience high levels of mortality. The major factor that will influence the profitability of these strains will be the control of mortality. The form of calcium fed to layers has been shown to affect egg size and eggshell strength. Producers can use this information to make more informed

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decisions regarding the strains of layer they purchase and the type of calcium supplement they use. RIRDC Project No: UNE-50A RESEARCHER: Associate Professor John Nolan ORGANISATION: Dept of Animal Science The University of New England ARMIDALE NSW 2351 PHONE: 067 73 2605 FAX: 067 73 3275 EMAIL: jnolan@metz.une.edu.au PUBLICATIONS Taylor, R. D., Nolan, J. V. and Cumming, R. B. (1995). Some consequences of the

intermittent feeding of particulate calcium. Proceedings of the Australian Poultry Science Symposium, 7, 194 (D. Balnave, editor). University of Sydney Printing Service.

Robinson, S. M., Ball., W. J., Thomson, E. S. and Nolan, J. V. (1995). Oyster shell versus limestone as sources of calcium for layers. In Proceedings of the Australian Poultry Science Symposium, 7, 195 (D. Balnave, editor). University of Sydney Printing Service.

Nolan, J. V., Roberts, J. R., Thomson, E., Ball, W. and Cumming, R. B. (1997). Comparison of three imported and two Australian layer strains on three diets. In Proceedings of the Australian Poultry Science Symposium, 9, 161 (D. Balnave, editor). University of Sydney Printing Service.

EGGSHELL ULTRASTRUCTURE AND QUALITY: INFORMING THE INDUSTRY

Objective • To produce a booklet that will explain to researchers as well as producers and other

members of the egg industry how eggshell ultrastructure affects eggshell quality and the practical applications of this knowledge.

Background The role of this project was to disseminate the information obtained from the previous EIRDC-funded project UNE-45E "Defects in shell ultrastructure reduce eggshell strength" which focused on the table egg and therefore shell strength and resistance to bacterial contamination.

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Research The booklet was modelled on the "Egg Quality Handbook", written by Jeffrey A. Coutts and Graham C. Wilson and published by the Queensland Department of Primary Industries, 1990 (DPI Information Series Q190014). Outcomes A "user-friendly" practical booklet was produced that summarised the relationship between eggshell ultrastructure and eggshell quality. This booklet was promoted at relevant industry meetings. Implications The egg industry in Australia loses in excess of $10-15 million dollars per year through downgrading of eggs. A better understanding of the factors influencing egg shell quality will assist in developing strategies to reduce the incidence of egg shell defects. RIRDC Project No: UNE-55E RESEARCHER: Dr Julie Roberts ORGANISATION: The University of New England ARMIDALE NSW 2351 PHONE: (067) 73 2506 FAX: (067) 73 3122 EMAIL: jrobert2@metz.une.edu.au PUBLICATIONS: Roberts, JR, and Brackpool, C. (1995), Egg shell ultrastructure and the assessment of egg shell quality. Published by The Printery, University of New England, Armidale NSW

STRATEGIES AND MODELS FOR STABILITY IN THE PRODUCTION AND MARKETING OF EGGS IN AUSTRALIA

Objective • To develop a mathematical optimisation model to determine optimum flock

replacement policies and hence help stablise egg supply and prices.

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Background The industry is now devoting considerable resources to the monitoring of flock performance. Computer models are required to make the most efficient use of this information. Research A literature survey was conducted to determine the current status of computer optimisation models. A conceptual framework and methodology were chosen and the models developed. The models were then validated and finalised. Outcomes Three computer models have been produced in the form of Microsoft Excel spreadsheets. The first of these is used to monitor the performance of existing flocks. The second allows producers to enter different flock replacement policies and to determine which of these policies best suits current needs. These two models require only the Microsoft Excel program in order to operate. The third model utilises linear programming to calculate an optimum flock replacement policy for a given set of conditions. This model requires additional mathematical problem solving software in order to operate. Implications The use of these management tools to forecast the effects of different flock replacement policies may help stabilise egg supply and prices in a deregulated environment by allowing producers to respond more quickly to price signals. RIRDC Project No: RSA-2E RESEARCHER: Mr Michael Read ORGANISATION: Read Sturgess and Associates, Consulting Economists 89 Gladstone Street KEW VIC 3101 PHONE: 03 9853 2929 FAX: 03 9853 0205

EFFECTS OF FOOT LESIONS AND FEATHER LOSS ON THE WELFARE OF CAGED LAYERS

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Objective • To determine whether foot lesions or poor feather cover affect the welfare of laying

hens using anatomical and behavioural criteria. Background The housing of laying hens in cages has attracted criticism from welfare groups and the general public. In particular, feather loss and foot lesions have been criticised as they may cause pain in laying hens. The aim of this study was to provide scientific measurements of the effects of these conditions on the welfare of laying hens. Research Immunohistochemical techniques were used to determine whether nerves innervating the affected regions of the skin were of types likely to be capable of transmitting pain. Further anatomical analyses were also carried out to determine whether skin abrasion or inflammation were in evidence. Birds in cages exhibiting various levels of feather loss or foot lesions were videotaped and the tapes were analysed for behavioural features. The anatomical findings were then correlated with the observed behavioural responses. Outcomes The results indicate that feather loss through cage abrasion in either the Australian or European strains of caged layers is unlikely to be painful and does not decrease the long term well-being of hens. Hens with foot lesions demonstrated histological changes with accompanying behaviours that suggest the lesions are painful and thus decrease the well-being of the hens. The incidence of foot lesions in this study was less than 1%. The European strain was found to be more aggressive to other hens than the Australian strain. Implications While abrasion of feathers by wire cages may have economic implications to producers due to higher maintenance requirements of hens to maintain body temperature there is no evidence to suggest that feather cover affects the welfare of hens. Although the incidence of foot lesions in caged birds may be quite low it is likely that such lesions are painful. Foot lesions may also occur in non-cage and modified cage systems and survey work needs to be done to determine the relative incidences of foot lesions in these systems and to determine methods of minimising their impact on the welfare of laying hens. RIRDC Project No: UF-4E RESEARCHER: Dr Christine Lunam ORGANISATION: Dept of Anatomy and Histology

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Flinders University GPO Box 2100 ADELAIDE SA 5001 PHONE: 08 8204 4704 FAX: 08 8277 0085 EMAIL: chris.lunam@gamgee.cc.flinders.edu.au PUBLICATIONS: Lunam, C. A. and Glatz, P. C. (1996). Behavioural and anatomical aspects of poor feather cover in caged hens. Proceedings of the Australian Poultry Science Symposium, University of Sydney; pp157-160.

PREVENTION OF BEAK REGROWTH AND CHRONIC PAIN FOLLOWING TRIMMING

Objectives • To examine the anatomical changes that underlie behavioural changes evoked by

beak trimming. • To evaluate the use of medicinal agents to reduce beak regrowth and pain in beak

trimmed birds and any subsequent effects on behaviour and the well being and uniformity of growth within the flock.

• To determine the risk factors associated with neuroma formation after beak trimming at hatch.

Background In Australia, where light intensity within many poultry sheds cannot be controlled, beak trimming is regarded as an essential practice in the egg industry to control cannibalism, bullying, feather and vent pecking. Beak trimming, however, has considerable problems and has been shown to be stressful for birds in a number of ways. As there is currently no economically viable alternative to beak trimming there is a need to determine how beak trimming can be modified to maximise the wellbeing of the bird. Furthermore, if beak trimming has to be done it is important to know whether medicinal agents could be used to reduce chronic pain in chickens after trimming. Research The anatomy of the beak stump was correlated with the behaviour and physiology of birds under different experimental situations. It is essential to determine the anatomical

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consequences of beak trimming as it removes "guess-work" of interpreting physiological and behavioural alterations observed per se after trimming. Pullets beak trimmed at day old were subjected to different levels of re-trimming and cauterisation time to establish the level of re-trimming required to prevent further outbreaks of cannibalism and to examine the effects on regrowth of beaks. The effects of beak length and condition on food intake, feeding behaviour and particle mix taken from diets of different consistencies were investigated and correlated to the presence or absence of putative nerve fibres and neuromas in the beak stumps. A study was conducted to determine the effects of capsaicin, an extract from hot peppers, administered following beak trimming at hatch by swabbing, injecting into the beak or by adding to the diet on beak regrowth and innervation. Outcomes It was found that severe beak trimming resulted in more beak regrowth than moderate beak trimming but that increasing the cauterising time could reduce the amount of regrowth. Severe beak trimming reduced food intake in general and also reduced the ability to pick up large food particles. Both swabbing and injection of the beak with capsaicin retarded beak regrowth. Swabbing the beak with the analgesic bupivicaine HCl at the time of trimming prevented changes in feeding behaviour often observed after beak trimming. There was anatomical evidence of pain fibres in the beak but considerably fewer than initially believed. These fibres persisted after high doses of capsaicin although this substance is found to destroy such fibres in mammals. Conservative trimming retained the presence of sensory receptors in the beak stump enabling birds to conduct normal behaviours. Furthermore, neuromas formed following moderate trimming did not persisted into adulthood. There was no anatomical evidence of the presence of pain fibres in the tip of the tongue. Implications The results from this study show that careful control of the practice of beak trimming can result in minimal direct effects on the welfare of hens while improving their wellbeing through the prevention of cannibalism and other aggressive behaviours. The wellbeing of beak trimmed hens relies heavily on the degree to which they are beak trimmed. Medicinal agents may be used to prevent acute pain and to reduce beak regrowth and the need for re-trimming. The absence of pain fibres in the tip of the tongue indicates that accidental cutting or cauterising of the tongue during beak trimming is unlikely to be painful. RIRDC Project No: UF-3E RESEARCHER: Dr Christine Lunam ORGANISATION: Dept of Anatomy and Histology Flinders University

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GPO Box 2100 ADELAIDE SA 5001 PHONE: 08 8204 4704 FAX: 08 8277 0085 EMAIL: chris.lunam@gamgee.cc.flinders.edu.au PUBLICATIONS: Lunam, C. A. and Glatz, P. C. (1995). Substance P and calcitonin gene-related peptide in the upper beak of the commercial hen: with particular reference to the salivary glands. Proc Aust Poult Sci 7:176-179 Lunam, C. A. and Glatz, P. C. (1995). Neuroma formation in beak trimmed hens. Proc Aust Poult Sci 7:180-183 Lunam, C. A. and Glatz, P. C. (1996). Peptidergic innervation of the beak of the domestic fowl: effects of capsaicin, Anatomical Record, submitted

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JOINT CHICKEN MEAT & EGGS

The following two projects, looking at ovarian regression in domestic hens and the development of Australian vaccines for controlling coccidiosis, have been jointly funded by the Chicken Meat and Egg programs, and hence are listed in this separate section.

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OVARIAN REGRESSION IN THE DOMESTIC HEN AND ITS EFFECT ON PERFORMANCE IN LAYER AND BROILER FLOCKS

Objective • To define the process of atresia of yolky ovarian follicles and relate these changes to

those seen in true ovarian disease. Background Apparent abnormalities of the reproductive tract in layers/breeders that cease laying may be misdiagnosed as true ovarian disease when in fact they are going through normal ovarian regression. Research The process of bursting atresia in the hen’s ovary was studied histologically and in vitro studies were undertaken to establish how excess yolky material is disposed of in the ovary. Surveys were undertaken of the prevalence of reproductive tract disease and ovarian regressiion in flocks of layers and broiler breeders. Outcomes The process of bursting atresia was defined in detail. Surveys revealed that most breeder birds culled for ‘going out of lay’ were probably going through normal ovarian regression, rather than as previously thought, being actually diseased. Implications This information may assist persons in industry responsible for investigating reproductive losses in broiler breeders to correctly diagnose ovarian disease and differentiate it from reproductive ‘shutdown’ and hence to devise appropriate control procedures. RIRDC Project No: UQ-22CM / UQ-25E RESEARCHER: Dr Roger Kelly ORGANISATION: The University of Queensland ST LUCIA QLD 4072 PHONE: 07 3365 1111

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FAX: 07 3365 1112

CHARACTERISATION AND ATTENUATION OF EIMERIA SPP. FOR USE IN A LIVING VACCINE FOR AVIAN COCCIDIOSIS

Objectives • To isolate and purify field strains of E.maxima and E.acervulina. • To attenuate these strains by selecting for precocious development. • To characterise the precocious lines for pathogenicity and protection. Background Coccidiosis is an intestinal parasitic disease of poultry that causes significant economic loss to the intensive poultry industry. Drug treatment has proved convenient and cost-effective for the past 20 years and is still the most commonly used technique for control of coccidiosis. Resistance to available drugs is becoming a problem to industry. Attenuated oocyst vaccines have been developed in the United Kingdom as an effective alternative to drug treatment. These provide protection provide a degree of immunity equivalent to natural infection. The aim was to develop an Australian version of these vaccines. Research Five potential vaccine strains have been isolated and purified by single oocyst passage: two strains of E.acervulina designated RA and NA and three of E.maxima designated RM, AM and KM. All strains were isolated from non-commercial flocks and purified by 3x single oocyst passage in susceptible chickens maintained in isolation. NA and KM strains were stored in liquid nitrogen as backups. RA (E.acervulina), RM and AM (E.maxima) strains were passaged in susceptible chickens while selecting for precocious development and concomitant reduction in virulence. The precocious strains were then evaluated for reproductive output, pathogenicity, protection against virulent homologous and heterologous challenge, and drug sensitivity. The RA precocious line of E.acervulina has been evaluated and found to have low pathogenicity, acceptable reproductive output, good protection against homologous and heterologous challenge, and is drug sensitive. Birds vaccinated with the RA strain have been shown to be resistant to virulent homologous and heterologous challenge (including strains isolated in Victoria and New South Wales). It was found to be a good candidate for use in a live vaccine.

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The RM precocious line of E.maxima has been evaluated and found to have low pathogenicity, acceptable reproductive output, good protection against homologous and heterologous challenge, and is drug sensitive. This line is the most effective candidate for the E.maxima component of the proposed vaccine. Implications and outcomes The candidate E.acervulina and E.maxima vaccine stains developed in the course of this project will be incorporated in a coccidiosis vaccine to become commercially available to industry in the near future. As an outcome of a workshop attended by representatives from industry and Queensland DPI, a project proposal to develop attenuated lines of E.tenella and E.necatrix was developed and has subsequently received RIRDC support. During the course of the project additional reference and challenge strains and species for intra and inter specific and biological comparisons and diagnostic test development were isolated and purified. A standardised and reliable technique to cryopreserve the different species of Eimeria was also developed. RIRDC Project No: DAQ-25E / DAQ-29CM RESEARCHERS: W K Jorgensen & N P Stewart ORGANISATION: Queensland Dept of Primary Industries Animal Research Institute Locked Mail Bag No 4 MOOROOKA QLD 4105 PHONE: 07 3362 9427 FAX: 07 3362 6429

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HONEYBEE

Australian honey has a reputation in the world market as being a premium quality product. It is produced over a large geographical area from a wide variety of flowering plants. Seventy to eighty per cent of honey produced is from native flora, especially eucalypts growing on public, crown leasehold and freehold land. Australia produces about 26,000 tonnes of honey per year with an estimated gross value of production of about $37 million. Domestic consumption is approximately 15,000 tonnes per year and the remainder is exported in prepack and bulk form, making Australia the world’s fourth largest exporter of honey. In 1994-95 the gross value of production, including queen and package bees, beeswax, pollen and pollination, was $55 million. In addition, the value of pollination to the Australian economy has been estimated at between $604 million and $1.2 billion. Research Highlights for 1996-97 • Three perennial and two annual legumes were identified for honeybee

and pasture production as replacement species for blackberry and gorse.

• The FCAAA has accepted the “holistic stakeholder consultation” approach developed by the Gill project for negotiation of bee access rights to government and controlled forests.

• Identification of practices that contribute to honey metal content has resulted in the introduction of new bulk containers and in-house apiarist quality control by the two major packers.

• A positive reaction and high demand both from extension officers and the private sector for a video commissioned on exotic mites and associated Asian honeybees.

• Evaluation of Australian commercial honeybees for hygienic behaviour to

minimise chalkbrood disease.

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DISAPPEARING DISORDER OF HONEY BEE COLONIES

Objective • To describe the symptoms of the disorder and attempt to show the causative agent. Background Disappearing disorder is a honey bee brood disorder that has long been reported from colonies in north east NSW and south-east Queensland. Although occurring locally, the disorder can lead to significant losses. Research During 1994, three outbreaks of the disorder were examined in south-east Queensland, the first during early October in the Cunningham’s Gap region, the second in late November/early December in the same region, and the third in late December in the ranges west of Caboolture. During each reported outbreak, symptoms were noted and samples of brood, pollen and honey were collected for laboratory analysis. Outcomes The symptoms of disappearing disorder were observed and clearly described. They were similar to those typically associated with European brood disorder, caused by Melissococcus pluton. No specific pollen type was found to be consistently collected by colonies affected by the disorder and affected colonies in different localities were reported foraging on completely different floral sources. Even though some known pathogenic micro organisms were isolated from a number of affected larvae, no micro organisms were detected in the majority of affected larvae and no particular micrograms were consistently present in affected larvae collected during different outbreaks. Nectar samples collected from colonies affected by the disorder in October 1994 and pollen samples collected from affected colonies during each reported outbreak at Caboolture in December 1994 showed significantly higher levels of trace elements, particularly zinc, than were detected in nectar and pollen samples collected in December 1994 from Caboolture. These results suggest that disappearing disorder may result from unusually high levels of trace elements in pollen and nectar collected by colonies in the affected areas. Further studies are needed to determine which trace elements might be responsible.

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Implications These results suggest that trace elements should be considered in future studies on bee nutrition. The results are also relevant to the areas of human health and honey and pollen quality assurance. RIRDC Project No: CSE-4H RESEARCHER: Dr Denis Anderson ORGANISATION: CSIRO Entomology GPO Box 1700 CANBERRA ACT 2601 PHONE: 02 6246 4001 FAX: 02 6246 4000

AUSTRALIAN HONEY IN DRY FOOD MIXES

Objective • To determine if honey has a potential role in the retardation of the staling process. Background Honey is known to have an ability to bind moisture in food systems. When added to bakery products, honey adds sweetness and is said to improve texture and therefore increase shelf life. No studies have been published determining the effect of Australian honey on the bread staling process. Therefore this study was designed to assess the hypothesis that Australian iron bark honey has a greater effect on retarding the staling phenomena than either Gemsweet (a sugar syrup) or dried honey. Research The performance of honey as a retarding agent in a white pan bread formation was compared to a commercial sugar syrup, dried honey and a no sugar, no honey control. The honey and sugar syrup were added at various levels. The level and rate of staling during storage was determined both by objective texture measurements and by sensory evaluation using taste panels. Outcomes

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The trial described in this report was unable to determine definitely one way or the other whether honey retarded the staling process under the conditions of the study. However, the results for the addition of 3% honey are very encouraging. Another important result from this study is the strong correlation between taster score and texture measurement of the bread over storage time. That is, the panellists were able to detect the physical changes (as measured by texture analysis) in term of the eating qualities of the loaf. This demonstrates that sensory evaluation is a reliable analytical tool when used to study changes in the texture of a bread loaf during the staling process. A poster presentation entitled The use of sensory evaluation to determine changes in bread texture during the staling process was presented at an international sensory science seminar held in Sydney in November 1996. The project is continuing as part of a PhD study. A further trial has been recently been completed. This trial is a repeat of the study in this report but with less treatments to reduce the complexity and to aid the statistical determination of significant difference. The results of this trial will determine the future direction of the project. RIRDC Project No: UQ-54A RESEARCHER: Nola Caffin ORGANISATION: Department of Food Science & Technology University of Queensland Gatton College LAWES QLD 4343 PHONE: 074 601 177 FAX: 074 601 171

BENEFITS OF SECURE ACCESS TO PUBLIC LANDS AND THEIR MELLIFEROUS RESOURCES

Objectives • To provide an objective assessment of the implications to the beekeeping industry and

society of non-secure access to conserved lands and of those policy processes that have been applied to consider this issue to date.

• To specify an objective and ‘holistic’ approach to developing beekeeper access policy that will provide a balanced accounting of interrelated ecological, economic and societal considerations.

Background

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Security of access for beekeepers to conserved lands (national parks and state forests) is the single most important issue facing the beekeeping industry at the moment. The recent trend is for access to be denied or to be phased out with the existing generation of beekeepers, motivated almost entirely by concerns over the perceived adverse impacts of beekeeping activity on the ecosystems involved. The scientific community has devoted considerable attention to documenting the possible impacts of apiary activity on natural ecosystems in recent years. The results have been almost invariably inconclusive. The major problems have been to do with the variable and complex nature of those ecosystems and in isolating the specific impacts of managed honeybees. It is likely that further ‘partial’ scientific investigation on the same issue will be similarly inconclusive, and is, therefore, of questionable value to the general community. Research The first part of the project involved an extensive review of recent scientific and economic research on the implications of beekeeping activity on the ecological integrity and economic value of conserved lands (National Parks and other public natural reserves). Of equal importance, was a review of policy processes that have been applied to decide on beekeeper access arrangements. The final report was highly critical of current methods for dealing with the access issue and specified a revised process for developing a more ‘holistically’ considerable policy with a strong foundation on community and industry participation and consultation. In terms of methods, the key elements included the application of a highly user friendly and participation orientated ‘modelling’ approach known as system dynamics and a theoretical basis in the territories of learning organisations and ecological economics. Outcomes The key observation from this research is that more is unknown about the problem than known. There is no unequivocal scientific evidence to support or reject claims of adverse ecological impact from beekeeping activity on public lands. The economic evidence is similarly limited. The economic consequences of policies designed to restrict access are likely to be very large and severe, largely described in terms of ‘secondary’ impacts on related agricultural activities with a high degree of dependence on effective honeybee pollination. In this environment of poor information, a stakeholder driven approach is required to support the consideration of policy/management alternatives. The detailed project report outlines an appropriate stakeholder driven mechanism for the joint consideration of key policy operatives and industry interests. It is noted the recommended process will probably involve a considerable reorientation of thinking in many of those organisations currently managing beekeeper access arrangements. That can be facilitated through carefully managed industry and community pressure. The lessons

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presented by those industry organisations which have had some success in the negotiation of reasoned access arrangements are a valuable input in this regard. Implications Those public agencies intent on removing beekeeper access to conserved public land would be hard pressed to justify their decision on the sole basis of prevailing scientific evidence. In addition, there is economic evidence to suggest the welfare of the general community could be reduced if access is to be permanently removed. The major need is for a more consultative and community empowered approach to policy decision making in this regard. An appropriate process is specified in the final report for this project. The prevailing trend to remove beekeeper access is probably the most significant contemporary threat to the continued viability of the Australian beekeeping industry: an industry which creates much more in the way of unpriced benefits to pollination dependant agricultural industries and their related service sectors and support communities than the value of its primary honey product. RIRDC Project No: UNE-46A RESEARCHER: Dr Roderic Gill ORGANISATION: Resource Systems Management Consulting “Camusfearna” Chandler Road ARMIDALE NSW 2350 PHONE: 067 751 709 FAX: 067 751 710 EMAIL: rgill@metz.une.edu.au

PRODUCTION OF A VIDEO ON EXTERNAL EXOTIC HONEY BEE PARASITES

Objective • To produce an educational video which will allow external exotic parasites to be

identified by Australian beekeepers and to show the impact they would have on the Australian apiculture industry.

Background The Australian beekeeping industry is dependent on disease freedom so certification requirements imposed by the states and overseas countries can be met. The serious threat

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facing the industry are exotic parasites of honey bee Varroa, Tropilaelaps, and Trachael Mites. Furthermore, if the parasites enter Australia control measures would require the use of miticides that, if misused, could contaminate hive products. Exotic races of bees can also carry the parasites. The production of an educational video will allow beekeepers to recognise the parasites so eradication may be possible. The video will also enable beekeepers to recognise exotic races of bees likely to carry parasites. Research The video production team travelled to Thailand to video footage of exotic parasites and races of bees with the cooperation of Dr Michael Burgett, an expert on mites from America and staff at the University of Chiang Mai in Northern Thailand. The video script was written by all State Departments of Agriculture, CSIRO, Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service, Dr Michael Burgett and the Honeybee Research and Development Committee. Production was by NSW Agriculture Video production unit. Outcomes The video will enable beekeepers to identify the honeybee parasites Varroa (Varroa jacobsoni), Trachael Mites (Acarapis woodi intemo) and Tropilaelaps (Tropilaelaps clareae). Exotic Races of Bees • Asian Honeybee (Apis cerana) • Giant Honeybee (Apis dorsata) • Dwarf Honeybee (Apis florea) For each parasite the video shows the relationship of the parasite with various races of bees and the parasite’s world distribution, biology of the parasites on European Honeybees, how to inspect hives, how they spread and control measures should they enter Australia. The video outlines the strict quarantine surveillance at points of entry and the use of detector dogs. A section also covers how honeybees can be legally imported into Australia with approval from the Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service.

The video runs for twenty minutes but a section can be played on each parasite. Implications

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Beekeepers viewing the video will be able to identify the exotic parasites and races of bees and be able to contact the right authorities should they see them in Australia. Quick detection gives a better chance of eradication. RIRDC Project No: DAN-139A RESEARCHER: Bruce White ORGANISATION: NSW Agriculture Locked Bag 11 WINDSOR NSW 2756 PHONE: 045 770 600 FAX: 045 770 650 VIDEO: The video is available from NSW Agriculture, Locked Bag 21 Orange 2800 Phone (063) 913 433, or 1800 028 374. Time 20 minutes. Cost $30.00. Post paid.

NATURAL RESOURCES DATABASE FOR THE NSW APIARY INDUSTRY

Objective • To test the methodologies of conducting a survey of NSW beekeepers to ultimately

compile a floral resource database for the NSW apiary industry. Background NSW comprises between 40% and 45% of the Australian beekeeping industry and its reliance on a range of floral species is imperative for its survival. A steering committee was formed to determine what direction this research project should take and what detail would be achievable in conducting a statewide survey of all 450 commercial beekeepers in NSW. Research Twenty beekeepers were selected on the basis of their likelihood to contribute to the development of the project, their geographic distribution and the range of operations. These 20 beekeepers account for 13,610 hives (NSW Agriculture, Beekeeper Registration System, June 1996).

Hive Number Distribution

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Hive Number Range 200-400 401-600 601-1000 1001-1500 1501-2000

Pilot Study Beekeepers 7 3 4 5 1

This sub group also encompasses areas outside of honey production, including package bee production, queen bee production, paid pollination and comb honey production. Survey forms were sent to the 20 beekeepers in July 1996. Follow up occurred during August and September. The completed survey returns were checked and coded. Each floral resource was allocated a code prior to the Resource Information section of NSW Agriculture entering and mapping the data. Outcomes The results of the pilot project were: 13 responses from 20 surveyed, although one response was only partly completed. Of the 13 responses, the number of species listed range from 4 to 53. Four responses from beekeepers with 400 hives or less ranged from 4, 6 and 36 species. Six responses from beekeepers with 500-800 hives listed 23, 34, 43, 24 and 45 species. Three responses from beekeepers with over 1000 hives indicated 53, 18 and 10 species. From the 12 responses, sites are primarily in private property. (One survey did not fill out cover sheet.)

Beekeepers Total Hives

State Forest

National Parks

Crown Land

Rural Lands

Private Property

12 8400 312 21 16 137 937

Total number of sites = 1423. A number of responses mention that sites are often used for more than one species. Implications Considering this is a very small sub group of the NSW apicultural industry, it is not justified in drawing conclusions in relation to how important various land tenures are to the industry. Lessons learnt in the pilot survey include: • One beekeeper did not fill in the locality section of the survey form as he and another

(not received) felt that this information took a lifetime to accumulate and did not feel it in their best interests to divulge such information.

• Personal communication with a number of beekeepers indicated that, to fill out the survey properly, it was taking anything from two to four hours and the level of detail required was not clear.

• The survey of all producers in NSW will be modified as a result of this exercise.

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RIRDC Project No: DAN-153A RESEARCHER: Doug Somerville ORGANISATION: NSW Agriculture PO Box 389 GOULBURN NSW 2580 PHONE: 048 230 619 FAX: 048 223 261 EMAIL: somervd@agric.nsw.gov.au PUBLICATIONS: Somerville, D (1997). A Pilot Study for Natural Resources Database for the NSW Apiary

Industry. Final Report for RIRDC, February 1997.

USING SWARMING ACOUSTICS OF HONEY BEES TO CLEAR HONEY SUPERS OF HONEYBEES

Objectives • To construct an electronic acoustic device to imitate the 'buzz run', 'whirring run' or

'schwirrlauf' effect of honey bee swarming behaviour. • To test the device in an observation chamber. • To test the device in the apiary. The bulk of the time of this project was allocated to Curtin University of Technology researchers to design, construct and laboratory test a device that mimics the swarming frequencies of honey bees. Background Chemical repellents such as Phenol (Carbolic Acid) and Benzaldehyde, were used by beekeepers to assist in the removal of honey from beehives. This practice was not recommended by the Western Australian Department of Agriculture in February 1993 due to risks of contamination. The Honey Corporation of Australia had also issued a notice to all its members that no chemical of any nature is to be used to clear honey supers after April 1993. The Honey Packers and Marketers Association of Australia (along with most other packers) also requested their members to move in the same direction. Subsequently, beekeepers had to resort to using clearerboards which had been around for a number of years and hand brushing bees off honey combs. At the same time electric air blowers were available and with a little modification have also become part of the process of removing honey from beehives.

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Each of these three methods consume more of beekeepers time than the previous chemical method. Another method described below may offer a new way of clearing the bees from supers. The process involves simulating swarming behaviour in honey bees and when used within the honey super may encourage honey bees to vacate the super. Research The project differed from most other published research by attempting to use acoustics to control honey bee behaviour rather than just analysing and interpreting the acoustics of honey bees. Curtin University of Technology was successful in developing a device that could imitate any sound that a honey bee(s) made during swarming or during any other behavioural response. The device used the latest computer technology and software available. The project identified that honey bees are able to generate sounds up to 11 Khz at -60 dB which is much greater than the 5 Khz previously published by other researchers. Experiments indicated that the behaviour of honey bees could be controlled (but not by acoustics alone) though a combination of acoustics, queen bee (presence or pheromone) and air movement seem to be useful components in future research. Outcomes The status of the current project was such that the development of the equipment was able to technically fulfil the objectives of the project but not as yet, repeat the biological aspects as was hoped for. As an extension of our findings, further experimental work is planned. It is probably a 'first' in honey bee acoustic research that the latest computer technologies have been used, certainly nothing in the latest published research indicates the use of such equipment as was used in this project. The technology has the potential of advancing the research into acoustics of honey bee swarming behaviour. Implications There is potential to further develop the use of this new computer technology as it relates to honey bee acoustics. Further research would probably require some 'pure' science which also, unfortunately, comes with protracted hours of research and the 'best' place for further development would be at honours, Masters or PhD student level at Universities. RIRDC Project No: DAW-69A RESEARCHERS: Robert Manning BSc (Biol) Honours; Dr. Halit Eren BEng, MEng, PhD, MIEEE, MIEE, Ceng; Dr.

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Stephen Ho BEng, MEng, PhD, MIEEE; and Dr Lynne Whiffler PhD ORGANISATION: Agriculture Western Australia Locked Bag No 4 BENTLEY DELIVERY CENTRE WA 6983 PHONE: 08 9368 3567 FAX: 08 9474 2479 EMAIL: rmanning@aidpo.agric.wa.gov.au PUBLICATION: Eren, H., Whiffler, L and Manning R. (1997) Electronic sensing and identification of

queen bees in honeybee colonies. IEEE Instrumentation and Measurement Technology Conference, Ottawa, Canada.

QUALITY SURVEY OF INTRODUCED HONEYS

Objective • To examine some international honeys for the presence of chemical residues, and

honeybee disease agents, and gather preliminary information on the microbiological quality of international honeys.

Background The continued viability of the Australian honeybee industry depends upon a strong domestic market, and the ability to export high quality honey. Imports of cheap honey of unknown quality would have significant effects throughout the industry, and may introduce disease agents which the Australian industry is attempting to control. Research Forty-two honey samples representing 19 countries were selected from honeys collected at the Brisbane International Airport by AQIS staff. The samples were tested for residues, honeybee disease agents and microbial flora. Outcomes Seventy-six percent of the 42 international honeys screened either contained honeybee disease agents (American foulbrood, Chalkbrood) greater than the recommended numbers of microorganisms (bacteria, yeasts, moulds) or detectable chemical residues (phenol, antibiotics). This supports the AQIS policy in confiscating honey entering Australia.

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Implications A benchmark has been established against which the quality of Australian honeys can be compared. Further work appears required to implement standard techniques for the enumeration of microbiological flora in honey. RIRDC Project No: DAQ-202A RESEARCHERS: Mr K F Trueman, Ms W H Ward, Mr H Mawhinney ORGANISATION: Department of Primary Industries Animal Research Institute Locked Mail Bag No 4 MOOROOKA QLD 4105 PHONE: 07 3362 9484 FAX: 07 3362 9440 EMAIL: truemaf@dpi.qld.gov.au PUBLICATIONS True K F, Ward W 1-1 and Mawhinney I-1 (1996). International Honeys - A Quality

Survey. Report to RIRDC. Department of Primary Industries, Qld.

EVALUATION OF HONEYBEES FOR HYGIENIC BEHAVIOUR

Objectives • To speed the development of hygienic honey bee genotypes and adoption of these

genotypes into the commercial bee population and thereby minimise the effects of chalkbrood disease on the honey and queen breeding industries.

• To determine, under standardised conditions, the level of genetic variance in hygienic behaviour in Australian honey bees.

Background Chalkbrood is a disease of honey bees that introduced to Australia in 1993. The objective of this experiment was to determine whether Australian commercial bees showed the ability to efficiently clean out dead brood. Work in the United States has shown that colonies that clean out dead brood within 24 hours never show symptoms of chalkbrood. Research

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Ten untested queen bees were purchased from queen producers and beekeepers in NSW, Tasmania, South Australia, Western Australia and Victoria. (Queens could not be purchased from Queensland because of quarantine restrictions). Ten strains were tested. Queens were introduced standardised colonies. On three occasions, a square of freeze-killed brood containing 100 cells was introduced to all colonies. The number of dead pupae removed by the bees was counted after 48 hours, 5 days and 7 days from the time the dead brood was introduced. Outcomes The results showed a huge variation in the speed with which Australian bees cleaned out dead brood. Three strains were somewhat hygienic, while most were not sufficiently hygienic to prevent disease. The same three strains were hygienic in tests conducted in early summer, mid summer and autumn, despite very different honey flow conditions. Implications The results mean that if hygienic breeding stock is used by queen producers, untested daughters will be sufficiently hygienic to prevent chalkbrood. Queen producers should be encouraged to identify hygienic bees for breeding stock. RIRDC Project No: ULA-2H RESEARCHER: Dr. Ben Oldroyd ORGANISATION: School of Biological Sciences LaTrobe University PHONE: 02 9351 7501 FAX: 02 9351 4771 EMAIL: boldroyd@bio.usyd.edu.au PUBLICATIONS: Oldroyd, B.P. (1996) Evaluation of Australian commercial honey bees for hygienic

behaviour, a critical character for tolerance to chalk brood. Aust. J. Exp. Agric. 36: 625-629.

PRODUCTION OF A VIDEO ON CHALKBROOD DISEASE

Objectives • To produce a video on Chalkbrood disease. The approach is considered to be an

ideal method of transferring information on symptoms of the disease and control methods beekeepers in Australia can consider, to reduce the impact of this disease on their apiary businesses.

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Background Chalkbrood was discovered in Australia in January 1993. It was vital beekeepers be given information on video about this disease so they could recognise the symptoms and take measures to reduce the impact. Research The video was produced in the Central West of NSW with the cooperation of a commercial beekeeper, and the script by NSW Agriculture in consultation with other states CSIRO and the Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service. Production was by NSW Agriculture's video production unit. Outcomes This video enables beekeepers to identify the symptoms of Chalkbrood, and transfers knowledge of the disease to beekeepers. It also outlines measures beekeepers can take to reduce the impact of this disease, outlines the epidemiology of this disease, and how to correctly examine hives to detect this disease. Implications Beekeepers viewing the video will be able to identify chalkbrood and understand this disease. RIRDC Project No: DAN-21H RESEARCHERS: Bruce White, Phillip McLellan, Dr Michael Hornitzky ORGANISATION: NSW Agriculture Locked Bag 11 WINDSOR NSW 2756 PHONE: 045 770 600 FAX: 045 770 650 EMAIL: white br@agric.nsw.gov.au VIDEO: This video is available from NSW Agriculture, Locked Bag 21 Orange 2800 Phone (063) 913 433, or 1800 028 374. The video runs for ten minutes at a cost

of $25.00. Post paid.

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POLLINATION OF FABA BEANS

Objectives • To measure the seed/yield increase in faba beans by the controlled use of honey bees. • To evaluate the value of faba bean pollen to the nutritional requirements of honey bees. Background This project was instigated due to the lack of knowledge of the pollination requirements of faba beans grown under Australian conditions. There was a certain amount of conflicting information available to both growers and beekeepers, such do managed honey bees benefit crop yields via increased pollination. The previous research in Australia was not primarily aimed at this question. A significant amount of research overseas indicates the value of honey bees in faba bean pollination. This project was therefore designed to determine whether honey bees were beneficial in growing faba bean crops under Australian conditions, and at the same time to ascertain the impact of the crop on the management of commercial bees. Research The trial was conducted between August and November 1993 at Darlington Point in the Riverina region of NSW on a 32.5 ha crop of faba beans of the variety Fiord. Four treatments replicated five times. The treatments were as follows: Treatment 1: Random plot in crop (control). Open to bees (uncaged control). Treatment 2: Cage with bees enclosed. Treatment 3: Cage without bees (no bee access). Treatment 4: Cage with shade effect only open sides to access to honey bees. Thirty two 10-frame strong double hives were placed alongside the crop on 28 August, 1993 when approximately 5% of flowers were open. At the same time, a nucleus colony was placed inside each of the five designated cages (treatment 2). These nucleus colonies were given a supply of water for the duration of the trial. Harvesting of plots took place from 13-17 December 1993. This was done by randomly selecting a 2m length of one row 1m wide within each cage, removing the plants. The stalks and pods of each plant were counted and the beans were shelled and weighed. Outcomes

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The results indicated that insect activity on the flowering plant increased yields. Under the conditions of this trial, yield was increased by 24%. This supports many of the research findings in other countries. Also, pods were set the full length of the plant in cages with bees, in contrast to pods set only towards the top half of the plant in cages without bees. The results on honey bee nutrition were encouraging because the nutrition levels of the bee collected pollen were at a desirable level to supply to colonies requirements. The colonies built up and expanded quite rapidly in the early half of the trial, without any detrimental impact on the crude body protein levels of adult bees. The main drawback with honey bees working this crop is the lack of available nectar in the faba bean flower because of the shape of the flower. Implications To guarantee that pollinating insects are not a yield limiting factor when growing faba beans, it is strongly recommended that managed bee hives are moved into the crop when in flower. Management of colonies for swarming should be a priority when honey bees are working faba beans in the early spring, due to the low nectar availability and reasonable quality pollen encouraging rapid build up. Beekeepers should be aware of any chemicals applied to the crop while the faba beans are in flower and take the necessary steps to reduce any risk to honey bee colonies. RIRDC Project No: DAN-19H RESEARCHER: Doug Somerville ORGANISATION: NSW Agriculture PO Box 389 GOULBURN NSW 2580 PHONE: 048 230 619 FAX: 048 223 261 EMAIL: somervd@agric.nsw.gov.au PUBLICATIONS: Somerville, D (1995). Pollination of Faba Beans. Final Report. DAN 19H. May 1995. Somerville, D (1994). Honey Bees in Faba Bean Pollination. Agnote Reg 4/72. NSW

Agriculture. August. Somerville, D (1996). Faba Beans. Proceedings of 4th Annual Conference, Crop

Pollination Association. Horsham. 3rd August.

ANTIMICROBIAL PROPERTIES OF AUSTRALIAN HONEYS

Objectives

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• To carry out a preliminary assessment of the antimicrobial potential of Australian

honeys. • To develop a rapid and inexpensive system for the routine screening of honey for

antimicrobial properties. Background Two major agents have been shown to be responsible for the anti-microbial activity in honey: hydrogen peroxide (from the bee), and uncharacterised chemical substances (from the floral source). Manuka honey from New Zealand is collected by bees from the flowers of a particular species of Leptospermum tree and has been described as "the best natural antibiotic in the world". Previous research has shown that Australian honeys possess anti-bacterial activity. Research Some 400 honeys were sourced from around Australia and screened against several reference micro-organisms to determine anti-microbial activity. Research recently completed at the Centre for Food Technology has shown that Australian honeys possess similar properties to Manuka honey. Honeys were screened using agar diffusion assays and microtitre turbidity assay systems. Outcomes The potency of Australian honey is at least on a par with New Zealand Manuka honey. Chemical comparison using GC-MS has shown that the New Zealand Manuka and the Australian Jelly Bush honeys are very similar. This is not very surprising since both honeys are derived from Leptospermum trees. Implications It is known that the Egyptians used honey as a therapeutic agent. This project has shown that the potential exists to value-add to the existing honey resource by developing products with therapeutic benefit. The potential use of these novel honeys in the treatment and management of moist wounds (eg. burns and ulcers) will require further research. RIRDC Project No: DAQ-204A RESEARCHER: Dr Craig Davis ORGANISATION: Centre for Food Technology Queensland Department of Primary Industries 19 Hercules Street HAMILTON QLD 4007 PHONE: 07 3406 8611

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FAX: 07 3406 8677 EMAIL: davisck@dpi.qld.gov.au

IMPACT OF COMMERCIALLY MANAGED HONEYBEES ON FLORA AND FAUNA

Objective • To measure the impact of commercially managed honeybees on selected native flora

and fauna in Ngarkat Conservation Park, SA, during winter. This will assist in formulating management strategies that will allow continued use of natural resources by honeybees while maximising the conservation of the natural system.

Background The continued use of floral resources by commercial apiarists in reserves conflicts with the primary purpose of those reserves - the conservation of endemic wildlife. Land managers continually review their policies on access for beekeepers to conserved lands because of a concern that continued presence of honeybees may be detrimental. There are limited data on which sensible decisions can be made. In South Australia, Ngarkat Conservation Park is an important over-wintering site for honeybees. This project aimed to measure the responses of native flora and fauna to experimental introductions of beehives to remote parts of Ngarkat Conservation Park during winter when Banksia ornata was flowering. Research The research involved selecting 15 sites (each at least 3 km away from any other site) within the central part of Ngarkat Conservation Park. Most of this area had had no previous history of commercially managed honeybees and densities of feral colonies were negligible (0.001 colonies/ha). Some of the sites then received commercial loads of honeybees in one or more seasons and the responses of native biota to those manipulations were measured. Amongst the taxa considered were nectar-feeding birds, small mammals, native bees and several other groups of flower-visiting insects, including ants and staphylinid beetles. The research also involved measuring the production and availability of floral resources and seed production by the plants. Outcomes

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In most winters there was surplus nectar being produced by Banksia ornata in Ngarkat Conservation Park and surplus pollen, and the explanation for this was that there were insufficient native fauna present in the reserve to exploit all the resources. The introduction of commercial loads of honeybees into the reserve did not affect the numbers of native fauna living in the reserve during winter but did result in a substantial increase in seed production for Banksia ornata. At sites without honeybees, seed production by Banksia ornata ranged from 3.7 to 7.3 seeds per inflorescence over three years. Seed production at sites stocked with honeybees, however, was significantly higher ranging from 8.3 to 10.9 seeds per inflorescence over the same period. Excluding honeybees from this reserve might now be detrimental to the long term survival of Banksia ornata, which reproduces after fire only by seed. Plans to exclude beekeeping from this reserve might be inappropriate. Nevertheless the above results should not be blindly extrapolated to other sites. All that has been demonstrated is that there is no detrimental impact of honeybees on the flora and fauna of Ngarkat Conservation Park during the 2-3 month winter period when Banksia ornata blooms and when apiarists need access. Simple techniques were developed during this study to assess the availability of floral resources at Banksia inflorescences and the results of this study may also apply to other areas dominated by winter-flowering Banksias. In general, extrapolation to other areas outside the winter period should be done with caution. RIRDC Project No: UA-IH RESEARCHER: Dr David Paton ORGANISATION: Department of Zoology University of Adelaide ADELAIDE SA 5005 PHONE: 08 8228 4742 FAX: 08 8223 5817 PUBLICATIONS: Paton, D.C. (1995). Impact of honeybees on the flora and fauna of Banksia heathlands

in Ngarkat Conservation Park. SASTA Journal 95: 3-1 1. Paton, D.C. (1996). Overview of the impacts of feral and managed honeybees in

Australia: distribution, abundance, extent of interactions with native biota, evidence of impacts and future research. Aust. Nature Conservation Agency, Canberra. 71 pp.

Paton, D.C. (1997). Honey bees Apis mellifera and the disruption of plant-pollinator systems in Australia. Vic. Nat. 114: 23- 29

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INTRODUCTION AND EVALUATION OF REPLACEMENT SPECIES FOR BLACKBERRY IN TASMANIA

Objective • To introduce and evaluate a range of perennial legumes that have potential as honey

producers and may be considered as a replacement for blackberry in Tasmania. Background European blackberry is an important resource in the production of Tasmania's white honey. White honey consists of clover and blackberry flora. If blackberry was lost from the industry, 15 out of the 235 beekeepers that use blackberry would absorb 97% of the industry's financial loss. If blackberry was completely removed, the industry would suffer a loss of $277,000 and five full-time beekeepers who work in the major areas would suffer individual income losses of between $4,000 and $88,000. Research Perennials From mid 1991 through to January 1993 a range of perennial legumes known to have potential as honey bee plants were introduced into Australia, principally from southern Europe and western North America. As the amount of seed per accession was very small (often less than 10 seeds) the plants were first established in small pots until they had attained sufficient size to be transplanted into the field. This occurred during February/March 1993 and growth has been monitored since then. Annuals The Crops branch, DPIF, forage legume introduction program provided the majority of the species tested. From March 1993 until March 1994 a collection of 137 Lathyrus, Lupinus and Vicia species were grown in 5m rows at the Mt Pleasant Laboratories. During this time the plants were examined during the flowering period to establish the number of bees actively foraging. Outcomes A total of 103 perennial and 137 annual legumes have been assembled and evaluated for attractiveness to honey bees. Four species have been selected for further evaluation, namely Dorycnium hirsutum, D. pentaphyllum, Vicia cracca and V. villosa. Drought conditions during 1993 and 1994 greatly reduced the amount of seed produced. Vicia cracca is currently being evaluated for honey production by the Wynyard High School and the NW Tasmanian Beekeepers’ Association and by a professional beekeeper near Deloraine. Half a hectare of Vicia villosa was grown and the result indicates that

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commercial quantities of a high quality, distinctive flavoured, fight honey can be produced from broad acreage sowing of Vicia villosa. Dorycnium spp. have been planted in a trial block near Swansea on Tasmania's East Coast. Extension includes meetings with the Tasmanian Beekeeping Association (TBA), North West TBA, interviews on ABC Country Program and television and a jointly managed site of 1,000 plants involving the Wynyard High School, North West beekeepers and Forestry Commission. RIRDC Project No: DAT 2H RESEARCHER: Robert Reid ORGANISATION: Tasmanian Institute of Agricultural Research PO Box 46 KINGS MEADOWS TAS 7249 PHONE: 03 6336 5449 FAX: 03 6344 4961

BULK HONEY CONTAINERS

Objective • To assist honey to maintain its image as a quality natural product by identifying those

areas of production that may adversely affect quality assurance accreditation. Background Little is known of the influence of management procedures on metal levels in honey and beeswax and the effect they may have on quality accreditation. Current bulk honey containers were introduced 30 years ago, and whilst extraction plants have been upgraded the original bulk containers are still in use. Their metal related suitability was compared to alternative containers. Research During honey extraction eleven apiarists collected random comb and settling tank samples before filling washed waxed, unwashed waxed, washed galvanised, unwashed galvanised and 316, 304 and 430 grade stainless steel drums. The drums were sampled on arrival at the packing plant, stored for 3-6 months, heated, rolled and resembled. This honey and beeswax and specific and spot samples from an additional eight apiarists was analysed using the ICP - MS4 method for aluminium, chromium, nickel, zinc, copper, lead, cadmium, iron, mercury, arsenic and selenium.

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Outcomes Honey mean metal levels were below the Australian maximum permitted concentrations (MPC). Levels of known dangerous metals were very low and often below the level of detection. Zinc, iron and aluminium were below MPC but warrant industry attention.

Aluminium was associated with unsatisfactory fumigation procedures. The current move to alternative comb storage (eg. coldrooms) removes any health implications associated with fumigation.

Zinc results do not support the continued use of galvanised drums and whilst beeswax lining reduced zinc levels in year 1, it is considered a possible interim measure only pending determination of the future direction of bulk containers.

Suppliers' newsletters from two packing houses confirm action was taken following the interim reports to minimise possible metal effects on honey quality.

Beeswax contained higher levels of metals, some as a result of old processing procedures. Modern wax processing plant and moulds should be installed to minimise wax metal levels.

RIRDC Project No: GK-1A RESEARCHER: Graham Kleinschmidt Research participants from QLD, NSW, VIC, SA ORGANISATION: PO Box 109 MOFFAT BEACH QLD 4551 PHONE: 07 5491 8389 FAX: 07 5491 9062 PUBLICATIONS: Kleinschmidt GJ. (1996) 'Keeping Apiary Products Natural', Australian Beekeeper 98

(1): 18,25, Australian Bee Journal 77 (7): 16 - 18

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RICE The Australian rice industry is primarily based in the Murrumbidgee and Murray Valleys of southern NSW, where some 2,500 family farms produce between 1 and 1.4 million tonnes of paddy per year. It is one of the most productive and efficient rice industries in the world, with yields averaging 8.5 t/ha. The industry has a farmgate GVP of around $300 million and earns more than $500 million in exports (mostly of value-added rice in small branded packs) to more than fifty destinations. Research Highlights for 1996-97 • Release of a significant new medium grain rice variety and progress on

several other varieties that focus on the Japanese market requirements and also the domestic fragrant rice market.

• Further development of Near Infra-red (NIR) techniques for better

determining fertiliser requirements of crops. Surveys have shown that growers who use this technology achieve, on average, 0.6t/ha more paddy grain than the average.

• Completion of an independent assessment of rice harvesting equipment

which revealed that significant savings can be made through more informed machinery selection and use.

• Release of SWAGMAN Option - a hierarchical multi-criteria framework

that identifies profitable landuses which minimise watertable rise and salination. improving water use.

• Development of ‘Business Checks’, a business and financial educational

program for rice farmers to help improve profitability.

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SWAGMAN OPTIONS - HELPING MAXIMISE PROFITABILITY OF RICE BASED CROPPING SYSTEMS WHILE ENSURING ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY

Objective • To identify landuses which will maximise net return to the farmer and allow

sustainable agricultural production. Background In Australia the rice industry generates approximately $500 million per annum in gross revenue, most of it in export earnings. In order to maintain such a successful industry, rice production must be conducted in an environmentally sustainable manner. Rice is grown as a paddy system, where water is ponded for periods of four to six months. Therefore, it is inevitable that recharge to groundwater will occur under rice and watertables will rise. The damage potential of rising watertables has been recognised since the 1940’s and the state agencies and the rice industry have negotiated and implemented a series of environmental restrictions to minimise watertable rise. Such environmental policies were designed to protect the ecosystem without assessing their impact on farm profitability The problem has been compounded by addressing those issues separately. Therefore, it is essential that irrigated farm profitability and environmental sustainability are considered simultaneously, when agronomic and environmental policies are formulated. Research A hierarchical multi-criteria framework, SWAGMAN Options was developed. The framework is multi-disciplinary in its approach, incorporating information on agronomy, soils, hydrogeology and economics. The model was used to evaluate optimal landuse practices in the Camarooka Project Area, a representative sub-region of the Murrumbidgee Irrigation Area. SWAGMAN Options is made up of six optimisation routines and a groundwater routine. Output from a routine is passed on to the subsequent routine as input. The first routine selects paddocks suitable for rice, the second determines the depth to the watertable after rice, and the third determines sub-surface drainage required in non-rice paddocks. The fourth routine finds the irrigation requirements for landuses while maintaining soil salinity below a critical level; the fifth and sixth determine which landuse will maximise financial returns and drainage receptively. The final routine chooses optimal non-rice

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landuses based on the relative importance or weight given to environmental and economic objectives. A number of sensitivity analyses were conducted to assess the impact of the pertinent variables on the model. The percentage of rice area allowed, the rice water use limit, rainfall, optimal depth, critical salinity, initial depth to the waterable and the importance or weight placed on economic and environmental factors were all examined. Outcomes The current level of rice production (30% of a farm area) as a monoculture will increase the area with shallow watertables in an average rainfall year. Introduction of non-rice landuses will lower the watertable and increase the net returns substantially. Maize and canola will results in higher returns than other one-rice landuses. The rice paddock water use limit has a significant impact on the area with a shallow watertable. In an average rainfall year, restricting paddock water use to 14 ML/ha/pa will restricts the waterable rise from rice cropping. The introduction of maize and canola will increase the net farm returns and reduce the sub-surface drainage requirement. Implications The current level of rice production restrictions is not sufficient to halt the increase in the area with shallow watertables in an average rainfall year when rice is grown as a monoculture. This result highlights the need to introduce non-rice landuses into rice farming systems if the area sown to rice is to be maintained in the long term. Present rice water use limits, which are in the order of 16 ML/ha/pa will not lower the waterhole. In an average rainfall year, restriction of the rice paddock water use to 14 ML/ha/pa will restrict the watertable rise from rice cropping to the minimum. RIRDC Project No: CSI-4A RESEARCHERS: S A Prathapar, W S Meyer, E Alocilija and J Madden ORGANISATION: CSIRO, Division of Water Resources GRIFFITH NSW 2680 PHONE: 069 601 500 FAX: 069 601 600 PUBLICATIONS: Prathapar, S A, Meyer, W S Alocilja, E Madden J. (1995). SWAGMAN Option. Final

Report to the RIRDC. CSIRO Consultancy Paper 95/42. Prathaper, S A , Meyer, W S, Alocilja, E. and Madden, J (1996). SWAGMAN Option: A

hierarchical multi-critera framework to identify profitable landuses which minimise watertable rise and salinisation. Invited paper. Journal of Applied Mathematics and Computation.

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Prathapar, S A, Meyer, W S, Alocilja, E and Madden, J (1995). A Multi-Critera framework to identify landuses which maximise farm profitability and minimise net recharge. International Conference on Multiple Objective Decision Support Systems for Land, Water and Environmental Management. Hawaii, USA.

RICELAND SUITABILITY ASSESSMENT

Objectives To develop improved procedures for evaluating the suitability of land for rice growing by: • developing field survey and interpretation procedures for electromagnetic (EM-31)

surveys to identify sites of high groundwater recharge; and • evaluating hand soil texturing as an index for assessment of soil permeability and

development of an improved index based on objective assessment of a wider range of soil properties.

Background Groundwater recharge from rice growing has a major impact on regional groundwater levels and soil salinisation. During the ricegrowing season, rice fields are inundated continuously for as long as 150 days. Over the growing season between 1150 and 1200mm of water per hectare are used to meet the evapotranspiration demands of rice. The remainder of irrigation water supplied to the rice crop is accounted for in surface drainage, soil storage and deep percolation. The suitability of soil for growing rice is currently judged by the texture of the top 2-3 metres of the soil, determined by hand texturing. A suitable soil must have more than 2 metres of continuous medium or heavy clay. One soil profile per 4 hectares is generally assessed. Localised sites exist within rice fields which allow high levels of groundwater recharge, and identification of these sites is difficult with the current technique for selecting assessment sites. Electromagnetic (EM) induction techniques can rapidly identify areas of different soil texture within a field. Research The ability of electromagnetic surveying (EM-31) to identify soils of different physio-chemical properties was tested. This was achieved by a series of field experiments in which the EM values of 24 rice fields in the Murrumbidgee and Murray Valleys were measured and mapped. These fields experienced a wide range of salinity, water table depth and history of ricegrowing.

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A protocol was developed to classify EMv data into enough EMv classes to describe the spatial variation measured within each field. Soil samples were taken from within each soil class to first interpret the EMv data in physical and chemical terms, and second to provide the first profile of soil chloride content for recharge estimation. Groundwater recharge was assessed at each soil sampling location by chloride mass balance and measuring infiltration. These recharge data were used to assess the adequacy of current soil classification methods in describing groundwater recharge and to develop new, simply measured indices of recharge. Outcomes The reaction of ricegrowers and irrigation resource managers to the technique has been extremely encouraging. Irrigation resource managers have shown interest in applying the approach in the present (1996-97) rice season. Ricegrowers have shown considerable interest; most has been positive although some ricegrowers feel threatened by the technology. Overall, knowledge of the possible implications of this technology will reinforce the need for rice growing to be restricted to appropriate soil types so that groundwater recharge from ricegrowing is minimised. Implications The project has been successful in developing field survey and interpretation procedures for electromagnetic (EM-31) surveys. The project showed that soil clay content can be predicted by EM-31 surveying. This allows a field to be delineated into areas of similar soil and to be accurately described using the current texture based soil suitability criteria. The survey methods are not only applicable to the assessment of soil for ricegrowing, but can be used to target any soil survey which relies on the textural properties of the soil for classification in riverine landscapes. The survey methodology could be applied to locate sites suitable for farm water storages or evaporation basins; to subsequently monitor for leakage; to classify the suitability of land for irrigation, and to map recharge and discharge areas on a farm or sub catchment scale. RIRDC Project No: DAN-95A RESEARCHER: Mr PG Slavich ORGANISATION: Research and Advisory Station NSW Agriculture PO Box 736 DENILIQUN NSW 2710 PHONE: 02 6626 1200 FAX: 02 6628 1744

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PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF RICE HARVESTING EQUIPMENT

Objectives • To evaluate a range of harvesting equipment under Australian ricefield conditions. • To generate information on equipment performance and its effect on rice quality. • To fill a serious gap in knowledge and meet a need for objective harvest equipment

data. • To disseminate pertinent farmer-friendly information on the results. Background The timing, duration and mode of conduct of the harvest has a direct bearing on rice quality and on growers' incomes. Delayed or protracted harvest usually downgrades whole grain mill appraisal. The rate of change in harvest technologies has gone ahead of the availability of independent or noncommercial information available to farmers. They are dependent on imported harvesting equipment, including the more recent stripper fronts and rotary combines. Project surveys point to an ageing header fleet averaging 9 years old. Rice harvesting machinery tumover is around $6 million a year. Research Harvesting equipment performance was assessed by material processing performance, derived from field tests, and economic performance, computed on costs accumulated from farmers, company and dealer personnel. Comparative harvest costs were then calculated in $/tonne, based on the criterion of throughput at 3% machine loss. Rice sample quality was assessed by the RCL appraisals laboratory. Twenty different combinations of harvesters aid fronts were tested at five sites. Included were John Deere CTS combine; Case-IH 2188; John Deere 9500 and 9600; Gleaner R62; FNH TX66; Shelboume Reynolds and Harvest Hustler strippers tested against standard fronts; plus the draper front and Vibramat attachments for cutterbars. Outcomes The most economic machine combination was a rotary combine with a stripper front. Other combinations have a very wide range of harvest costs for privately-owned equipment, some greatly exceeding the standard contractor harvest rate of $22.50/tonne for 1996. Two farmer field days were conducted, attended by some 300 people. Despite farmer opinions that field tests conducted under such poor crop conditions would hardly be

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worthwhile, much useful information has been generated. Procedures have been refined to facilitate future spot harvester performance testing. The largest combines performed in the acceptable loss range. The best performers were capable of up to a tonne of grain a minute with a stripper attachment. For cutterbar fronts, the Vibramat was highly cost-effective and had lowest front losses. The stripper front consistently increased capacity and is cost effective on suitably-adapted combines. Combine fuel consumption with a stripper front was lower per tonne of crop harvested -than a cutterbar. But not all machines can use a stripper effectively due to walker limitations or an inadequate header drive system. Strippers had three times higher gathering loss than a cutterbar, but the losses were within acceptable limits. Bin sample dockage was lower with stripper fronts. There was no significant difference in grain quality in this colder season between rotaries and walker type combines, or between strippers vs cutterbar fronts. The cool harvest season was not a fast drying one either, so the effects of seasonal tinning on quality were masked this year. On the positive side there was virtually no lodging and little rain-damaged grain, so machine performance could not be measured under lodged crop or wet field conditions. Implications The project also examined trends in the harvester market and dealt with crop characteristics and grain quality issues. Some fresh challenges to the industry are presented with the results of this project, along with proposed methods to meet the challenges. February 1996 was the coldest on record and many rice varieties were set back considerably, often with yields below half the average expected. Farmers have expressed the desire to see the project conducted again in a better season. They have asked for more harvest machinery field days as an opportunity to see the harvest equipment being tested and hear the project results explained firsthand. RIRDC Project Number: KDI-IIA RESEARCHERS: G R Hamilton, G R Quick ORGANISATION: Kondinin Group 51 Gurwood St.

WAGGA WAGGA NSW 2650 PHONE: 069 21 4047 FAX: 069 21 4182

DEVELOPING A FRAGRANT RICE VARIETY WITH EXPORT POTENTIAL USING MICRO-PROPAGATION

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Objective • To use the methodology developed during a previous RIRDC project to hasten the

development of a higher yielding fragrant rice which would remove the need for production premiums, while retaining the quality necessary for continued growth in market share.

Background A previous RIRDC project, aimed at the development of aromatic varieties for the NSW rice industry, resulted in the development of the first NSW fragrant rice variety “Goolarah”. While this variety had exceptional grain quality allowing successful entry into the market, unfortunately it was low yielding and late maturing. The Ricegrowers’ Cooperative offered substantial premiums to growers in order to achieve adequate production. Research The development of a higher yielding fragrant rice followed the standard breeding program procedure, but included additional tests for fragrance in each generation. There were two phases to testing for fragrance. The first ensured that progeny selected within a cross retained the genes conditioning for the desired type and degree of fragrance. This testing was carried out in panicle rows, in which a sample of seeds from plants within a row were tested, and single head selection was conducted on rows in which more than half of the grain was fragrant. The second phase was carried out once lines had progressed to yield testing in small plots. Single heads were selected from the best performing plots, and half grains were tasted, allowing plants to be regenerated from the germ end of fragrant grains. Seed from these regenerated plants should be homozygous for fragrance, and was multiplied in panicle rows at the same time as further yield testing and quality evaluation was carried out using seed harvested in bulk from the yield plots. Outcomes A new fragrant rice (“Kyeema”) was named and released to the NSW rice industry in 1994. The development of Kyeema addressed the most pressing needs for fragrant rice production. Its yield potential is significantly greater (approximately 3 t/ha) than the initial fragrant cultivar Goolarah, and its growth duration approximately 3 weeks shorter. In addition to the release of Kyeema there are three other significant outcomes from this project. The first is the development of an advanced semi-dwarf line of the Thai jasmine type, the second is the development of a Basmati quality advanced line, and the third is the introduction and characterisation of diverse fragrant varieties which will underpin future advances.

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Implications One of the objectives of this project was to search the literature and identify fragrant rice varieties for future use in this program. The underlying premise to this approach was that while many reports indicate relatively simple inheritance patterns, the genetic background has subtle but significant effects on the sensory perception of flavour and aroma. This approach has been vindicated by the experience of rice growers in the southern US states. The variety “Jasmine 85" was released and significant tonnage produced, however its performance in the market place was extremely poor. Despite having appropriate aroma, the taste, texture and appearance were all slightly different to Thai jasmine rice, and the market did not rate Jasmine 85 of acceptable quality. An additional two lines from the fragrant rice program have been included in advanced testing in the 1995-96 season. The first of these, designated YRF203, is a Basmati-type rice, which represents a new class of fragrant rice for the NSW rice industry. Basmati rices are grown in India and Pakistan and have unique grain quality characteristics. They have firmer cooked grain texture than Thai fragrant types, a sharper, more pungent aroma, and if the grain is soaked prior to cooking it elongates during cooking to more than twice its uncooked length. YRF203 is a significant step towards achieving a rice of this type adapted to the temperate conditions of NSW. This project has allowed the development and integration of new techniques into the NSW rice breeding program, and has resulted in a higher yielding fragrant variety, as well as promising lines of diverse qualities. These developments provide the foundation for additional product diversification and increased profitability for the NSW rice industry. RIRDC Project Number: DAN-79A RESEARCHER: Russell Reinke ORGANISATION: CSIRO Plant Industry GPO Box 1600 CANBERRA ACT 2601 PHONE: 02 6246 4911 FAX: 02 6246 5000

MAXIMISING THE FUTURE PAY-OFF FROM RICE BREEDING

Objective

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• To assist rice breeders to plan their program to maximise its future pay-off to the Australian rice industry by evaluating the cost-effectiveness of the alternative breeding approaches.

Background The project addressed two RIRDC goals specific to the rice industry: • enhancement of profitability and market opportunities for the Australian rice

industry; and • development of a coordinated program of research in support of the industry

addressing key factors in production, processing, and marketing of the product. Research & Outcomes User-friendly software, namely SAMBOY-Rice (Software for Assisting Management of Breeding Options at Yanco-Rice) has been developed to facilitate the continuing use of the analyses well beyond the life of the project. This software is flexible with ability to update and run sensitivity analysis. The economic information generated is highly valuable to breeders, research fund administrators, and other scientists involved in administration of the funds in the rice breeding program. Implications The economic information generated will help to identify the relative costs and to decide how to reduce the total cost of the rice breeding program or increase returns from the given resources. Through more efficient breeding program the returns to the growers would increase because of better targeted varieties. The software SAMBOY-Rice will allow the future use of the analyses developed in the project. RIRDC Project No: DAN-108A RESEARCHERS: Drs. John P Brennan, Inder Pal Singh, and Laurie G. Lewin ORGANISATION: NSW Agriculture Agricultural Research Institute PM Bag WAGGA WAGGA NSW 2650 PHONE: 069 381 999 FAX: 069 381 809 EMAIL: brennaj@agric.nsw.gov.au

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BUSINESS CHECKS FOR RICE FARMS

Objectives • To improve the knowledge of rice farmers about financial and business principles to

enable rice farmers to make better management decisions. • To develop a package of financial and physical whole farm checks as benchmarks for

increasing profitability. • To compare the influences and importance of increased productivity and business and

financial management on farm profitability as a step for improving farm profitability. Background The project was the second step in developing a business and financial educational program for rice farmers. The first pilot study of 31 businesses in 1994-95 in the Finley district developed a framework for comparing farm businesses. However, there was a need to further develop the educational package and evaluate differences between financial years. There was also a need to determine the interest in business management in other rice districts. Research Introductory meetings with prospective farmers were held at Finley, Deniliquin, Wakool and Moulamein in February 1996. Response to the introductory meetings was very good with a total of 71 farmers deciding to participate in Business Checks for the 1993-94 financial year and 54 for the 1994-95 financial year. Each farmer completed a Business Checks Input sheet containing both physical and financial farm information. This information was then checked and entered on a computer spreadsheet developed by Rendell McGuickan Consultants. Comparative results were developed for each group with the results presented at 4 separate meetings in March 1996. Each farmer received a Business Checks report comparing check averages with the highest 25% and lowest 25%. Another report compared the checks for average, highest 25% and lowest 25% disposable incomes. The meetings were evaluated using direct farmer feedback. Outcomes Business Checks has demonstrated that productivity as in rice yields is only one factor influencing farm profitability. The other key checks influencing profitability are: • area of rice • farm operating costs as a % of farm income • megalitres water managed per labour unit • debt as a ratio of farm income • clearing sale value of machinery as a ratio of farm income

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• non-farm income. Implications At present there are many farmer based crop check programs including Ricecheck, aimed at improving productivity. A basic principle of these programs is to educate farmers through a number of learning steps. Many of these crop check programs have been successful in improving productivity. However, there is a need to develop links between crop check packages such as Ricecheck to business management. For 1995 GRDC is funding Business Checks pilot groups in the wheat belt of Victoria. If the pilot group feedback is positive Business Checks may expand through TOPCROP Australia. Ricecheck was the forerunner of all the present crop check programs and has filled a vital industry need. The farmer feedback from the Business Checks pilot project shows there is a big need for knowledge about financial and business management particularly at a whole farm level. Business Checks which uses the same learning principles as Ricecheck has the potential to have a dramatic impact on future rice industry profitability and sustainability. RIRDC Project No: DAN-122A RESEARCHERS: Mr John Lacy, Mr Rob Rendell ORGANISATION: NSW Agriculture PO Box 108 FINLEY NSW 2713 PHONE: 03 5883 1644 FAX: 03 5883 1570

IMPROVING SEED QUALITY IN EARLY GENERATIONS OF EXPERIMENTAL RICE VARIETIES

Objectives • To improve the quality of early generation of rice seed, particularly in the areas of

seed viability, varietal purity and freedom from existing and potential weeds. • To develop a strategic seed reserve of rice cultivars which are resistant to exotic rice

pests and disease which are not present in Australian ricegrowing areas. • To proceed more rapidly through the early generation seed build-up of potential new

varieties to enable the industry to be more responsive to the changing marketing needs of the rice trade and the agronomic need of growers.

Background

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This project aims to provide infrastructure to enhance the plant breeding program by way of seed receival, drying, storage and cleaning facilities. The scientific stages of the plant breeding program are carried out by NSW Agriculture at Yanco. The available irrigation land at Yanco is limited and a major part of the early generation seed increase work has been carried out at McCaughey Memorial Institute for many years. A seed drying, processing and storage plant has been established at the McCaughey Institute, Jerilderie, and is operated by Rice Research Australia Pty Ltd in conjunction with NSW Agriculture’s rice breeding program. Outcomes The seed plant has a capacity to receive, dry, store, process and package 350 tonnes of rice seed annually. The primary cleaning and width separation unit has a total screen area of eight square metres to efficiently clean batches of seed from 500 kilograms to 50 tonnes at a rate of 1.5 tonnes per hour. Length separation is achieved by dual indent cylinder separators. The final specific gravity separation occurs on a gravity table. Processed product is available as a bulk product in 50 tonne aerated silos, one tonne bins or packed in 50 kilogram sacks. Implications The seed processing and storage facilities will have a role in ensuring the long-term future of the Australian rice industry. The NSW rice industry is free from major rice diseases and pests present in many overseas ricegrowing areas. Future security for the industry necessitates increased resistance to exotic diseases and pests in the genetic base of the rice breeding program. Plant breeders at Yanco Agricultural Institute plan to use gene marking biotechnology to enhance resistance in the breeding program. The early stages of the resistance program will produce interim resistant cultivars which will be seed increased at McCaughey Institute and stored at the seed increase facility. Interim cultivars will be stored for two to three years, then regrown or replaced. These cultivars would provide a nucleus of seed for the commercial industry to rapidly replace existing rice varieties in the event of the outbreak of exotic diseases or pests. RIRDC Project No: RRA-1A RESEARCHER: Mr G Wright ORGANISATION: Rice Research Australia Pty Ltd RMB 72 JERILDERI NSW 2716 PHONE: 03 5886 1391 FAX: 03 5886 1695

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ADOPTING PUDDLING TO MINIMISE DEEP PERCOLATION FROM RICE

Objectives • To refine the puddling technology, through interaction with practicing ricegrowers, to

identify and solve any problems which could hinder adoption. • To assess whether deep percolation under banks and/or toe furrows can negate the

benefits of puddling, using replicated field experiments. If yes, determine how to identify which banks/toe furrows are a problem, and how to ameliorate them.

• To determine the effect of 0, 1, & 2 years of puddling on the growth and yield of non-rice crops sown after rice, and on soil structure, in replicated field experiments.

Background Rice growing is a major contributor to the rapid development of high watertables in the Irrigation Areas and Districts of southern NSW. To restrict recharge of watertable (Deep percolation), recent policy aimed to restrict rice growing to paddocks where rice paddock water use is less than/equal to 16 ML/ha (1600 mm), in an average season. Strict implementation of the 16 ML/ha policy would create severe economic hardship for significant numbers of rice growers in some areas. However, research and experience overseas have shown that soil modification by puddling, smearing and compacting can reduce deep percolation by up to 3 orders of magnitude. Research A technique of puddling to reduce deep percolation from rice was developed for the rice cultural system in southern NSW. Outcomes Puddling can dramatically reduce water use in high water use rice paddocks, but is not always as effective as required. Further refinement of the technique is needed to ensure the desired result. The few data available also suggest that puddling has the potential to further reduce deep percolation in paddocks using around the 16 ML/ha target. Economic analysis suggests that a saving of 1 ML/ha more than offsets the cost of puddling. Rice establishment, growth and yield can be equally good with puddling as with conventional cultivation - provided a couple of well-defined traps are avoided. The main

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agronomic constraint is turbidity. This problem can be minimised by careful water management at the rime of puddling. There is no evidence to date that the growth and yield of crops (wheat, canola) sown immediately after rice are impaired by puddling prior to rice. These results are from crops direct drilled after rice harvest, in replicated treatments that have had 0, 1 or 2 consecutive years of puddling. However, longer term monitoring of non-rice crops on a range of soils is desirable after up to several years of puddling. One of the constraints against adoption of puddling is the large amount of time (person, tractor) it takes to puddle a paddock. However, one pass seedbed preparation is possible with puddling, compared with 3-4 passes for conventional cultivation. It is even possible to apply nitrogen (ammonia) behind the rotary hoe while puddling. Considerable effort has gone into demonstration and promotion of puddling. In 1993-94 12 growers tested puddling on significant areas. The relatively low adoption rate implies that it is not an attractive option to rice growers. A key factor influencing further adoption will probably be the importance placed on reducing rice paddock water use in the Land and Water Management Plans currently being developed. Implications Puddling has been proven sufficiently that farmers should be encouraged to try it out for themselves in a couple of bays and to monitor its effect on water use using bay tests. It has the potential to significantly reduce recharge of the watertable from rice culture. RIRDC Project No: CSI-5A RESEARCHER: Dr Liz Humphreys ORGANISATION: CSIRO Soils Private Bag No 2 GLEN OSMOND SA 5064 PHONE: 069 60 1528 FAX: 069 63 0262

PREDICTION OF RICE CROP FERTILISER REQUIREMENTS USING NIR

Objectives • To develop tissue testing based on the technique known as near infrared reflectance

spectroscopy (NIR) to assist rice producers to decide on the correct form and rate of fertiliser needed to obtain the maximum possible yields of high quality rice.

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• To provide research support to the Tissue Testing Service offered to rice growers by the rice industry in southern Australia.

• To encourage farmers to use fertilisers in such a way as to have minimal impact on the environment.

Background In 1986 the researchers first demonstrated that the technique of near infrared reflectance (NIR) spectroscopy could accurately determine the total nitrogen concentration on ground samples of rice shoot tissue. After a successful pilot tissue testing service in the 1987-88 season the RCL Rice Tissue Testing Service was established to analyse rice samples collected from growers. In the third season of the service being offered almost 40% of the rice growers were sending samples from crops for analysis. On average about 2 crops were sampled from each rice farm. Surveys of rice growers revealed that the advantages they obtained from the information provided by the Tissue Test included confidence to apply more OR less fertiliser than they expected was needed by the crop and an overall gain in yield by about 0.6 tonne/ha. Surveys further indicate that producers who have used the service since it became available in 1987-88 refer to the tissue test recommendation before making the final decision as to how much, if any, fertiliser to apply. This success led to further funding to further develop the capabilities of the NIR analyses and to provide the necessary research backup to the RCL laboratory. Research The following indicate the range of activities in the laboratory and in the field which were part of the backup provided by this project: • Development of improved NIR calibrations • Improvements to the Tissue Test sample collection and recording system • Updating of forms, instruction sheets and the Rice Tissue Test Database • Links with other RIRDC Projects, eg. MaNage Rice. Outcomes The project provided better calibration of the NIR measurement and a better integrated system for providing this service to ricegrowers. Implications The results of the project have also reduced pressure on the environment beyond the rice farm by reducing some of the wastage of fertilisers, eg in situations where inappropriate forms or amounts of fertiliser were applied. Surveys in two seasons indicated that growers who make use of the RCL NIR Tissue Testing Service achieve, on average, 0.6

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tonnes/ha more paddy grain than the average for all rice producers. While there are confounding factors in this comparison it indicates substantial real benefits, perhaps as high as $13m/year, can be attributed to the NIR tissue testing technology. RIRDC Project No: DA-82A RESEARCHERS: Dr Graeme D Batten M.Rur.Sc., PhD Anthony P Blakeney M.Sc.Agr. FRACI ORGANISATION: NSW Agriculture Locked Bag 21 ORANGE NSW 2800 PHONE: 069 51 2736 FAX: 069 55 7580

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HORSES The horse industry is one of Australia’s biggest industries and is worth more than $15 billion per year. There are more than 1.2 million horses used for racing, equestrian sports and recreation and there is a large breeding industry, with Australia producing the second highest number of thoroughbred foals in the world, after the USA. In 1995, RIRDC appointed an Equine R&D Advisory Committee to oversee a R&D program, following agreement by the Australian Conference of Principal Racing Clubs to provide significant financial support for an equine R&D program. The Committee oversees the investment of government and industry funds in equine R&D projects, and works closely with the Australian Horse Council in promoting and integrating the R&D program. Research Highlights for 1996-97 • Production of a RIRDC Equine Research Newsletter, which has become a

major vehicle for dissemination of information about the R&D program. • Evaluation of best practices for maintenance and management of grass

racetracks to improve turf composition, longevity and quality. • Production of a major book ‘Pastures for Horses: A Winning Resource’,

to help the industry enhance the management and use of pasture. This book has been a best seller and the first print run has sold out.

• Identification of current agronomic practices on thoroughbred horse stud

farms to help improve horse pasture management.

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TURF SPECIES COMPOSITION AND MAINTENANCE OF GRASS RACETRACKS IN AUSTRALIA

Objectives The main aims of the project were: • To provide information on best practice for maintenance and management of turf

composition in the major environmental areas. • To identify key problems and recommendations for alternative turf species and

practices. • To identify attributes for developing effective turfgrass swards for racetracks. • To determine the most important research needs. Background Australia has one of the largest racing industries in the world, with more than 3,600 race meetings each year on 410 registered racecourses. Most racecourses operate a grass track which poses problems for turf composition, longevity and quality. Importantly, the management of the tracks can affect racing conditions and has important implications for horse and jockey safety. Research These tasks were undertaken by: • A mail survey of 82 track managers at metropolitan, inner provincial and regional

racetracks throughout Australia. • Visits to 17 racecourses to enable assessment of the tracks and discussions with

racetrack managers about major problems. • A workshop for racetrack managers, industry personnel and research workers to

discuss priorities for research. Outcomes There was considerable variation between clubs in the number of meetings per year, with city clubs ranging from 14 to 50 meetings (average 34) and country clubs ranging from 7 to 64 (average 22). The maximum track capacity was 20 for city racetracks and 14 to 16 for country racetracks. The width of the tracks varied considerably and ranged from 19 to 35 metres for city racetracks and 15 to 36 metres for country racetracks. One of the major problems in managing racetracks is the use of the tracks for training, and more than 70% of the courses permitted trainers to have access to the course proper.

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Maintenance of racetracks includes the use of fertilisers but there is considerable variation in fertiliser application and the fertiliser requirements for grass racetracks are not known. Excessive fertiliser application could have some damaging environmental effects. A key issue at most tracks is the problem of racetrack “crossings”, where horses cross the racetrack. Further research is needed to examine the use of “turf-similar” surfaces on such crossings. Kikuyu is the main grass species but at country tracks, ryegrass swards were the major grass used on 33% of the tracks surveyed. Irrigation of the tracks is practised by most clubs and metropolitan clubs spent an average of $15,000 per annum (range up to $700,000 per annum). This was based mostly on experience of the racetrack managers and better methods are required for measuring the actual track water needs. Implications The workshop of racetrack managers, industry personnel and research workers identified the following priority areas for further research and development: • Development of standards/specifications for racetrack construction/renovation

relative to soil physics, soil profiles, track use and maintenance. • Development of equipment for evaluation of grass racing surfaces (eg: rating of the

track conditions), taking account of horse biomechanics, welfare and safety. • Collation and assessment of currently available information in areas such as fertiliser-

plant nutrition, drainage systems and plan species. • Development of effective information dissemination systems to assist track managers

maintaining up to-date technology. • Improving the communication between race clubs by development of newsletters,

workshops and formation of a National Racetrack Managers Association. RIRDC Project No: TGT-1A RESEARCHERS: Mr J Neylan Dr P Mullaney ORGANISATION: Turfgrass Technology Pty Ltd Primary Tasks Pty Ltd 9 George Street Carlton Clocktower SANDRINGHAM VIC 3191 Complex CARLTON VIC 3053 PHONE: 03 9521 6982 03 9741 5272 FAX: 03 9521 6946 03 9742 5758

MELATONIN IMPLANTS IN THE HORSE

Objectives

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• To investigate the adaption of commercially available Melatonin implants to the

horse. • To establish an effective and viable mode of administering implants into the horse for

future studies. Background The pineal gland hormone Melatonin is involved in the natural mechanism utilised by seasonal breeding species to time reproductive activity to the most advantageous time of the year. While there is considerable commercial interest in the control and manipulation of the horse’s breeding season there has been limited investigations into the precise role that Melatonin plays. In order to conduct future studies an effective means of artificially delivering Melatonin needs to be established, especially with consideration to large scale field-based trials. Research As the only commercially available Melatonin implants were developed for use in the sheep, the study had to first determine the number and suitability of these implants in the horse. Secondly, the study was to determine an efficient and effective mode of administering implants to the horse. Outcomes This report concludes that a minimum of 4 Regulin@ (Hoechst Animal Health) implants are sufficient to maintain horse plasma Melatonin levels at, or above, physiological levels for at least 12 weeks. No ill-effects were noted in any animals in response to the implants. In addition a multi-implant gun, available commercially, was demonstrated to be highly suitable to accurate and rapid administration of the implants. Implications A protocol has been established for the effective delivery of Melatonin implants to the horse on a large scale for future field-based trails. RIRDC Project No: UA-36A RESEARCHER: Michael V Guerin ORGANISATION: Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology The University of Adelaide The Queen Elizabeth Hospital WOODVILLEE SA 5011 PHONE: 08 8222 6788 FAX: 08 8268 7978

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PRODUCTION OF AN EQUINE RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT NEWSLETTER

Objective • To disseminate information on latest research and development initiatives both within the

Equine Research and Development Program of RIRDC and important information from research development overseas. The newsletter aims to provide much needed liaison between the research work done in universities and its use by end users within the equine industry.

Background Australia produces some of the most important equine research in the world and a variety of scientific papers are produced each year. There is a large body of international scientific research produced and published in scholarly journals. While this is an important and necessary part of the scientific process, it is difficult for people in the equine industry to obtain access to and understand the information from the scientific papers. To bridge this gap and to enable the equine industry in Australia to have access to the latest research findings, a newsletter published quarterly was proposed to be disseminated widely to all major horse industry groups. Such a newsletter would fulfil important objectives with disseminating information about the RIRDC Equine Research and Development Program as well as providing information on current international research written in a language understandable by people in the industry. Research The first phase of the research and development was to establish a large database of all key horse industry groups in Australia and also those with whom it is important to liaison with internationally. This database now has been extensively developed and contains more than three hundred major horse industry groups with twenty of the most important horse research and development organisations internationally. The aim of the newsletter was to provide information to each of the main industry sectors from major scientific journal databases available on line as well as the key specialist international journals. This information has been written up in a format which is readable and has appropriate illustrative material. Furthermore the progress of specific RIRDC funded projects is detailed in the newsletter.

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Outcomes The material has been disseminated very widely to major industry groups and is then further published by a range of commercial magazines as well a specific journals published by horse breed societies. These include the State Racing Calenders, The Australian Quarter Horse Journal, The Australian Stock Horse Association Journal, Thoroughbred Breeders Australia and magazines such as Hoofs and Horns. The newsletter of eight pages has been published every three months and each newsletter has contained an interview with a person involved in research in an area that is topical. In addition, the newsletter contains summaries of research being undertaken overseas of relevance to the industry and news about current projects or important research outcomes from the research and development undertaken in Australia. Implications One of the major problems for the equine industry has been obtaining access to independent scientific information in a format which is both useful and palatable. The Equine Research and Development Newsletter has bridged the gap between the scientific production of information and material that can be used and understood by people within the horse industry. Such information is very important if results of research are to reach end users and research outcomes are to change practices within the horse industry. RIRDC Project No: US-31A RESEARCHER: Reuben Rose ORGANISATION: Rural Veterinary Centre University of Sydney 410 Werombi Road CAMDEN NSW 2570 PHONE: 046 552 000 FAX: 046 551 212

PASTURE MANAGEMENT TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER FOR THE HORSE INDUSTRY

Objective • To enhance the pasture management skills in the horse industry by developing an

improved advisory service that encompasses publications and workshops on pasture management for horses.

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Background There are approximately 1.5 million horses in Australia many of which make an important contribution to the economy. Every year Australia produces the second highest number of thoroughbred foals in the world. The most profitable and possibly the best way to produce and maintain horses is on pasture. A long growing season provides the Australian horse industry with an international competitiveness over countries where growing seasons are short and horses must be produced indoors. The international success of New Zealand horses has been largely attributed to their pasture-based diet, yet the Australian horse industry has been slow to recognise pasture as a valuable resource and remains heavily dependant on supplementary feed. Supplements are fed because they are easier and perceived as better than pasture. Yet supplementary feed is expensive, especially when the majority of horses needs can be satisfied by pasture. Pasture is an inexpensive feed source, a fact recognised by other grazing industries. It also allows for exercise and social interaction. Research This project reviewed existing knowledge on pasture management for horses and combined this information with information from other grazing enterprises to develop an information package appropriate to horse owners and managers throughout the industry. Outcomes • A highly popular pasture management publication titled Pastures For Horses: A

Winning Resource. • Presentation material on pasture management that is accessible to agronomists when

delivering information to the horse industry. • Improved advisory service for the horse industry (copies of the manual to agricultural

centers). • Enhanced pasture knowledge of the horse industry (manual, stud visits, industry

presentations and articles). • Highlighting the lack of specific pasture information for the Australian horse industry

and the need for a feed testing service that can estimated the nutritive value to horses of pastures.

RIRDC Project No: DAV-105A RESEARCHER: Angela Avery ORGANISATION: Agriculture Victoria Institute for Integrated Agricultural Development

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RMB 1145 Chiltern Valley Road RUTHERGLEN VIC 3685 PHONE: 060 304 500 FAX: 060 304 600

DELAYING OVULATION IN CYCLING MARES

Objective • To examine the possibility of delaying ovulation in cycling mares. Background Delaying ovulation would have substantial benefits for the horse breeding industry by increasing the precise control of ovulation time. If achievable, more mares could be bred using stallions with heavy mating schedules. In addition where artificial insemination is possible, mares could have their ovulation time synchronised for shipment of transported semen. The normal practices on thoroughbred breeding farms is to palpate mares in oestrus every other day to determine the optimum time for breeding. Because the breeding season is limited, stallions may be required to breed three to four mares per day during the peak of the breeding season and most stallions will not tolerate this heavy schedule. Current practices are to hasten ovulation by the use of human chorionic gonadotrophin to induce ovulation within 36 hours of the drug administration. There has been little focus on the possibility of delaying ovulation. If achievable, the benefits of this to the equine breeding industry would be to increase the precise control of ovulation time in mares. Ovulation time could be delayed to avoid re-cycling mares when a stallion either is not present or is unable to breed at the recommended time. Research Thirty normally cycling barren mares maintained on pasture were used in the study. The mares were examined an early oestrus and ultra sound examinations were used to determine when the follicles were between 30-35mm in size. Three treatment groups were used: • Controls, which were those injected with saline. • Treatment with dexamethasone, a corticosteroid that had previously been identified

as being capable of suppressing follicular development. • Treatment with gonadotrophin releasing hormone analogue, Deslorelin which is

known to hasten ovulation.

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The mares were followed by ultra sonography of the ovary to monitor follicular size and to determine the time of ovulation. Outcomes The results demonstrated that the control mares ovulated in a mean time of 61.3 hours which was not statistically significantly different from the dexamthasone treated group where the ovulation time was 54.7 hours. The group treated with gonadotrophin releasing hormone analogue ovulated in significantly less time (40.5 hours) than either the corticosteroid treated group or control mares. The results showed that the corticosteroid chosen for this experiment, dexamethasone was not capable of delaying ovulation in the mare. Implications The research undertaken in this project has clearly demonstrated that corticosteroids are unlikely to be beneficial in delaying ovulation in cycling mares. However the issue is an important one for the breeding industry and plans are being made for a further study to examine the possibility that an anti-oestrogen or an anti-luteinising hormone compound may provide the answer to delaying ovulation. RIRDC Project No: GVE-2A RESEARCHER: Dr Angus McKinnon ORGANISATION: Goulburn Valley Equine Hospital Goulburn Valley Highway SHEPPARTON VIC 3630 PHONE: 03 5829 9566 FAX: 03 5829 9307 EMAIL: aom@mail.sheppnews.com.au

A STUDY OF THE GREY HORSE MELANOMA

Objectives • To understand the basis biology of melanoma in the horse and to determine whether

horses with different patterns of coat dilutions are at different levels of disease risk and whether there is a sex predilection.

• To examine the tumour at the light and electron microscope level to prescribe the pathology.

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Background Horse melanomas are a widely recognised but poorly understood condition. There is a high prevalence in grey horses and where there are extensive lesions rejection of horses for slaughter at export abattoirs. Research Ninety seven grey horse and 16 coloured horses were examined at a pet food abattoir. The age of each horse was estimated and sex recorded together with pattern of coat colour, presence or absence of vitilago or externally visible lesions. Horses were said to have generalised disease if it was found in four or more sites. Outcomes Horses aged greater than 7 years had a higher incidence than those aged less than 7 years. All grey horses aged greater than 15 years had melanoma but there was no effect of sex. Generalised disease was found in 25% of horses less than 7 years, 36% of horses 7-15 years and 72% of horses greater than 15 years. No differences were found between different patterns of coat colour dilution and the prevalence of lesions. A dapple pattern was most common in young horses but a flea bitten pattern was most common in older horses. Presence or absence of vitilago had no effect on the prevalence of melanomas. Of 53 horses with no melanomas detectable prior to death, 10 were subsequently found to have generalised disease. Implications It is clear that melanoma in grey horses is common and increases in significance with age. While the finding of melanoma prior to slaughter at export abattoirs is helpful in predicting the generalised disease, about 20% of horses with no melanomas detectable subsequently were found to have generalised disease. Studies of the pathology of melanoma found that there are few features in common with malignant melanomas in other species. RIRDC Project No: UQ-28A RESEARCHERS: R H Sutton and G T Coleman ORGANISATION: Division of Veterinary Pathobiology School of Veterinary Science The University of Queensland LAWES QLD 4072 PHONE: 07 3365 2341 FAX: 07 3365 1355

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1997 RACECOURSE MANAGERS' CONFERENCE

Objective • To improve inter-race club communication and education on issues of racetrack care

and maintenance for the development of effective, overall strategies for racecourse management.

Background A recent survey of grass racetracks in Australia found a wide variation in the level of race course management expertise and technical knowledge. Compounding the situation was a sense of isolation of many race course managers and an expressed need for more information relevant to their jobs. RIRDC supported a Racetrack Managers Workshop in Rosehill in March 1996 which led to the planning and subsequent conduct of the 1997 Racecourse Managers Conference at Moonee Valley on April 17 and 18 1997. Research Program development was led by Mr Arthur Stubbs of Primary Tasks with the assistance of Fred Fox, Ian Trevethan and Lindsay Davies. The issues relating to racetrack constructions were considered and participants had the opportunity to inspect the recently renovated Moonee Valley Race Club racetrack. Dr Tony Field, currently based at the Royal Hong Kong Jockey Club, was invited to present new information on assessment on racing surfaces in New Zealand and the conference made visits to several other racecourses in the Melbourne area. Financial support for the conference was provided by various sponsors, by registrations, and by Moonee Valley Racing Club as well as RIRDC. Outcomes The conference enabled racecourse managers to gain and exchange information and to learn from inspection and discussion in latest developments in track renovations, construction and management at major Melbourne city tracks. The conference was also an important means for an exchange of ideas between racecourse managers who were able to share experiences and problems and return to their clubs stronger in the knowledge of the craft. Implications

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The Racetrack Managers’ Conference has led to a greater understanding of the principles of turf and other track maintenance with benefits accruing from improvement in track performance, appearance and life and associated economic and environmental advantages. RIRDC Project No: PTP-6A RESEARCHER: Mr Arthur Stubbs ORGANISATION: Primary Tasks Pty Ltd Carlton Clocktower Complex Unit 58, Drummond Street CARLTON VIC 3053 PHONE: 03 9844 1135 FAX 03 9844 4554

AGRONOMIC PRACTICES ON THOROUGHBRED HORSE STUD FARMS

Objective • To identify current agronomic practices on thoroughbred horse stud farms in eastern

Australian in order to identify the scope for improvement in horse pasture management and to assess the sustainability of management practices with the further aim of reducing environmental degradation/contamination.

Background Published information on the role of pastures in horse nutrition is very limited and there appears to be potential for reducing the current reliance on supplementary feeding. Surprisingly, little is known about the more general aspects of the agronomy of horse enterprises and the effects that such factors may have on pasture productivity, environmental sustainability and horse health. While there has been substantial work on horse pasture and grazing management overseas, particularly in North America, research in Australia has been rather limited. In New Zealand there is far greater reliance on pastures as a contributor towards the nutritional needs of horses and it would seem that increasing the proportion of pasture use on Australian stud farms could be of significant economic benefit to the Australian horse industry. Before such a programme could be achieved further information about current agronomic practices within the Australian horse stud industry needs to be determined. Research

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To reflect a wide geographical range of the thoroughbred stud industry and to determine regional differences, five regions were surveyed: Darling Downs, Hunter Valley, outer Sydney, Riverina/South West Slopes and Euroa. These regions were delineated by broad similarities in topography, soil type and climate. Twelve thoroughbred stud farms were chosen at random in each region for inclusion in the survey. The survey consisted of an interview conducted during a visit to each property and an assessment of botanical composition, soil pH and soil texture examination of representative paddocks of each pasture category present. During the interview a comprehensive questionnaire was completed in consultation with the property manager or owner. The questionnaire reported information of property size, physical characteristics, management of crops, pastures and animal enterprises. Representative paddocks suitable for the botanical composition examination, soil pH and texture and analysis were identified in consultation with the manager, for classification either as improved pastures, semi improved pastures or native pastures. Outcomes Stud farms varied widely in area, averaging from 136 ha in the outer Sydney region to 1159 ha in the Hunter Valley. This resulted in quite large differences in the numbers of horses present ranging from an average of 30 foals in the outer Sydney region to 156 in the Hunter Valley. The other major factor affecting the horse numbers on each farm was the proportion of each stud farm which was used for horses. This varied from 1.7% to 100% with the lowest regional averages being 61% in the Riverina/South West Slopes to a high of 93% in the Euroa district. Other activities on the stud farm included cropping and grazing of cattle and sheep. Supplementary feed was widely used in all regions but in the Euroa district relatively high stocking rates appeared to be maintained without high levels of nutritional supplementation. Soil acidity was worst in the Riverina/South West Slopes and Euroa districts with a mean pH lower than 6 in all pasture categories. The Darling Downs region had soil pH values closest to neutral. Most stud farm owners and managers made their decisions on pasture management based on experience rather than formal training or education. Longer term research needs identified by stud managers included the development of pasture species with improved productivity and persistence. Implications There appears to be substantial room for improving the information base relating to pasture management on horse stud farms. This may be able to be achieved by

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agricultural extension and education using techniques such as distance education and short courses in pasture management. Extension of this type of information should lead to more efficient use of pastures and significant returns to the horse breeding industry. RIRDC Project No: UNE - 31A RESEARCHERS: G M Gurr, S C Aston, E R Hunt W M Wheatley and R A Woodward ORGANISATION: Orange Agricultural College PO Box 883 ORANGE NSW 2800 PHONE: 063 635551 FAX: 063 635590

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PASTURE SEEDS Australia, with its diversity of climate and growing conditions, is able to produce pasture seed ranging from temperate to subtropical species for domestic use and for export markets. In 1995-96 the export value of pasture seeds exceeded $30 million. In the past two years lucerne has overtaken clover as the major leviable seed crop, with total production of leviable temperate legume seed exceeding 10,000 tonnes. The main subtropical grasses grown for seed in north-eastern New South Wales, Queensland and the Northern Territory are Rhodes grass, Setaria, panicum, carpet grass and paspalum. While none of the tropical and subtropical pasture species are currently levied, the industry has indicated its support for a levy on these seeds and this will be further pursued by industry and RIRDC in early 1997. A levy base will provide the scope for an expansion of the research program to include subtropical species. Research Highlights for 1996-97 • Development of a management support system for seed growers

providing management targets to achieving maximum economic seed yields. This has resulted in better insect and irrigation management techniques.

• Production of a manual on pasture establishment and management, which

has been well accepted by the farming community. • Identification of the extent and degree of herbicide resistance in major

weeds of legume pasture seed crops. • Development of an agronomic package to maximise profitability of sub-

clover seed crops.

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LUCERNE SEED CHECK: A MANAGEMENT SUPPORT SYSTEM APPROACH TO IMPROVING LUCERNE SEED PROFITABILITY

Objective • To increase the rolling average of lucerne seed yield in the Lachlan Valley. Background A potential existed to expand existing markets for lucerne seed at a state, national and international level. By accelerating the adoption of seed production technology, growers would be able to increase seed yields through the efficient use of inputs, improving the long term prospects of the industry in the Lachlan Valley and making a valuable contribution to the New South Wales economy. Research Through consultation with seed growers a management support system was developed encompassing current technology providing management targets to achieving maximum economic seed yields. A paddock recording diary of key checkpoints was also developed. During the term of the project growers were expected to utilise the accompanying resource information compiled as an aid in making their management decisions. They were also encouraged to monitor their crops regularly, recording details of field observations, inputs and outputs in the recording diary. At key checkpoints, grower were expected to participate in group field inspections and workshops. With the aid of visiting specialists and members of the team, growers were assisted in meeting crop management targets in line with the established checkpoint approach. Seed growers were also encouraged to have an input into the progress of the project. Participating growers were assembled at the end of each season to discuss the results and reasons for varying seed yield and crop profitability. Opinions would also be sought on the format of paddock recording diaries. When undertaking scheduled field observations seed growers were asked to record data and management strategies for analysis at the end of each year. Implications

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The project has resulted in better insect management by growers. A change in the insecticides used and their pattern of use has led to savings to growers whilst reducing the impact on beneficial insects and pollinating honey bees. Tentative economic thresholds and a method of monitoring seed crops has been established. An outcome of the project is the acknowledgment by growers that plant densities of 15-20 plants per square metre is most desirable in the Lachlan Valley when establishing lucerne specifically for seed production. More than 60% of growers now undertake both winter and spring weed control programs and are able to correctly identify weeds. Seedgrowers now also have a better understanding of crop pollination and pollinating honey bees. A “Water Watch” service has been established and is supported by a resource information booklet compiled by the team. The adoption of the use of the “Water Watch” service, improved irrigation management techniques and the fostering of a commercially available Neutron probe irrigation scheduling service has been an important outcome of the project. Growers understand that to harvest quality seed a lucerne seed crop needs to be free of weeds and sufficiently mature before commencing seed harvest. Failure to have a crop in the correct condition at harvest may lead to increased mechanical damage of seed which reflects on the quality of seed placed on the market. A major achievement of the project has been the acceptance by seedgrowers that most factors contributing to achieving high yields are controllable. RIRDC Project No: DAN-75A RESEARCHER: R B Walker ORGANISATION: NSW Agriculture 161 Kite Street ORANGE NSW 2800 PHONE: 063 913 174 FAX: 063 913 605

PASTURE ESTABLISHMENT AND MANAGEMENT PUBLICATION

Objectives • To survey farmers on their current pasture practises. • To collate information on innovative methods of pasture establishment, renovation

and management. • To publish a 300-400 page manual on the topic.

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Background Pastures are an integral part of Australian farming, and considerable research in directed at solving various pasture problems. New establishment and management strategies are being adopted by farmers, but much of the information resulting from pasture research does not effectively reach the farmer. Surveys have shown that younger farmers particularly, do not have the knowledge on pasture issues that their fathers had. This has lead to a general failure to maintain soil fertility levels under pastures, and to inadequate control of pests and diseases; a failure to replace pastures which have degenerated; and, a failure to adopt sustainable grazing practices. The publication resulting material (case studies on successful practices etc) was produced as a pasture manual. Research Following surveys of farmer practices in relation to pasture establishment and management, topics were identified on which contributions could be made by pasture experts in the various fields being considered. The resulting material, (case studies on successful practices etc) was produced as a pasture manual. Outcome This project has resulted in a high quality book of some 435 pages which has been well accepted by the farming community. Implications This book provides, in easily accessible format, all the information which is needed for farmers to establish and maintain pastures in all the temperate regions of Australia. Its use should result in more profitable animal production, and the improvement of crop yields (particularly of grain crops). The information provided should allow the better establishment and management of a wide range of pasture types, and should arrest the decline in general knowledge of pastures which is currently so clearly lacking in younger farmers. RIRDC Project No: KDI-7A RESEARCHER: Mark Casey ORGANISATION: Kondinin Group 177 Great Eastern Highway BELMONT WA 6104 PHONE: 09 478 3343

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FAX: 09 478 3353

HERBICIDE FAILURE AND THE NEED FOR INTEGRATED WEED MANAGEMENT IN LEGUME PASTURE SEED CROPS

Objectives • To establish the extent and degree of herbicide resistance in major weeds of legume

pasture seed crops. • To establish the extent of enhanced biodegradation of carbetamide. • To identify alternative herbicides where enhanced degradation of carbetamide occurs. Background The requirement for largely weed-free pasture seed crops means that seed growers are long-term users of herbicides. Frequently, the same area of land is in production for many years and the same, or similar, herbicides are used year after year. This practice invariably leads to the development of herbicide resistance in the weeds concerned. Herbicide resistance in grasses has become widespread in Australia over the last decade, particularly in seed producing regions such as the south east of South Australia. The herbicide carbetamide, although relatively expensive, has been widely used by pasture legume seed growers in the Naracoorte-Bordertown region to control ryegrass and silver grass known to be resistant to other herbicides. In recent years, however, growers have reported that carbetamide’s performance against these two grasses has been inconsistent. This study was undertaken to determine why carbetamide has not provided the level of grass control that growers have come to expect. Research Field and laboratory tests were undertaken to determine whether the lack of effectiveness of carbetamide against ryegrass and silver grass was due to herbicide resistance, or to other factors such as enhanced biodegradation of the herbicide. The efficacy of carbetamide against a range of other weeds was also examined. On sites which had received repeated treatment with carbetamide, enhanced biodegradation was shown to occur. Other potential herbicides for use in this situation were also evaluated. Outcomes The inconsistent performance of carbetamide against grass weeds in pasture legume seed crops was shown not to be due to the development of herbicide resistance, but to

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enhanced biodegradation of carbetamide in the soil after application. Several alternative herbicides including propyzamide, diuron, isoproturon and simazine were shown to be effective against grass weeds and can be used instead of carbetamide. Implications As carbetamide resistance does not yet occur in annual ryegrass and silver grass, it may continue to be used in rotation with other herbicides but its application will need to be considerably less frequent than is the current situation if enhanced biodegradation is to be avoided. In the interests of slowing the development of herbicide resistance in annual ryegrass particularly, there should be an alternation of herbicide groupings in an integrated weed management system. This research provides valuable advice to underpin the ongoing successful production of pasture legume seed crops which are threatened by grass weeds such as annual ryegrass and silver grass. RIRDC Project No: UA-27A RESEARCHER: Stephen Powles ORGANISATION: The University of Adelaide Waite Campus ADELAIDE SA 5005 PHONE: 088 303 7237 FAX: 088 379 4095

DEVELOPING AN AGRONOMIC PACKAGE TO MAXIMISE PROFITABILITY OF SUB CLOVER SEED CROPS

Objectives • To identify key agronomic and management factors limiting seed yield in

subterranean (sub)clover seed crops. • To devise and implement a management package to assist growers in maximising

yield and profitability. • To identify priorities of future R&D into sub clover seed production. • To collate and summarise existing knowledge on sub clover seed production as a

basis for recommendations. Background Sub clover is the predominant legume component of pastures in southern Australia. The production of quality seed is vital to its success as a component of pastures and to the

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introduction of new superior cultivars. Australia grows all its sub clover seed and even exports a small amount. However, the sub clover seed industry is relatively small and technological problems encountered by growers have rarely been addressed. Yields vary widely within the industry (in NSW from 200-1000 kg/ha) and the reasons for this are not clear. Moreover, yields are far below those in experimental plots which are harvested by hand rather than the commercial suction harvester. The problem then is one of highly variable yields which, in many cases, means only marginal returns. In addition it is thought that there is also potential for increasing yield amongst the better growers (ie there is a considerable gap between yields in experimental plots and those of the leading farmers). Research The research strategy for this project has been to monitor crops newly sown in 1992. For each crop all relevant management data has been recorded. In addition, sampling sites have been established in each paddock and monitored for plant population, weed population, soil conditions (phosphorus, pH, Al and Mn) and yield components. The data was analysed to determine the management factors associated with more profitable yields and crop characteristics that are related to high crop yield. Outcomes Soil phosphate was generally at levels known to be limiting for sub clover production. Herbicides were frequently used, but not necessarily achieving long term weed control. In the establishment year sowing rate and red legged earth mite control were the two most important factors explaining differences in potential yield between seed growers. In the two regenerating years, a suite of factors were implicated by aspects of weed control, current and historical, and cultivar were the common factors influencing yield in these years. Implications The use of fertiliser should be increased to ensure crops are grown at optimal levels of soil phosphate. This simple message needs to be addressed by both producers and their advisers. Likewise, in the year of establishment growers should use a sowing rate that will achieve at least 200 plant/m2 and carefully control red legged earth mite. Future research should concentrate on weed control. Two areas should be addressed: • effective use of herbicides, including examining the suitability of new herbicides

under commercial conditions and examining weed thresholds; • cropping systems research - the use of break crops eg cereal/canola to increase the

weed control options after (for example) two years of seed production.

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RIRDC Project No: DAN-76A RESEARCHER: Dr Jim Virgona ORGANISATION: NSW Agriculture Agricultural Research Institute WAGGA WAGGA NSW 2550 PHONE: 069 381 999 FAX: 069 230 809

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AGRIBUSINESS, TRADE & SUSTAINABLE FARMING SYSTEMS

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AGROFORESTRY & FARM TREES Agroforestry has the potential to improve agricultural productivity, diversify and increase farm income, conserve land, maintain biodiversity and contribute to the national timber supply. Given appropriate research, development and extension, agroforestry could become a widespread, profitable and sustainable system of land use. A Joint Venture Agroforestry program was established with the Land and Water Resources R&D Corporation (LWRRDC) in 1993, and the Forest and Wood Products R&D Corporation (FWPRDC) in 1994. The Program is managed by RIRDC. The Grains R&D Corporation (GRDC) and the Murray Darling Basin Commission (MDBC) also contribute financially to specific projects within the program. The program has also been contracted to manage three major projects on behalf of the Department of Primary Industries and Energy (DPIE) Farm Forestry Program. Research Highlights for 1996-97 • Staging of a national workshop to assess priority R&D and establish a

key sub-program to investigate the impact of trees on hydrology and productivity.

• Identification and testing of various management strategies for integrating

sheep grazing with tree growing in farming systems to reduce the need for fencing.

• Evaluation of current research and future directions of alley farming in

Australia. • Production of a design principles handbook for farmers, launched by the

Minister. • Collection of tree performance data to augment the existing MPTDAT

database, and hence enable selection of appropriate tree species and provenances.

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INTEGRATING TREES WITH LIVESTOCK GRAZING TO REDUCE THE NEED FOR CONVENTIONAL FENCING

Objective • To identify and test various management strategies for integrating sheep grazing with

tree growing in farming systems to reduce the need for fencing Background Trees have the potential to increase the sustainability and productivity of farming. However establishing trees on farmland in the presence of browsing livestock is a major challenge confronting land managers. Currently young trees are protected from grazing animals with fencing or tree guards which can be expensive. Less expensive management strategies that deter livestock from browsing young trees are required. To achieve this, a greater understanding of the factors influencing browsing of trees by sheep is necessary. Research There were four major components to the research. Firstly the relative palatability to sheep of a range of eucalypt and acacia species was evaluated. Secondly the ability of eucalypt species to tolerate and recover from different levels of browsing damage was determined in a simulated browsing experiment. Thirdly the potential of repellents to protect trees from browsing was studied in both field and pen experiments. Finally sheep were trained through conditioned feed aversion to avoid eating eucalypt seedlings, and the longevity and effectiveness of the aversion was assessed. Outcome There was significant variation in the relative palatability of trees to sheep. Of the 18 species tested in a field experiment, Eucalyptus globulus and E. melliodora were the least damaged over a six day period while E. camaldulensis, E. nitens and the acacia species sustained the greatest damage. The effect of simulated browsing damage varied with tree species and the severity of damage. Generally browsing of the side branches and some apical tip damage in the spring of planting had no effect on tree survival or growth. Browsing damage repeated in the following autumn reduced the growth of some species. E. camaldulensis and E. melliodora were the most tolerant of browsing while E. maculata was most affected.

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Repellents formulated from dog urine provided short term protection from sheep but the olfactory cue alone was not sufficient to offer longer term protection. Sheep were trained to avoid eating E. camaldulensis seedlings by offering them foliage and subsequently administering an emetic which induced mild nausea. The sheep associated eating the tree leaves with the induced nausea. The aversion was conditioned within 2-3 days and persisted for at least 3 months in the field. Should the aversion be extinguished, methods for reimposing the aversion that are relatively quick and inexpensive need to be developed. Implications It is possible that with careful planning and management, sheep could graze amongst young trees for limited periods with minimal tree damage. The use of conditioned food aversion offers the potential to cause a hedonic shift in palatability of the trees but further research on maintaining the aversion in the field is needed. RIRDC Project No: DAV-80A RESEARCHER: Philip J. Haines ORGANISATION: Agriculture Victoria Institute for Integrated Agricultural Development RMB 1145 RUTHERGLEN VIC 3685 PHONE: 060 304 500 FAX: 060 304 600

DIRECT SEEDING TECHNOLOGIES FOR FARM TREE ESTABLISHMENT

Objectives • To develop seed treatments to enhance the germination percentage and subsequent

establishment of agroforestry species. • To develop seed priming, encapsulation and inoculation procedures for selected

productive clones of agroforestry species to improve their field establishment by direct seeding.

• To develop and demonstrate direct seeding techniques for trees in the field using treated seed, existing planters and appropriate weed and pest control measures.

• To conduct an economic analysis of direct seeding compared to seedling tubestock establishment costs for agroforestry.

• To prepare an information booklet detailing procedures for seed preparation, direct seeding and tree establishment as a technology transfer tool for agroforestry.

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Background The high initial cost of establishment of Eucalyptus species through the use of tubestock has led to the need to investigate direct seeding technologies as a means of reducing this cost. Direct seeding operations have generally met with low rates of success. Research The research consisted of a series of experiments designed to evaluate seed priming and seed coating treatments. Solutions of polyethylene glycol were successfully used to prime seeds of E. albens, E. fibrosa, E. melliodora, E. moluccana, E. polyanthemos, E. sideroxylon and E. tereticornis. In laboratory tests primed seed germinated more quickly, particularly at lower temperatures, than did non-primed control seeds. The use of solutions of KNO3 to prime seeds did not prove as effective as polyethylene glycol solutions. In greenhouse trials, primed seeds of all species, except E. albens, emerged more quickly and produced a greater or equal number of seedlings. Field trials which were dependent on natural rainfall were not successful due to either inadequate or no rainfall within several months of direct seeding or due to the effects of heavy weed infestation. In field trials using irrigation seed priming enhanced the establishment of direct seeded E. tereticornis, but seed priming was detrimental to the establishment of E. fibrosa and E. moluccana. Irrigation treatments involving approximately seven days of daily irrigation resulted in an increase in the number of seedlings to emerge. A field evaluation of fungicidal and insecticidal seed coating treatments showed no lasting effects of any treatments. However, weed matting proved effective in the control of weeds and grasses. Outcomes The major outcome of this project has been the demonstration that the seed treatments which were applied to the Eucalyptus seeds were of limited effect in improving seedling establishment. Success of direct seeding was in large degree due to irrigation practices which maintained soil moisture content near field capacity for at least one week and to weed suppression through the use of weed matting. Implications The results obtained in this study demonstrated it is essential to remove the effects of competition for weed species for an extended period for direct seeding to be successful. Suppression of weed growth by the use of weed matting was very effective. In comparison to the costs of using tubestock for establishment, direct seeding of Eucalyptus into prepared beds coated with weed matting should prove more economical. RIRDC Project No: UWS-3A RESEARCHER: Dr Anthony M Haigh

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ORGANISATION: School of Horticulture University of Western Sydney, Hawkesbury Locked Bag 1 RICHMOND NSW 2753 PHONE: 045 70 1254 FAX: 045 70 1314

SPECIES SELECTION DATABASE

Objectives • To compile species/provenance performance data from research trials in South

Australia for incorporation into the national MPTDAT database. • To enable researchers access to this database so that improved species/provenance

recommendations may be made. Background There has been a recent dramatic increase in tree planting by individuals and community groups. However, tree-planting projects are more effective when appropriate species and provenances (seed sources) are used. Many revegetation research trials on species and provenance performance have been established throughout Australia but results have not been available readily to other researchers and general extension staff. Compilation of a database using information collected from such trials is one way to improve accessibility. MPTDAT (Multi-Purpose Tree Database) was developed in 1990-91 by the CSIRO Division of Forestry in conjunction with the Winrock International Forestry/Fuelwood Research and Development Project (F/FRED). Research An experienced scientific officer was engaged on contract to compile, collate and enter data on species performance from selected research trials around South Australia into the CSIRO MPTDAT database. Outcomes Data on species performance has been collected from 61 research trials and 47 sites around South Australia and forwarded to CSIRO for incorporation into the national MPTDAT database. This will give researchers wider access to species/provenance performance data and therefore improve species/provenance recommendations and future trial designs. A training seminar on MPTDAT for various interested researchers and extension staff was held at Murray Bridge. The project was also valuable for

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introducing the ‘minimum data set’ concept. This has provided a better basis for researchers to improve the consistency of site information collected from trials. Implications The database enables informed interpretations of quantitative growth information from which recommendations can be prepared for given site conditions. However, the MPTDAT database needs further development if it is to realise its full potential. RIRDC Project No: PIF-1A RESEARCHER: Peter Bulman ORGANISATION: SA Department of Primary Industries

GPO Box 1604 ADELAIDE SA 5001 PHONE: 08 8226 9900 FAX: 08 8226 9933

COLLECTION OF TREE PERFORMANCE DATA

Objective • To augment the existing TREDAT/MPTDAT dataset to provide a sound basis for

selection of appropriate tree species and provenances for farm plantings in south-eastern Australia.

Background Tree planting in south-eastern Australia has become a critical issue because of its role in preventing/slowing land degradation and for its potential to diversify farm income through the provision of saleable wood and non-wood products. These benefits can only be realised if the trees planted realise their expected potential. The main factors affecting this realisation of potential can be divided into silvicultural and genetic components. The silvicultural factors are those which affect the trees-growing environment, including site preparation, weed control, fertiliser and irrigation. Genetic factors relate to the selection of species, provenances, families or clones which are best adapted to the planting sites. The combination of good species selection with appropriate silviculture will help ensure successful plantations. Research

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Information was collected for the MPTDAT and TREDAT databases on silviculture and genetic factors affecting tree growth across south-eastern Australia. Outcomes This project identified some of the most important tree growth trials in south-eastern Australia. Data produced by these trials can be used at several levels as a guide to tree planting in the south-eastern Australian region. In this broadest sense, the data give a guide to species which should have the greatest chance of successful establishment in the different climatic zones. The potential productivity of a particular species, provenance or family can also be estimated if enough well-documented sites are held in the database. Implications The results of this work can be used to help determine the best species or provenance to use in particular sites. The lists generated by the database are not exhaustive and are limited by the species and provenances which have been used in trials and by the trials for which good data were available. The trials do not cover a wide range of soil types; this should be taken into account in using the database. RIRDC Project No: CSF-44A RESEARCHERS: Tim Vercoe and Bronwyn Clarke ORGANISATION: CSIRO Forestry and Forest Products

PO Box E4008 KINGSTON ACT 2604

PHONE: 02 6282 8211 FAX: 02 6281 8312 PUBLICATIONS: RIRDC Research Paper 96/5. (1996). Trees for South-Eastern Australia by Vercoe, T

and Clarke, B.

ALLEY FARMING IN AUSTRALIA: CURRENT RESEARCH AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS

Objective • To provide the joint venture agroforestry fund and research managers an up-to-date

summary of past and current work on alley cropping in Australia and to suggest areas requiring further investment of research.

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Background Alley cropping has been intensively studied in tropical countries, primarily as a means of maintaining soil fertility. The technique looked promising at first but closer analysis has revealed substantial problems. Alley cropping emerged in Australia about a decade ago, driven largely by farmers. The aim was to integrate the control of wind erosion and water tables and the production of fodder with cropping. The design and performance criteria for alley cropping in Australia are therefore substantially different from those employed overseas. While some overseas work is applicable, alley cropping research requires special treatment in Australia as it explicitly attempts to balance both issues of productivity and management of the resource base. Research Richard Stirzaker reviewed international experience of alley cropping (which included a week at the International Centre for Research in Agroforestry in Nairobi, Kenya) and also put together a theoretical framework for alley farming research. The focus is on understanding how trees and crops interact, the way to approach experimental work and the data required for modelling alley farming. Ted Lefroy reviewed the commercial practice of alley farming in Australia, current research underway and economic appraisals in the Australian context. This was done through telephone interviews with over fifty researchers, extension personnel and landholders, a visit to the Murray Mallee and Lower South East of South Australia and a search of databases and bibliographies. Outcomes Based on the international experience in alley cropping and current work in Australia, the authors drew up strategies for future research into alley farming for Australia. Implications The report has clarified the research direction for major existing alley crop experiments in West Australia and the Murray Darling basin and is available for those contemplating new work in alley cropping. RIRDC Project No: CSM-2A RESEARCHERS: RJ Stirzaker EC Lefroy ORGANISATION: CSIRO Land and Water CLIMA GPO Box 821 Uni of Western Australia CANBERRA ACT 2601 NEDLANDS WA 6907 PHONE: 02 6246 5570 08 9380 2561

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FAX: 02 6246 5560 08 9380 1140 EMAIL: Richard.Stirzaker@cbr.clw.csiro.au elefroy@cyllene.uwa.edu.au PUBLICATIONS RIRDC Research Paper 97/29, (1997). Alley farming in Australia - current research and

future directions.

AGROFORESTRY AND HYDROLOGY WORKSHOP

Objectives • To cross-examine the current state of knowledge relating to the impact of trees on

hydrology at the regional, catchment and farm scales. • To define research gaps and priorities relating to the impact of trees and hydrology. • To assist the RIRDC/LWRRDC/FWPRDC Joint Venture Agroforestry Program to

develop its plan for this high priority research area. Background The urgent need to manage rising water tables is, and will continue to be, a major driving force for agroforestry in many parts of the country. The task is to develop high water use agroforestry systems for a range of climate, to target the catchments at greatest risk and to find the optimum balance between catchment health and tree and agricultural productivity. Research A workshop was held in Canberra 11−12 June 1996 and was attended by 28 scientists and managers with expertise in hydrology and agroforestry from around the country. Outcomes Workshop participants identified three priority research areas of equal importance: • develop a ‘catchment classification system’ based on knowledge of topography,

geology, salt store, climate and vegetation at the regional scale. The classification system would help identify the catchments at most risk which require urgent changes in land use. It would provide a framework for asking the right questions, and for directing data collection in more detailed on-site investigations;

• establish guidelines for designing agroforestry systems to balance catchment health with tree productivity and agricultural productivity. Once a catchment has been

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identified as needing reforestation, the guidelines would assist land managers to work out the area of land which must be planted, the location of plantings and suitable agroforestry designs;

• determine the productivity and sustainability of plantations in regions with shallow water tables. This is currently a growth area requiring research support. Key issues are the potential build-up of salt in the tree root zone, the role of irrigation with partially saline water and the export of salt from these plantations.

Implications The setting of these three priorities has resulted in three commissioned projects funded by the RIRDC/LWRRDC/FWPRDC Joint Venture Agroforestry Program which address them. RIRDC Project No: CSM-3A RESEARCHER: Richard Stirzaker ORGANISATION: CSIRO Land and Water GPO Box 821 CANBERRA ACT 2601 PHONE: 02 6246 5574 FAX: 02 6246 5560 PUBLICATIONS: Stirzaker, R., O’Connell D., and Prinsley R. (1996) Agroforestry and Hydrology: What

Do We Need to Know? (1996). Report on the Agroforestry and Hydrology Workshop, 11−12 June 1996, RIRDC

AGROFORESTRY DESIGN PRINCIPLES - PRODUCTION OF A MANUAL

Objectives • To edit, design and prepare a manual of design principles for agroforestry. Background Trees are deep-rooted and therefore access water-tables and recycle nutrients that are unavailable to most other forms of production. Trees also have an important influence on natural systems and biodiversity which, with good planning, can benefit the farm and region. Special consideration should be given first to the best places to plant trees in a catchment and second to the best layout of trees in the paddock, in order to improve the

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productivity of the farm, protect the soil and water resources and enhance the beauty and conservation value of the land. Research Agroforesters, foresters, hydrologists, farmers, economists and ecologists provided input to this project in a series of two workshops and through writing chapters. Contributors are now involved in ongoing research to further improve farm forestry techniques. Outcomes A book was produced which provides farmers and their advisers with an easy-to-use guide to the integration of trees in the rural landscape. Design Principles for Farm Forestry provides information to help farmers decide how to maximise shade and shelter effects, the production of timber and fodder, soil and nature conservation and the overall appearance of their farm, and where to plant trees to control dryland salinity and waterlogging. The book also provides methods for determining the economics of your chosen design and explains the interaction between trees and other agricultural activities and with the environment. It is also becoming popular as a text for secondary, vocational and tertiary education. The principles in this book will be supported by a second volume which will cover more of the theory and detail used in arriving at the design principles and provide a more in-depth understanding of the issues. Implications Farmers equipped with this book will be able to make informed choices about the integration of trees on their farms so as to maximise the benefits of trees and minimise the risks associated with them. RIRDC Project No: AAC-3A RESEARCHER: John Fargher ORGANISATION: AACM International Pty Ltd 11−13 Bentham St Adelaide SA 5001 PHONE: 08 8212 6955 FAX: 08 8212 6061 PUBLICATIONS: Design Principles for Farm Forestry. (1997). Written collaboratively by Nick Abel,

Jenny Baxter, Alex Campbell, Helen Cleugh, John Fargher, Robert Lambeck, Roslyn Prinsley, Miles Prosser, Rowan Reid, Grant Revell, Carmel Schmidt,

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Richard Stirzaker and Peter Thorburn. Published by the RIRDC/LWRRDC/FWPRDC Joint Venture Agroforestry Program, Canberra.

GROWING AUSTRALIAN BLACKWOOD FOR TIMBER: WORKSHOP

Objectives • To establish the basis for a network of people researching, growing and processing

blackwood. • To review resource availability, marketing and processing of blackwood in Australia. • To share experience regarding silvicultural options for blackwood in native forests

and plantations. • To identify research priorities, and opportunities for collaboration. • To assess the need for any new publication(s) on blackwood and if there is a

requirement to identify the nature of the content and sources of information. Background Blackwood (Acacia melanoxylon) occurs from Tasmania to Cape York, mainly on the coastal escarpment and tablelands but extending to coastal lowlands in the south. The wood is highly valued for furniture and veneer. The species is one of the very few in southeastern Australia which have potential to produce high quality cabinet wood. Future supplies are expected to come from both native forests and planted trees. The quality of the wood, as determined by density, colour and figure, varies greatly. The species has been cultivated in several overseas countries, but particularly in New Zealand and South Africa. Accounts of experience in those countries are available. There is also an account of the Tasmanian experience. Research in Australia has been limited. An attempt was made in around 1950 to select and propagate trees with fiddleback grain, a highly prized feature, but the effort was too small to yield useful results. The species has been included in the ACIAR Forestry program from the early 1980s. Provenance trials have been established in Tasmania, Victoria (24 provenances), ACT, Queensland and China. Forestry Tasmania is undertaking silvicultural studies. Research A workshop was held at Lorne, Victoria 20-22 November 1996, attracting more than 40 participants. Presentations covered the biology, resource availability, silviculture, timber quality, uses and markets, retailing and R&D in Australia, New Zealand and elsewhere. Three discussion groups examined communication, research needs, and a mechanism to maintain contact and pursue the preceding topics.

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Outcomes The workshop established a ‘Blackwood Industry Group’ as a basis for ongoing, effective contact. The initial 11 members of the group are representative of major geographic areas, industry sectors and government agencies. The group aims to act as a blackwood information network and to promote blackwood research and development. A publication arising from the workshop is also planned. Implications The industry group that arose from this workshop will provide a focal point for the exchange of information on blackwood between growers, researchers, industrialists and marketers. This will facilitate the further development of an Australian blackwood industry. RIRDC Project No: WS967-2 RESEARCHERS: Alan Brown Rowan Reid ORGANISATION: CSIRO Forestry University of Melbourne PO Box 4008 Dept of Forestry QVT ACT 2600 PARKVILLE VIC 3052 PHONE: 02 6281 8346 03 9344 5011 FAX: 02 6281 8312 03 9349 4172

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AGRIBUSINESS & TRADE Agribusiness covers many activities including the supply of materials and services to farm business, the farm business itself and also the transportation, transformation, packaging and marketing of products once they leave the farmgate. In the past, RIRDC’s strategy was to directly address the key ‘off-farm’ agribusiness issues in the program through four inter-related sub-programs. Research Highlights for 1996-97 • A series of reports highlighting both national and regional aspects of

agribusiness in Indonesia and how Australian firms can best take advantage of changing conditions to improve trade performance.

• A report that surveyed most small to medium rural based firms in Victoria and New South Wales and determined what characteristics were common to firms that were successful exporters.

• Application of heat pump drying technology to new key product sectors of Australian rural industries.

• A report that highlighted opportunities for Australian firms in Asian food service markets.

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AN ANALYSIS OF THE JAPANESE MANGO MARKETING CHAIN TO IDENTIFY OPPORTUNITIES FOR QUEENSLAND MANGO EXPORTS

Objective • To identify market opportunities of Queensland mangoes in Japan through detailed

consumer research and an analysis of the marketing chain from the point of entry into Japan to the end consumer.

Background Although Japan imports limited quantities of mangoes from countries such as the Philippines and Mexico, mangoes are still a relatively unknown fruit in Japan. Until recently Japanese quarantine barriers have restricted imports of Australian mangoes. With mango production in Australia increasing rapidly the industry is anticipating that new markets such as Japan will provide an important export market; although the recent papaya fruit fly outbreak has impeded exports to Japan. The Queensland Department of Primary Industries is currently working in conjunction with the Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service and the Japanese Ministry of Agriculture Forestry and Fisheries to develop methods to allow exports of fresh mangoes to the Japanese market to recommence. Research This research focused on two areas: • Market opportunities for Australian mangoes in Japan - focus groups were carried

out in Tokyo to examine consumer attitudes to fruit and mangoes and to identify market opportunities for Australian mangoes in Japan.

• Distribution channels for imported mangoes - the distribution system for fresh fruit was examined and the most appropriate distribution systems for Australian mangoes was identified.

Outcomes The general characteristics that Japanese consumers like in all fruit were identified as good nutritional value, sweetness, good presentation, and ease of consumption. The research suggested that Japanese consumers are generally unfamiliar with the characteristics of mangoes. Only about 54% of respondents had tasted fresh mangoes prior to the interviews and many had never heard of mangoes.

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The research also found that Japan is currently undergoing structural changes in its distribution system due to various factors. For the distribution of fresh mangoes the most suitable Japanese retailers include supermarkets, convenience stores, specialty stores, department stores, and eating out places. Implications The research pointed to consumer unfamiliarity as a obstacle to exporting Australian mangoes to Japan. As many consumers do not know of the fruit, strong sales promotions will be required. The research identified trading companies, importers and retailers as possible first points of entry to Japan for Australian fresh mangoes. RIRDC Project No: DAQ-178A RESEARCHER: Yukiko Miyauchi ORGANISATION: Agribusiness Marketing Services Queensland Department of Primary Industries GPO Box 46 BRISBANE QLD 4001 PHONE: 07 3239 3251 FAX: 07 3239 0429

ASIAN FOOD SERVICE MARKETS

Objective • To identify opportunities for Australia’s second tier food and beverage processors to

supply the food service markets of Hong Kong, Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore. Second tier processors are defined as those have limited export activity but a willingness to develop export capability and commitment, limited representation in Asian markets, good products which are well accepted on the domestic market and/or customer focused, and a willingness to change products to meet customers’ needs. Background The Asian food service market (fast food and restaurants, travel and leisure, institutional and catering) is a very large consumer of food products. Within Asia, markets are large and growing rapidly and consumer tastes are shifting significantly, presenting opportunities for Australian suppliers of a range of fresh and processed foods. Research

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The research concentrated on four Asian markets, namely Hong Kong, Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore. More than 90 interviews were conducted with key food and food service executives in the four markets. Areas of investigation included: trends influencing food service, fast food segments and their growth, opportunities for Australian suppliers, tariffs and non tariff barriers, and critical success factors for export. Outcomes A range of opportunities were identified for Australian suppliers in a range of categories (meat, horticulture, seafood, dairy, wine and beverages, cereals, oils, nuts, processed foods). These were categorised as either high opportunities (ie longer term opportunities well suited to Australian suppliers). The results of the study were presented at Food Service Forum ® in February which was attended by a large number of food manufacturers. As part of the project, more than 250 organisations were contacted and advised of relevant opportunities. There was very good response with more than 50 organisations requesting information. Their approaches are being coordinated through the relevant Austrade posts. These organisations will be contacted in July to ascertain if any orders have resulted. Implications A number of opportunities were identified for Australian suppliers. However, it should be noted that the food service markets of Hong Kong, Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore are extremely competitive. This project provides potential suppliers with a good understanding of opportunities, key players, market characteristics and trends which are occurring which could have strategic implications for trade and the factors which will be critical to their success in each market. Thus, the report provides a basis for the development of individual organisations’ strategic export plans. RIRDC Project No: MSG-1A RESEARCHER: Rosemary Richards ORGANISATION: Meyers Strategy Group 5/100 Penshurst Street/PO Box 173 WILLOUGHBY NSW 2068 PHONE: 02 9958 0741 FAX: 02 9958 0914

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THE EXPORT ORIENTATION OF FOOD AND BEVERAGE PROCESSING MANUFACTURERS IN REGIONAL NSW AND VICTORIA

Objectives • To understand why some food and beverage processors have sought out export

markets for their products whilst others have not. • To recommend to both firm managers and export assistance agencies, strategies

which would appear to increase the probability that no-exporting firms within this industry (with and export potential) become actively involved in export marketing.

• To evaluate management’s perception of the usefulness of a number of export assistance agencies and schemes.

Background It is estimated that almost two-thirds of all food and beverage processors producing exportable products are not currently exporting. All firms in this study are involved in a basically similar industrial function (albeit in different food sectors), are located in a similar geographical, political, economic and cultural environment, but yet which have shown vastly different responses to the export challenge. The international literature on export behaviour suggests that managerial characteristics, managerial attitudes to exporting and a number of firm-specific characteristics differentiate the way that firms evaluate and respond to the opportunities and threats posed by selling abroad. Research From a large questionnaire survey of almost 700 regionally located food and beverage processors in regional NSW and Victoria (yielding 280 responses), the researchers were able to collect data which allowed for the construction of a number of factors (sets of related variables) and other explanatory variables associated with managerial characteristics, attitudes, firm-specific characteristics and known export constraints. These were used in the formulation and estimation of two particular models based on logistic regression procedures. Outcomes indicated the probability of a firm being an “active exporter” (or a non-exporter) based on these variables. Follow up interviews were also conducted. Outcomes The best model was able to predict with an accuracy exceeding 84% that a firm would be an active exporter on the basis of only five major explanatory variables. If management was attitudinally committed to export, was prepared to devote sufficient resources to it, acknowledged the importance of price in relation to their product’s market

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competitiveness, had or was able to access particular export specific skills and had a tertiary education, there was a high probability that the firm would be an active exporter. This was despite firm size and a number of other constraints and attitudes often posed as seriously inhibiting export activity. An instrument was developed to assist agencies in assessing the export potential of the non-exporting firms they sought to help. Implications Firm proprietors and others charged with promoting our processed food exports must work towards creating a culture in which management becomes “export minded” and appreciates the need: for thorough export market investigation and planning, for making (frequent) overseas trips, for possible product and promotional adaptation, for creating an adequate production capacity befitting long term export market commitment, and for learning and upgrading export specific marketing skills. Enhancing all opportunities for non-exporters to network with new and experienced exporters is one possible strategy. Industry (and sector specific) associations, perhaps in conjunction with government agencies, should play an even greater role in providing industry and sector-specific export marketing intelligence and (continue to) encourage export education programs at the post secondary level. RIRDC Project No: UCS-5A RESEARCHER: Dr Norman Philp ORGANISATION: Charles Sturt University ALBURY NSW 2640 PHONE: 060 418 825 FAX: 060 418 878

EXPLOITING THE OPPORTUNITIES IN FOOD RETAILING IN EAST ASIA

Objective • To provide practical information on the structure of and the changes taking place in

food retailing in Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Taiwan and Thailand in order to help the Australian agribusiness community to better identify and develop market opportunities for their products.

Background Numerous market research reports have been prepared which discuss in general terms the character of retail and consumer markets in Asia. However, such reports are of little

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help in supporting the agribusiness community to precisely identify key market opportunities and the practical issues in exploiting those opportunities. This research was designed to fill this information need. Research The research was conducted principally through field visits to the countries under study and an extensive series of face-to-face interviews with senior management from the major retail companies in each country. Over 120 interviews were conducted with food retailers as well as distribution companies, manufacturing companies, property developers and other interested parties. Secondary sources were also extensively reviewed. A further element of the study was an overview of grocery retailing trends in Europe as a means to better understand possible future change drivers in Asia. The study was conducted between October 1994 and April 1995. Outcomes Each country studied demonstrates important individual characteristics in the structure of retail and distribution channels, the sophistication of the major food retailers. and the dynamics of their market development. Furthermore, important differences were also found between product channels within the same country. There were also a number of common development themes identified throughout the countries studied. In particular, many supply chains are presently 'pushed' by manufacturers and distributors but will come increasingly to be 'pulled' by major retailers. Implications Clear opportunities were identified and noted for the Australian agribusiness industry in the countries studied. However, carefully targeted and focused strategies need to be employed to maximise the opportunities in the region. Ensuring effective distribution will be a key determinant of success. Where a distribution strategy emphasises a focus on modern distribution channels, understanding specific organisational characteristics will be crucial to success. Further research to establish more clearly the dynamics of market change in these and other countries would be highly valuable. RIRDC Project No: ACR-1A RESEARCHER: Dr Alan Treadgold ORGANISATION: Australian Centre for Retail Studies PO Box 197 CAULFIELD EAST VIC 3145 PHONE: 03 9903 2864 FAX: 03 9903 2099

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AGRIBUSINESS OPPORTUNITIES IN SUMATRA AND EAST JAVA

Objectives • To identify whether the development of food retailing and income levels justify

marketing Australian foodstuffs in Sumatra and East Java. • To identify production and processing opportunities in Sumatra and East Java that

could provide commercial opportunities for Australian companies. Background Indonesia is a major potential market for Australian foodstuffs. The market is very large, but also very diverse. Nationally-aggregated information is of little real value in assisting Australian suppliers to assess opportunities in different parts of Indonesia. The food industry is modernising, although the traditional smallholder still dominates production. There are opportunities for Australian companies to provide technical and management expertise on a commercial basis and to supply the domestic market from an Indonesian production base. Sumatra was studied because its cities are adopting Jakarta-style consumer patterns, it has plentiful land available for food production, it will increasingly supply Java as land in Java becomes more expensive, and it is close to export markets in Southeast Asia. Sumatra is thus interesting both as a market for Australian foodstuffs, and as a production base to supply the domestic market. East Java was added to the study at the request of RIRDC. Research Research included extensive surveying of supermarkets and interviews with their managers, as well as with Indonesian distributors, retailers and producers associations and Indonesian and foreign companies. Desk-top research covered production, household income/expenditure, changes in the regulatory framework for retailing and distribution , the socio-political context of agriculture in Indonesia, and the activities of companies. Outcomes It was found that because distributors are in Jakarta or Singapore, direct marketing to Sumatra cities would not be worthwhile, although good promotion of new “western” products in Sumatra supermarkets could pay off. East Java, however, is worth direct marketing to, because there are Surabaya-based importers and because agents there (rather than Jakarta) supply small but wealthy niche markets in Eastern Indonesia.

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Implications Investment rather than exports alone, will be the way for expansion of Australian involvement in the quality food boom that is spreading outwards from Jakarta. There are several local companies (both retailing and production/processing) which want more technical and managerial expertise and which could provide opportunities for Australian companies. This research will give companies an appreciation of the large differences in markets in Indonesia and will save them time and costs in exploring the market outside Jakarta. RIRDC Project No: UMU-16A RESEARCHER: Professor Richard Robison ORGANISATION: Murdoch University MURDOCH WA 6150 PHONE: 08 9360 2846 FAX: 08 9310 4944

APPLYING HEAT PUMP DRYING TECHNOLOGY TO AUSTRALIAN RURAL INDUSTRIES

Objectives • To build on the success of the heat pump drying technology and apply it to new key

product sectors of Australian rural industries. • To increase promotion of the technology to the Australian industry and to develop a

handbook to assist Australian companies who want to enter the drying industry. Background The use of heat pump technology in drying is now well established. Heat pump drying enables both the dehumidification of the drying air by removing water vapour and the recovery of latent heat from the evaporated water. As a result, the technology offers higher energy efficiency, improved and consistent quality product in relation to colour and flavour retention and precise control of drying irrespective of the ambient conditions. Research

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The research program was designed to generate basic drying information on a range of products (apple, banana, pawpaw, carrots, mushroom, tomatoes and basil). This information is fundamental in planning for the establishment of heat pump drying facilities. An open research policy adopted in this project encouraged potential users of heat pump technology to trial their products in the pilot scale dryers, directly assisting the industry development objective of the project. Research also aimed at evaluating the potential of a chemical dehumidification (lithium chloride) unit for drying basil as an alternative, particularly for very low dry temperatures - below 35dg. C. Some research has also been carried out to develop a more energy efficient hybrid system - fluidised bed heat pump dryer. Outcomes In addition to detailed product drying information developed for the products listed previously, preliminary drying tests were carried out for a range of companies. Products dried included chestnuts, tomatoes, pineapple, native flowers, mushrooms and venison pizzles. A number of new heat pump dried products are likely to appear in the market in near future. Successful public seminars held in Melbourne, Brisbane and Townsville attracted over 90 participants. The seminar papers and product information (Data Sheets) generated are available to the industry as a “Handbook”. Implications This project has provided additional basic drying information on a wide range of products, which could be used to assist the establishment of new drying industries and to improve the performance of existing ones. RIRDC Project No: DAQ-175A RESEARCHER: Dr Bandu Wijesinghe ORGANISATION: Queensland Department of Primary Industries 19 Herculaes Street HAMILTON QLD 4007 PHONE: 07 3406 8573 FAX: 07 3406 8662

IDENTIFYING KEY AGRICULTURAL SECTORS FOR APEC NEGOTIATIONS

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Objective • To identify the agricultural commodities and processed food products that could be

nominated by Australia for early trade liberalisation under APEC. Background To promote free trade, APEC trade ministers are looking for specific industries that could be subject to trade liberalisation earlier than the 2010-2020 deadline. Country nominations will be considered and a consensus by a ‘critical mass’ of APEC members will determine the selections for early action. The agreements will be placed before the WTO and it is hoped they will become a catalyst for wider trade liberalisation. Research APEC trade for six key agricultural product groups were reviewed. The analysis examined the relative importance of a range of products from a trading and domestic market perspective. The prospects for various products achieving a consensus for early action was also considered. Outcomes The final report incorporated summaries of the trade reviews for each of the six key product groups. These reviews highlighted the products that offered the biggest potential benefits from liberalisation and the factors likely to affect their nomination for early action. For most agricultural products it will be difficult to achieve early trade liberalisation. However, some products could be successfully nominated if Australia can build coalitions of support. Nominating areas for study on the effects of APEC trade liberalisation and providing information to key countries on how they will be affected by trade liberalisation will help to build these coalitions. Implications The APEC ‘early action’ on trade liberalisation offers a major opportunity for Australia to build the momentum for further agricultural trade reform in the WTO negotiations in 1999. Building a stronger support base within APEC will be helped by: • investigating potential nominations for early action; • looking for opportunities to tradeoff country support for product nominations; and • APEC trade liberalisation studies for specific industries. RIRDC Project No: CIE-3A RESEARCHER: Dr Andrew Stoeckel

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ORGANISATION: Centre for International Economics 88 Northbourne Avenue CANBERRA ACT 2601 PHONE: 02 6248 6699 FAX: 02 6247 7484

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EDUCATION, EXTENSION & INFORMATION SYSTEMS

This program focuses on four major elements relating to innovation in the rural sector:

• extension - the use of communication processed to identify and assist change in primary industries;

• the development of new information technologies which are applicable across a wide range of industries;

• research into the development of skills and education targeted to rural and allied industries; and

• improvement of the communications infrastructure, encompassing physical and electronic components; the people resource; and organisational and institutional structures, policies and cultures.

Research Highlights for 1996-97 • Production of reports analysing information on the Web and its relevance

to farming businesses. • Publication of “Financial Performance of Broadacre Agriculture”, a

report that assisted in the review of the Rural Adjustment Scheme. • Review of the education available to rural merchants to support enhanced

transfer of technology to farmers. • Identification of strategic options for the development, delivery and use

of an effective electronic information systems infrastructure for rural Australia.

• Development of strategies to enhance the effectiveness of networking

systems for rural women in Australia and overseas.

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PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT FOR AGRICULTURE

Objective • To improve productivity and product quality, thereby increasing national and

international market share of Australian Agriculture, by enhancing the practical skills of professional agriculturists.

Background The principal philosophy behind the project is that efficient and effective investment in education and training lifts performance, which in turn lifts profitability. Australian agriculture does not have a nationally coordinated system which ensures all professional agriculturists, regardless of occupational context, have access to and undertake continuing professional education. Furthermore, those who do have access to employer-provided training, have no access to guidance from industry and the profession which would help them plan their professional development investment to ensure it most effectively increased their contribution to industry objectives and priorities. Research The correlation was determined between the current professional development status of professional agriculturists and the range of skills and attributes which are considered essential for professional practice in agri-industry. A mechanism for assessing and accrediting the current professional capability of individuals was developed. Outcome The Standards for Professionals in Agriculture and Agri-industry have been developed and published as a basis for assessment for entry into the profession, career progression and professional development. Certified Practising Agriculturist (CPAg) status has been introduced and over 700 professional agriculturists have achieved CPAg status to date. The Australian Institute of Agricultural Science Professional Development Program based on the Standards and CPAg has been licensed to New Zealand and specialist accreditation joint-ventures have been launched with the Australian Soil Science Society Inc and the Australian Farm Management Society. RIRDC Project No: AIA-4A RESEARCHER: Simon Field ORGANISATION: Australian Institute of Agricultural Science

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91 Rathdowne Street CARLTON VIC 3053 PHONE: 03 9662 1077 FAX: 03 9662 2727 EMAIL: aias@peg.apc.org

USING A CARTOON CHARACTER TO INCREASE FARMERS’ UNDERSTANDING OF PASTURE MANAGEMENT

Objective • To develop and use a cartoon character as part of an extension package to increase

farmers’ understanding of pasture management technologies. Background Cartoons have been a poorly utilised medium in agricultural extension for conveying messages to farmers. The philosophy behind the project is that many research products have very low levels of awareness amongst the farming community which then impacts on adoption. This project investigated taking some of this information and publishing it using a recognised and successful marketing technique for newspapers. In using this marketing technique, and with positive results, it was hoped that the use of such a technique using the identifiable character could be used in future as an aid to the dissemination of new and old research results. Research Fifty key pasture management messages were developed and reinforced by using the services of a recognised cartoonist to do a cartoon on each message. The initial message style and cartoons were evaluated using farmer groups in both Gippsland and North Eastern Victoria. Using the feed back from this evaluation, articles were altered and several messages with cartoons were published in a regional and statewide newspaper. Comments were sought from the reading audience. Outcomes Within the farmer group evaluations there was a strong preference for the cartoon style presentation, however this reaction was not reinforced when the message was marketed to the rural community by newspaper. Factors other than style may account for this, for example cartoon detail, print size, layout, position on page and section of paper. In

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short, the project findings were inconclusive and need to be followed up. For this to be achieved, some marketing research will be needed to refine the article presentation and fully evaluate the audience reaction. However, the cartoons were used in the Meat Research Corporation’s (MRC) PROGRAZE manual, and that Corporation is currently developing more cartoons in the series for its Sustainable Grazing Systems Key Program. The cartoons have also been scanned onto disk and been provided to all teachers of pasture courses. Implications There is a clear requirement for further evaluation of the effectiveness of the cartoon associated extension messages in increasing farmers’ understanding of the principles and resultant modified management on farm. Stakeholders should seek to implement further evaluation. If it can be shown that cartoon associated extension messages modify management on farm, then a management effort should go into disseminating the full series of cartoons by the most effective routes. This could be: • a creation of a week by week pasture manager/calender. • further use via PROGRAZE/Beefcheque courses, etc. RIRDC Project No: DAV-95A RESEARCHER: Mr Leo Hamilton ORGANISATION: Dept of Natural Resources and Environment PO Box 483 BAIRNSDALE VIC 3875 PHONE: 051 520 600 FAX: 051 526 865

COMPARATIVE EVALUATION OF TRAINING COURSES TO SERVICE NEEDS IN RURAL EXTENSION

Objectives • To improve access to new techniques and training in rural extension to better service

the needs of rural communities, State extension services, agribusiness and other extension providers.

• To compile a comprehensive list of all post-graduate courses in Australia that are relevant to rural extension agencies.

• To assess the relevance and likely value of these courses to key competencies required to deliver rural extension in Australia.

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Background The nature, scope and importance of rural extension has changed in the past decade through: • a shift in extension focus by Government and growth of private sector extension; • need for a wider range of competencies that previously sufficed; and • increased research information yet slow rates of adoption. Extension agencies, prospective students and clients confirmed an urgent need for access to new extension techniques and training but had limited knowledge of what services were available. Research Detailed course information was obtained from all institutes in Australia and New Zealand offering post-graduate training in rural extension. Key competencies for rural extension were formulated from a literature review and consultation with extension agencies, clients, practitioners and training providers. Evaluation of courses at the five main institutes in Australia providing post-graduate rural extension training was undertaken by interview with course co-ordinators, current students and major extension employers, and by survey of recent course graduates. Outcomes Courses varied in training emphasis relative to key competencies, course objectives and planning procedures. Two courses were new and one was being restructured. Extension employers and students had difficulty comparing courses and generally chose subjectively. Graduates and students expressed general satisfaction with courses in terms of job and personal benefits. Employers considered that no course was entirely suitable in addressing all key competencies and courses were least effective in the economic and marketing aspects of extension. Implications The project provides opportunity for: • More informed selection of Post-Graduate Rural Extension Training Courses to meet

needs of employers, prospective students and clients. • Utilisation of new learning technologies, evaluation processes, market research and

course portability agreements to enhance quality of training, particularly in the key competency areas.

• Adoption of professional job standards utilising the defined key competencies. RIRDC Project No: PTP-2A

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RESEARCHERS: Mr Arthur Stubbs Mr Warren Shaw ORGANISATION: & Dr Peter Mullany Agriculture Victoria Primary Tasks Pty Ltd Unit 58, Second Floor Carlton Clocktower Complex 475 Mickleham Road VIC Institute of Animal Science ATTWOOD VIC 3049 247 Drummond Street CARTON VIC 3053 PHONE 03 9741 5272 (PM) 03 9217 4200 03 9844 1135 (AS) FAX: 03 9742 5758 (PM) 03 9217 4299 03 9844 4554 (AS)

NETWORKING SYSTEMS FOR RURAL WOMEN

Objectives • To evaluate networking systems for rural women in Australia and overseas. • To assess their benefits not only to rural women but also to rural industry

organisations. • To produce sets of suggested strategies which could enhance the effectiveness of

rural women’s networks and assist rural organisations to increase women’s participation in those organisations.

Background The formation of networks by and for rural women was found to be a global phenomenon which has gathered momentum since the 1970’s. This movement is largely an expression of desire of women in agriculture for recognition and visibility and for a greater role in decision making, but it is not confined to agricultural interests. The rural women’s networking movement also encompasses the diversity evident in rural womens lives, and address a wide range of issues. Research The project was a piece of qualitative research which included participate case studies to two rural women’s networks in Queensland: the Dairy Women’s Network, and Queensland Rural Women’s Network Inc. Outcomes

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Rural women’s networks provide many advantages for individual participants, but their greater overall benefit lies in their capacity to promote the broader social movement for change in the status of women. The distinctive features of some of the networking models are identified and evaluated. Crucial issues are the relationship between community-based rural women’s organisations and initiatives and government, and the politics of identity. An over-riding problem is the generation of funding to maintain networks. Given these issues, the networking of diverse rural women’s groups by a special unit in an appropriate government department appears to be a very good model. To be effective, proposed strategies for enhancing rural women’s networks need to be contextually specific. Two sets of strategies, appropriate for two different kinds of networks, were produced and evaluated by the case study participants. Levels of participation by women in producer organisations were found to be low. A number of positive signs which point towards change in the direction of a better gender balance were noted. These include: • goodwill towards women’s greater involvement and active promotion of greater

gender equity by some senior personnel: • the presence of some women in both elected positions and senior staff positions who

encourage other women and serve as role models and mentors; and • a convergence of interests between women and some producer organisations on the

issue of promoting the sustainability of family farming as a mode of agricultural production.

The main benefits of rural women’s networks to rural industry organisations were seen to be that: • they encourage women in agriculture to identify as farmers and to take more active

roles in family farming businesses; • they provide contexts within which a shared, woman-centred, more holistic vision of

rural issues is progressively being developed and articulated. This vision integrates health and wellbeing, community development and agricultural sustainability, and could be a source of innovative solutions to pressing problems.

Implications The present time is seen to be a very interesting one for rural women and potentially, for established rural industry organisations. The developments outlined above present both challenges and opportunities for both. However, the potential for the rural women’s movement to contribute positively to the management of change in rural communities will not be realised without a willingness by both men and women to accept cultural as well as structural changes. Such changes are not easy to achieve, and will require time for negotiation and adjustment at personal as well as organisational levels. RIRDC Project No: QUT-4A RESEARCHER: Dr Margaret Grace

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ORGANISATION: Centre for Policy and Leadership Studies in Education Queensland University of Technology Locked Bag No.2 RED HILL QLD 4059 PHONE: 07 3864 2192 FAX: 07 3864 1813

EDUCATION NEEDS FOR RURAL MERCHANTS

Objective • To review and report on the existing information relating to the education available to

rural merchants to support enhanced transfer of agricultural technology to primary producers.

Background Rural merchants are becoming an increasingly important source of technical information for farmers. With the reduction over recent years of the public sector advisory services, there is even more need for rural merchants to be familiar with a wide spectrum of contemporary agricultural technology relevant to their customers. This survey sought to undertake an audit of the training currently available to this sector with a view to develop an industry-accepted education plan for rural merchants. Research The study undertook a desk survey of existing published information relating to training available to the rural merchant sector and also a telephone survey of key stakeholders to describe the current situation with regard to training opportunities available. Outcomes There are some 4,000 rural merchant staff Australia-wide. Among those surveyed there was strong agreement that appropriate technical training should be made available to the rural merchant sector so as to fill an advisory vacuum being left with the contraction of traditional public sector advisory services. It was acknowledged that the rural sector is diverse requiring access to a wide range of training subjects, although there was no clear definition of core subjects that most merchants should undertake.

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There are no existing industry-wide competency standards for this sector and little structured training available. Much of the training is informal in nature and does not lead to accreditation for demonstrated competence. There is a need for a comprehensive training needs analysis to lay the foundation for the development of an education plan for the rural merchants sector. There appear to be no competitive constraints to the establishment of an industry-wide training initiative. RIRDC Project No: RJH-1A RESEARCHER: Dr R J Hannam ORGANISATION: R J Hannam & Co (Agricultural Technology & Business Services) PO Box 587 MAGILL SA 5072 PHONE: 08 8361 8588 FAX: 08 8361 8588

DEVELOPING A COMPUTER BASED LEARNING (CBL) PILOT PROJECT FOR THE DELIVERY OF HOLISTIC ACCOUNTING CONCEPTS

Objective • To develop and evaluate a computer-based learning program that would demonstrate

to rural managers and potential rural managers, the fundamental inter-relationships between the various components in their accounting systems.

Background According to Bradfield (1993) the major drawback of commercial computer accounting packages is that they are sophisticated accounting packages designed to teach the underlaying concepts and linkages between the various accounting components. Traditional learning techniques of lectures and text books attempt to cover these concepts but not always effectively. It was hypothesised that Computer-based Learning (CBL) may be a more successful technique to use. This project therefore investigates how a CBL program may teach these concepts more effectively. Research Using ‘authoring’ software a computer-based learning program was developed covering the accounting linkages material referred to. The program content focuses on the

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pedagogical use of the computer to improve the user’s conceptual understanding. It uses interactive instructional sequences, animation, and graphic images to present a learning environment that is motivating and dynamic and able to demonstrate concepts in a way impossible using print based materials. The program was evaluated by accounting lecturers and students at Orange Agricultural College using a questionnaire, plus pre and post tests of users’ knowledge on the accounting concepts. Outcomes Survey results were very favourable in all aspects of the program. The pre-to post test results between a control group of students and CBL students showed a significant improvement in learning using the CBL method. Student numbers were however small in this pilot project and further evaluation is desirable to confirm these initial findings. Implications The existing program will be used in formal teaching programs at Orange Agricultural College, The University of Sydney, in 1997 and this will enable more evaluation data to be collated. The apparent advantages of this mode of learning indicate that further work on similar, and other topics is desirable. The advantages offered by CBL in enabling remotely located rural users to utilise technology based learning are also worthy of serious consideration and research. RIRDC Project No: US-32A RESEARCHER: Stephan Wedd ORGANISATION: Orange Agricultural College The University of Sydney PO Box 883 ORANGE NSW 2800 PHONE: 063 605 666 FAX: 063 605 590

COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION IN LAND MANAGEMENT EXTENSION, RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

Objectives • To analyse the current and potential roles of community participation in land

management extension, research and development.

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• To examine the extent to which community participation is complemented by existing policy instruments and institutional arrangements.

• To develop analytical techniques for evaluating the potential of and for land user involvement in land management extension, research and development, from an agricultural knowledge systems perspective.

• To explore the implications of the concept of sustainability for agricultural institutions engaged in research, extension, education, and policy development.

• To develop a planning and policy framework for community participation in land management extension, research and development.

Background The last decade has seen a revolution in the way in which land management extension, research and development occurs in Australia, characterised by the emergence and evolution of the landcare movement in response to growing community concerns about complex and widespread resource degradation issues. Landcare now involves about one-third of Australian farming families. Central to the difference between landcare and previous approaches has been the development of stakeholder participation as a key operational principle. Research This project has examined the concepts of sustainability and stakeholder participation through an extensive analysis of the literature in Australia and internationally, and an analysis of empirical experience in radically different policy contexts in Australia and France. It is conceptually unsound to attempt to define sustainability in absolute terms, so content and process principles for improving sustainability were derived. Limits to, and conditions for the effective use of participatory approaches were explored. Thus two templates were developed, a sustainability template, and a participatory template to use as analytical instruments in examining relevant Australian policies, programs and processes. This work continues. Implications Participatory approaches are a necessary, but insufficient condition for progressing rural sustainability, complementary policy and institutional changes are required. There has as yet been no substantive dialogue or mutually agreed understanding between Australian governments and rural communities as to what sustainability means, and hence how progress towards it might be measured. The lack of agreed performance measures, or interim ‘surrogates for sustainability’ means that the impacts of landcare have not been adequately measured, and the level of public investment has not been satisfactorily justified in an era of accountability. Widespread use of participatory approaches without a shared understanding of their limitations is leading to immense frustration as communities confront problems of great scale and complexity, without commensurate resources or policy support.

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Greater clarity and understanding of the dimensions of sustainability and the role of participatory approaches among policy makers and other relevant stakeholders would focus the use of such approaches to situations in which they are most likely to be effective, and would result in greater effort being given to other more appropriate approaches elsewhere. RIRDC Project No: CBL-1A RESEARCHER Mr Andrew Campbell ORGANISATION: C/- CRES, ANU ACT 0200 PHONE: 03 9344 71722 FAX: 03 9344 5570 or 02 6249 0757 EMAIL adnrew.campbell@dest.gov.au

EVALUATION OF TRAINING ACTIVITIES TO IMPROVE BUSINESS MANAGEMENT SKILLS OF FARM FAMILIES

Objectives • To evaluate the success of a series of farm business management workshops in

Central Queensland. • To improve the effectiveness of future workshops and training activities. • To provide a model for improving the farm business management skills of producer

management teams. • To provide evidence of the contribution of computer based approaches can make in

agricultural extension. Background The Queensland Department of Primary Industries has been conducting training in farm business management in Central Queensland for approximately seven years. The basic course introduces participants to computerised cash record keeping and analysis using the software package, Quicken. A follow-up course focused on Decision Support using spreadsheets. Attendances have been high despite a significant charge and a recession in farming incomes, and most attendees have been attracted by word of mouth. Research The research approach consisted of four steps: • preliminary study of questionnaires completed at the conclusion of the training

workshops; • personal interviews with attendees and non-attendees at Quicken workshops;

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• a second interview with the same sample to reconstruct their recent decision making process; and

• a final survey by personal and telephone interview to assess longer term impact of farm business management training.

Outcomes Producers can be assisted through training to take up the use of computers and computer based cashbook systems. Computerised cashbook systems provide the opportunity to compare enterprises for the first time. No evidence was found that this type of comparison is being used in major decision making processes to date, by workshop attendees or others in the Central Queensland farming population. There is evidence that the division of responsibilities in farm management teams (between maintaining a cash book and analysing and making decisions, largely on a gender basis) may contribute to the non-use of financial information in decision making. Physical record keeping is lagging behind financial record keeping. Producers cannot envisage how their management could be improved. They perceive it depends on personality and on improving physical production. Implications The research indicates that the workshops were successful in impacting on farm business management skills. The awareness and attendance of the courses in the rural population, adoption rates of computerised packages, competency in the skills taught at the workshops, impact of the workshops on improving management skills such as record keeping and decision making, and benefits to teamwork within the management unit were all reported and provide evidence that the workshops were successful. RIRDC Project No: DAQ-123A RESEARCHERS: J Daniels & Dr E Woods ORGANISATION: Department of Primary Industries GPO Box 46, BRISBANE QLD 4001 PHONE: 07 3239 3214 FAX: 07 3239 3379

BENCHMARKING FINANCIAL PERFORMANCE OF AUSTRALIAN BROADACRE AGRICULTURE - UPDATE

Objectives To provide a rational framework by which to assess the Australian agricultural sector. Specifically to:

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• evaluate the financial and operational characteristics of agriculture; • investigate the attractiveness of investing in agriculture; • identify the impediments to capital flow into agriculture; and • assess the need for structural adjustment in agriculture and the processes required to

achieve it. Background This analysis provides a starting point from which to examine and develop innovative ideas on how to overcome capital and equity problems in agriculture. This report, which was requested specifically to assist in the review of the Rural Adjustment Scheme, should be used as a basis from which to develop creative solutions for the problems of financing Australian agriculture. Research The study's methodology involved the collection and collation of data; analysis, comparison and interpretation; and review and discussion. The data were arranged to reveal the performance and financial characteristics of each investment alternative. Consistency was maintained to make the data comparable. Standard practices used by the financial markets were used to analyse the investment attractiveness of the agriculture sector. In addition, to examine the investment attractiveness of agriculture, the sector's performance was measured against the performance of the Australian stock market, overseas stock markets, risk-free fixed interest government securities, short-term bills and notes and property. Outcomes The aggregated broadacre agricultural industry has not improved its financial performance over the past three years. The poor financial performance of the smallest 50 percent of farms (by revenue) drags down the sector’s average returns, therefore giving the impression that the returns for the sector are unattractive. Substantial economies of scale exist in the capital utilisation within broadacre agriculture. Capital utilisation strongly affects the profitability of broadacre agriculture. The best performers offer attractive returns on investment when compared with alternative investment options. These returns are comparable on the risk-return profile. Farming cash economy, tax incentives, welfare programs, insufficient alternative skills and lifestyle factors provide incentives for poor performing farmers to continue in the industry. Welfare programs only help perpetuate rather than alleviate the pain of farmers. The valuation of farm properties on the basis of market value and historical cost, as well as high exit costs in terms of capital equipment write-downs, prevent optimal decision making and the efficient use of resources.

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Middle level performers are unable to access equity from capital markets to fund growth to improve profitability. There are many impediments to the capital markets investing equity in broadacre agriculture. These obstacles include the culture and attitudes of both farmers and investors, the lack of information in the markets about the performance of agriculture, lack of transparency between management and ownership and the illiquidity of investments. Implications This report was used by the Review Committee of the Rural Adjustment Scheme. Because the necessary measures to achieve financial efficiency in the industry could be regarded as drastic in terms of their social impact and could impinge on individual liberties, the authors believe that the government can only play a limited role. It is up to the industry’s leaders and the farming community to develop and take ownership of a vision for agriculture and to make it a profitable and competitive industry. RIRDC Project No: AAS-2AJ RESEARCHER: Ken Waldron ORGANISATION: Australasian Agribusiness Services Pty Ltd PO Box 5082 HAWTHORN VIC 3122 PHONE: 03 9815 1055 FAX: 03 9815 1058

USING WESTERN TEA TREE FOR SALTLAND REHABILITATION

Objectives • To develop a new and innovative approach to reversing the processes of salination.

The concept was to plant saline areas with extremely salt tolerant Australian native plants of the genus Melaleuca. Such plants can live under harsh conditions, are deep rooted and some representatives are the most salt tolerant members of the family Myrtaceae.

• To generate a new farm income source from otherwise useless agricultural land whilst rehabilitating the land and reversing the process of salination.

• To involve rural-based students, particularly for those studying science and technology, to engender a greater appreciation of the benefits of higher technical education, and thus result in increased retention past compulsory school years.

Background

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Salination of farmland is one of the most serious environmental issues facing Australia at present. The problem is particularly evident in Western Australia where it is estimated that some 12,000 previously fertile hectares are lost each year. The process of salination arises because native vegetation is cleared and replaced with pasture and grasses. The deep-rooted Australian flora previously kept water tables well below the surface. Once removed, water tables rise, carrying with them the ancient salt deposits which seep to the surface, reducing the fertility of already poor soils. The agricultural productivity of the cleared land is then lost. Research The practical aspects of the project involved the collection of Melaleuca species which were endemic to the Esperance area, and examining the amount and composition of essential oils they contained. This required the development of steam distillation methods for extraction, and thin layer and gas chromatography techniques for analyses. Selected species known to contain valuable essential oils were propagated from seed and from cuttings, and this material was used for a number of trials. Some plants were kept in a greenhouse and treated with increasing concentrations of salt to determine their salt tolerance, while others were sampled throughout the year to determine the monthly variation in essential oil yield and composition. Additional species were collected which hitherto had not been brought into cultivation. One species was identified which is not only extremely salt tolerant (growing naturally in areas inundated by peak ocean tides), but also contains high amounts of the valuable terpene-4-ol, the active principle of tea tree oil. The research work undertaken developed propagation techniques suitable for the large scale production of clonal Melaleuca from identified superior oil yielding individuals. The extensive screening of local Melaleucas failed to identify any with both high oil yields and high terpene-4-ol content, although some were identified with high yields of cineol type oils. Outcomes Four species known to contain high levels of terpene-4-ol which were not native to the Esperance area were planted at field sites during the three winter periods during the study. Although three species grew well in very high salt soil, the area experienced flooding in the first year, then had two years of extreme drought. The plantings died completely at one site during the last summer, but surprisingly have survived at two of the drier sites. The trial data provided very encouraging signs that Melaleuca has the required phenotypic properties for saltland rehabilitation, being high salt tolerance, and some ability to withstand hot, dry summers. In terms of its educational and extension objectives, the project has been an outstanding success. A large number of students have been directly involved in the research and

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retention in senior science has improved markedly. The project is now part of the local Landcare scene, and the Department of Conservation and Land Management is directly collaborating with Bioscience and the Esperance Senior High School to integrate the use of Melaleuca into their recommended strategies to farmers for saltland rehabilitation. The project became a part of the standard curriculum for the agriculture and science streams at Esperance Senior High School and has the complete support of the school board. Teacher time spent on the project is now directly funded by the WA Ministry of Education. The equipment provided by the RIRDC grant to the school will remain useful to the project and the school for many years to come. RIRDC Project No: BIL-1A RESEARCHER: Dr Peter Keating ORGANISATION: Bioscience Pty Ltd 21 Clieveden Street NORTH PERTH WA 6006 PHONE: 09 444 4646 FAX: 09 444 4721

AGSA 2000 SUSTAINABLE AGRIBUSINESS - FEASIBILITY STUDY

Objective • To determine the most cost effective strategies for providing information to the South

Australian farming community through electronic technologies and to demonstrate the use of such technologies.

Background The AgSA 2000 project aims to actively assist the transfer of technology to the farming community in order to provide SA primary producers with access to timely and accurate information and thereby assist in achieving and maintaining sustainable economic development and international competitiveness for the SA farming community. Research The research was carried out by Electronic Trading Concepts Pty Ltd (ETC), partnered by the Monash University Centre for Electronic Commerce and the Monash University Agribusiness Research unit.

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The project was broken into the following stages: initiation, community consultation and information gathering - included focus group meetings and a farmer survey, information synthesis and draft report preparation, workshopping and obtaining AgSA feedback, and preparation and presentation of final report. Outcomes The following major recommendations were made by the report: • Provide an approach which seeks to maximise the usage of electronic means of

collecting and analysing data, but provides for delivery to the users in a form (media) which is most accessible to the user.

• Initiate the formation of a community body composed of primary producers,

agribusiness, government agencies, providers of electronic information content and access services.

• Seek to bring about the coordination of state, commonwealth and local government

as well as key industry sector regional networking requirements and initiatives in order to maximise the volume of demand and hence influence over the delivery of the telecommunications services and Internet access for rural SA.

• Seek to leverage benefits for the agricultural communities from state and

commonwealth regional electronic services delivery projects in particular the SA Government’s Electronic Business project.

• Appoint a Venue Manager to coordinate the provision of a single logical (virtual)

information access point which bring together the content and services which are most attractive to the community, and seeks to ensure delivery via the means preferred by the community.

Implications The AgSA 2000 partners have been faced with the major finding that "primary producers consider that their information needs are being adequately addressed by current sources". Despite this finding, it is recognised that the changeover to obtaining information electronically will not only happen, but will probably happen relatively fast. While all organisations involved are preparing for this changeover by either developing the electronic information and by informing and training their farmer members, there is no clear consensus of the best approach to take. The ETC suggestion of the Information intermediary Concept for South Australian Primary Producers and the venue "structure" has been discussed but no final decision has been made. RIRDC Project No: ABS-1A RESEARCHER: Ken Schuster ORGANISATION: ETC Pty Ltd

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PO Box Q311 QVB SYDNEY 2000 PHONE: 02 9299 4755 FAX: 02 9299 4544 EMAIL info@etc.com.au

SUSTAINING AGRI-INDUSTRY: VALUING THE ENVIRONMENT WORKSHOP

Objectives • To critically examine the principles for sustainability established in 1991 by the

Standing Committee on Agriculture Working Group on Sustainable Agriculture and identify any changes which were needed to reflect the changing environment in which agri-industry operates.

• To develop a series of action plans on an occupational or agri-industry sector basis to accelerate the implementation of the principles of sustainability as defined, or redefined, by the critical examination of the principles.

Background The `Sustaining Agri-industry - Valuing the Environment’ Workshop followed a day during which conference participants were presented with a range of opinions from speakers on individual, enterprise and institutional responsibility for sustaining agri-industry and the use of education, legislation and market forces to inculcate a sustainability culture. Outcomes The AIAS undertook to implement the following actions as a result of the workshop: • Publish and distribute the conference and workshop proceedings and workshop

report. • Refer the workshop report to the AIAS Natural Resources and Human Resources

Chapters to be used as a basis for development of AIAS environmental and sustainability policy and to review AIAS education and training policy.

• Provide the workshop report as input to the review of the Standards for Professionals in Agriculture and Agri-industry which commences in January 1997.

• Develop and publish a revised definition and principles of sustainable agriculture reflecting the workshop conclusions for general distribution and use in the industry.

• Include the revised definition and principles of sustainability in the AIAS Code of Ethics.

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RIRDC Project No: AIA-6A RESEARCHER: Simon Field ORGANISATION: The Australian Institute of Agricultural Science 1st floor 91 Rathdowne Street CARLTON VIC 3053 PHONE: 03 9662 1077 FAX: 03 9662 2727 EMAIL: aias@peg.apc.org

INTERNET OPPORTUNITIES FOR AGRICULTURAL PROFESSIONALS

Objective • To make the private and public sector more aware of how the Internet can help

agricultural professionals to service rural Australia. Background Internet usage, including by primary producers, has boomed in recent years and the information available on it has blossomed. Outcomes The forum enabled the participants to establish action plans for the future use of the Internet in the Agri-industry, with delegates pledging to work together and lobby government for a freely accessible use of the Internet and other multi-media technology nationally. RIRDC Project No: AIA-7A RESEARCHER: Sue Leitinger ORGANISATION: The Australian Institute of Agricultural Science 1st floor 91 Rathdowne Street CARLTON VIC 3053 PHONE: 03 9662 1077 FAX: 03 9662 2727 EMAIL: aias@peg.apc.org

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ONLINE CONTENT FOR AUSTRALIAN FARMERS

Objective • To undertake a content analysis of existing World Wide Web sites for Australian

farm businesses. Background The World Wide Web has developed rapidly in an anarchic manner. Many organisations are using the medium to provide information to stakeholders, but in an uncoordinated manner creating problems of information overload while leaving significant gaps in information availability. Research 206 Australian World Wide Web sites were identified as being of direct relevant to Australian farm businesses. These sites were subjected to a content analysis on their accessibility, navigability, presentation, range and depth of content, and interactivity. Outcomes The art of Web publishing has come a long way in a short time. More sites displayed acceptable levels of accessibility, navigability and presentation. A minority of sites, however, displayed problems in one or more of these areas, particularly for users with poor communication links. Limited opportunities for interactivity were provided. The 206 sites collectively provide a great deal of content to Australian farm businesses. Some gaps, however remain, particularly in pricing and marketing information, and particularly in relation to the cropping industries. Implications The future development of the World Wide Web depends on content providers attracting users to their sites through the provision of useful information and interactivity opportunities in an accessible manner tailored to the needs of users. By pointing to some of the ways of achieving this, the project will assist in promoting the development of the Web as a communications and information tool for Australian farmers. RIRDC Project No: GRO-2A RESEARCHER: Mr Jim Groves Ms Jenny Da Rin Baradel Consulting PO Box 2293

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82 Cypress Dr TUGGERANONG ACT 2901 BROADBEACH WATERS QLD 4218 PHONE: 07 5526 9698 02 6231 5083 FAX: 07 5526 9685 02 6231 5445 EMAIL: grovesc@winshop.com.au jdarin@u030.aone.net.au PUBLICATIONS: J. Da Rin and J. Groves, (1996), What’s On the Web Now for Australian Farmers?

RIRDC, Canberra.

IMPACT OF LIABILITY LAW ON RESEARCH AND INNOVATION

Objectives • To examine the theoretical reasons why product liability law can affect innovation. • To assess the potential in Australia for product liability law to affect innovation - in

particular, the impact on the dissemination of information by the research and development corporations.

Background Product liability law has evolved over the last 50 years to protect the consumer against producer negligence or misconduct. In the United States over recent years, there seems to have been a marked switch from 'buyer beware' to 'seller beware' and the trend in Australia appears to be in the same direction. There is a great deal of rhetoric and some anecdotal evidence to suggest that the balance has swung too far and that innovation (and therefore economic growth) is being stifled by fears of litigation. Research and development corporations are spending more on legal advice and the development of contracts to minimise their exposure to liability. They are also increasing their insurance cover in response to legal actions against some of the research institutions in Australia. Yet the legal liability of the research and development corporations has not been tested and strategies for coping with liability provisions have not been developed. Research The research explores the theoretical relationship between product liability law (legislation and legal precedent) and innovation. While product liability might discourage innovation, it can also be promoted by the existence of legal liability (mainly

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in the area of safety). The extent and allocation of liability provisions would affect both the extent and kind of innovation. Products may be less likely to reach the development phase if there are doubts about safety. Information at the basic research level is less likely to be affected by liability, but applied knowledge (and advice) is fully subject to liability law and so quantity and composition would be affected. Evidence on the impact of product liability law on innovation is scarce. In the United States there is some evidence that high liability industries have reduced innovation as their liability has increased. But research and development corporation activity appears to increase with increased liability for relatively low liability risk industries. Interviews were conducted with six organisations to assess the impact of liability law on the organisation. While most representatives of the organisations considered that innovation had not been compromised, all were aware of liability and had altered their behaviour in some way - for example, increasing insurance, seeking legal advice, avoiding certain 'high risk' research topics and emphasising the importance of testing. Implications There is insufficient statistical evidence to draw any robust conclusions about the impact of product liability law on innovation in Australia. However, it is clearly an issue that is changing the behaviour of both management and researchers in some, if not all, of the research and development corporations. In view of the budget constraints facing the research and development corporations, more money spent on reducing exposure to liability risk means less on research and development. The rising cost of liability - in terms of transaction costs and possibly less innovation - is sufficiently established for government to pay attention to assessing the potential size of the problem and developing strategies to minimise the cost of the law. RIRDC Project No: CIE-1A RESEARCHERS: Mr John Asker, Dr Jenny Gordon ORGANISATION: Centre for International Economics GPO Box 2203 CANBERRA ACT 2611 PHONE: 02 6248 6699 FAX: 02 6247 7484

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE COMPETENCIES OF FARMERS AND FARM MANAGEMENT

Objectives

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• To determine adequate operational definitions of farmer education and good farm

management. • To describe the nature and sources of farmer education. • To comment on any initial findings regarding the relationship between farmer

education and good farm management. • To establish a framework for a comprehensive and subsequent investigation into the

relationship between farmer education and good farm management.

Background

Concerns that many Australian farms may not be viable in the long term have been linked to the view that the level of farmers’ education and training and their expertise in farm management may be inadequate. Research undertaken in some developing countries pointed to a link between levels of education and agricultural output but this did not appear to have been researched in any depth in Australia. There also appeared to be a lack of a clear definition of what constitutes good farm management though there had been some work undertaken on identifying farm management competencies.

Research There were two components to the research: a comprehensive literature review and a small pilot study of selected farmers in the Coolamon area. The former reviewed the characteristics, strengths and weaknesses of farmer education in Australia, its links with agricultural productivity, farm management as an academic discipline and as a vocation, as well as farm management competencies and competency-based training. The pilot study investigated the farmers’ previous learning experiences and current approaches to learning as well as their views on what constitutes good farm management.

Outcomes

The literature review and pilot study indicates that Australian farmers are better educated than the statistics on their formal education imply. Much of their education is obtained by informal means and these are described in some detail. Farmers’ learning styles and preferences are also identified. Definitions of what constitutes good farm management are outlined and a comprehensive listing made of the competencies considered essential for good farm management. Twenty recommendations are listed.

Implications

There are implications for organisations involved in providing farmer education and training as well as disseminating information in relation to farmers’ learning styles and preferred approaches to learning. There are also policy implications for government in areas such as improving farm viability, rural structural adjustment and regional economic

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development. In addition there are implications for further research outlined in the recommendations. RIRDC Project No: UCS-6A RESEARCHERS: Associate Professor Geoff Bamberry, Mr Tony Dunn, Mrs Annette Lamont. ORGANISATION: Charles Sturt University - Riverina PO Box 588 WAGGA WAGGA NSW 2650 PHONE: 069 33 2490 FAX: 069 33 2930 EMAIL: gbamberry@csu.edu.au. PUBLICATIONS: Johnson, B., Bone, Z., & Knight, C., (1996). Farmers and Learning: Attitudes to

Learning, Tertiary Education and Recognition of Prior Learning, DEETYA and Orange Agricultural College, Orange.

Kilpatrick, S., (1996). Change, Training and Farm Profitability, National Focus, Vol. 10 (November), National Farmers’ Federation.

Kerby, J., (1994). Information and Communication in the 1990s - A Survey of South Australian Farmers, Technical Report No. 221, Primary Industries, South Australia.

THE RETURNS TO AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE FROM R&D ACTIVITIES

Objectives To improve the allocation of public research and extension resources in Australian agriculture by making more accessible to research administrators and industry leaders the findings of research into: • the contribution of R&D to productivity growth; • the distribution of the benefits of such productivity growth between producers,

processors and consumers; and • the implications for rural research of the changing role of the public sector. Background The role of the public sector in R&D in Australian agriculture has recently been reviewed at the Commonwealth level by the Industries Commission and there have been ongoing reviews of many research institutions such as CSIRO and the State Departments. National Competition Policy is also likely to have implications for how

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public research institutions, the RDCs and private research providers operate in the future. There is also an extensive body of economics research into the performance of the public research sector and into the extent to which producers, processors and consumers share in the benefits from new technologies in the production and processing of farm commodities. The findings of these reviews and research has been neither well integrated nor presented in a form that is accessible to non-economists. Outcomes A RIRDC research report was released mid ’97 which presents to research administrators and industry leaders important findings about the performance of and the changing role of the public research sector in an integrated and non-technical way. This publication may form the basis of a series of workshops for research administrators and industry leaders. Implications While public investment in broadacre agriculture has been a good investment, the role of the public sector is likely to continue to change. Public research institutions are likely to focus more on research that has implications for the broader community and industry, through the RDCs, and will be expected to fund a larger proportion of the research with a narrow industry focus. The research sector is likely to become more competitive and diverse as the public sector prices its services in a competitively neutral way and makes some public funds contestable with the private sector. RIRDC Project No: DAN-92A RESEARCHER: Dr. John Mullen ORGANISATION: NSW Agriculture Locked Bag 21 ORANGE NSW 2800 PHONE: 063 913608 FAX: 063 913650 PUBLICATIONS: RIRDC Research Paper 97/8 (1997), Returns to Agriculture from Public Research

between 1953 and 1994.

RURAL AUSTRALIA ONLINE

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• To identify strategic options for the development, delivery and use of an effective

electronic information systems infrastructure for rural Australia. Background Businesses and consumers are discovering the power of the Internet for rapid and economical communication and access to information, resulting in a new phase of the development of the information economy. Australia’s rural and remote communities, and the agricultural and pastoral businesses located within them, stand to benefit from a rapidly growing rural information services industry. These developments are, however, constrained by the capability of the telecommunications network to carry such services effectively and at acceptable cost, and the ability of service providers to deliver relevant information at the right price. Research This project examines these constraints and what must be done to overcome them. Outcomes The report provided 10 detailed recommendations on a strategy. The major elements included: • A realistic view of the longer economic life of some rural telecommunications

investments, resulting in more competitive internal rates of return and hence a case for an adequate share of infrastructure investment. Such investment to include acceleration of the program for digitising telephone exchanges, to deploy broadbance functionality to provincial and rural towns contemporaneously with the cities, and in upgrading the quality of much of the customer access network.

• Telecommunications tariff reform, particularly the abolition of distance-based

chargers. • An upgrade of the basic telephone service in the universal service obligation

arrangements to a basic telecommunications service capable of supporting fax and data services by dial-up modem, making these services available at a reasonable cost to all rural and remote households and businesses who want them, to be implemented within two years using a variety of platforms to achieve lowest cost.

• To the extent that funding some of these investments can be shown to be a loss-

making proposition, then the Government establish a Universal Telecommunications Service Fund, with a levy on all network services.

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• Government contracting of Internet service providers that have an orientation towards rural markets to develop and deliver training and support services on the use of the Internet.

• Governments should collaborate to aggregate demand of government information

providers aimed at rural and remote clients so assisting content and service provision.

Implications As the Internet paradigm shift works its way through many industries, a strategy for upgrading rural communications infrastructure is necessary if access to the rapidly developing array of communication and information services available on the Internet is to be available to all Australians. RIRDC Project No: Consultancy RESEARCHER: Dr Roger Buckeridge ORGANISATION: Myamyn Pty Ltd 40 John St WOOLLAHRA NSW 2025 PHONE: 02 362 4796 FAX: 02 362 0726 PUBLICATIONS: R. Buckeridge, (1996), Rural Australia Online. Jointly published by 7 R&D

Corporations. Available from RIRDC for $20 + $4 postage.

POLICY ISSUES IN PUTTING RURAL AUSTRALIA ONLINE

Objective • To provide a balanced discussion of the policy issues raised by the major report on

rural communications infrastructure, Rural Australia Online. Background Rural Australia Online provided ten detailed recommendations on a strategy for the development of rural communications infrastructure to ensure all Australians have access to the rapidly developing communication and information services becoming available through the Internet. The policy issue raised by that recommended strategy is whether the benefits of the strategy would exceed its costs.

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Research This project discussed the various benefits that would be provided by improved Internet access among farmers, particularly those benefits that go beyond farm families themselves and accrue to wider society, and so would justify policy intervention to ensure farm families are able to gain Internet access. Outcomes These benefits include: • improved communications capabilities. • improved ecological sustainability of agricultural production from better access to

landcare and related information. • improved economic performance of the agriculture sector arising from greater

access to a range of technical, economic and environmental information sources. • improved access to education and training for farm families. • easier accessibility of government information at low costs. Implications While a full cost-benefit analysis of the question of upgrading the universal service obligation to allow Internet access has not been undertaken, and probably cannot be undertaken in a comprehensive and hence convincing manner, there are substantial benefits from such an upgrade accruing both to farm families and to the broader society. It would appear that these benefits are such as to provide at least as much justification for an upgraded universal service obligation as exists for the present obligation on voice telecommunications. RIRDC Project No: GRO-1A RESEARCHER: Mr Jim Groves ORGANISATIONS: Baradel Consulting 82 Cypress Dr BROADBEACH WATERS QLD 4218 PHONE: 07 5526 9698 FAX: 07 5526 9685 EMAIL: grovesc@winshop.com.au PUBLICATIONS: J. Groves, (1996), Policy Issues in Putting Rural Australia Online. Jointly published

by 7 R&D Corporations. Available from RIRDC for $10 + $4 postage.

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ANALYSIS OF PLANT ADAPTION DATA-DEVELOPMENT AND TRAINING UNIT

Objective • To further develop analytical methodology for the analysis of data from

agricultural experiments in which genotype response across environments is measured, and

• To disseminate this technology so it is adopted expeditiously in Australian plant improvement programs

Background Organic developments in the analytical procedures available to plant improvers to obtain and interpret genotypic response include advanced experimental designs to estimate trend. in experimental fields ant new methodology to enable efficient and effective analysis and interpretation of the data collected from such trials. The Development and Training Unit set up by this project brought together much of the expertise in the analysis of plant adaptation data worldwide. Formal links with researchers at Leiden, Princeton and Cornell Universities had been established and continued collaboration enabled the mobilization and distribution of this technology to agricultural scientists in Australia. Research In phase I (funded by RIRDC), a research officer with biometrical end computer programming expertise we. appointed to update and extend the computer programs to include recent advances, especially methodology to handle genotype by environment by attribute data. In addition, special purpose computer programs collected by our group from around the world were integrated into easy-to-use software. This included both stand-alone material and add-on modules for use in commercial statistical packages. In phase 2 (funded by other RDCs), training in the analytical methodology and computer software was provided for biometricians and agricultural scientists involved in the conduct of and/or analysis of data from plant improvement trials. Those scientists who attended the workshops analysed and interpreted their own data and were able to take those skills (and computer software) back to their own R&D programs for further dissemination. Outcomes

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• Publication of reports either introducing new statistical methodology of documenting and illustrating the use of relevant computer programs for its implementation.

• Publication of research papers from an international workshop on the analysis and exploitation of plant adaptation in agricultural crop improvement programs, and

• Workshops to disseminate this technology (particularly to biometricians and plant breeders) for adoption in Australian plant improvement programs.

Implications As a result of this work, appropriate analytical methodology can be adapted and integrated into almost every plant improvement program. Australian rural industries directly benefit by more effective decision making (by interpretation of the data collected from the trials involved in these programs), while the training component ensures that scientists have the skills and capacity to utilize these developments. RIRDC Project No: UQ-35A RESEARCHER: Assoc. Prof, CUE. Basford ORGANISATION: Department of Agriculture The University of Queensland BRISBANE QLD 4072 PHONE: 07 3365 2810 FACSIMILE: 07 3365 1177 EMAIL: k.e.basford@uq.edu.au PUBLICATIONS Basford, K.E., Kroonenberg, P.M. and Cooper, M. (1996). Three-mode

analytical methods for crop improvement program. Plant Adaptation and Crop Improvement, M. Cooper and G.L. Hammer (Eds.), Oxford: CAB International, pp. 291-305.

Basford K.E. and Watson, S.L. (1996a). MIXCLUS2: A program for fitting a mixture of normal distributions to two-mode two-way data. Centre for Statistics Research Report 70, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, lOpp.

Basford, K.E. and Watson, S.L. (1996b). MIXCLUS3: A program for fitting a mixture of normal distributions to three-mode three-way data. Centre for Statistics Research Report 71, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland.

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FARMER OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH & SAFETY

The health and safety of the rural work force is a key factor in industry productivity. It is reflected in the farm business as a cost associated with workers compensation, accident insurance, absenteeism and, all too often, death from tractor accidents, etc. Social costs accrue from stress, allergies, loss of physical or mental ability and from family break-up, etc. The Corporation has determined a need to actively support community farm safety groups, such as Farmsafe Australia, and the extension of Worksafe Australia programs within the rural community. Collaboration with State Workcover Authorities is also encouraged. A joint venture R&D program with the Grains R&D Corporation, Meat Research Corporation and the International Wool Secretariat has been established. Research Highlights for 1996-97 • Development of a rural safety education in schools curriculum by the

Victorian Farmers Federation. Its broader application across Australia is under consideration.

• Analysis of farmers’ perceptions of risk to improve the effectiveness of

farm health and safety programs. • Evaluation of farm tractor and utility seats in order to minimise back

injuries - injuries which cost the farming community millions of dollars in lost time and productivity.

• Commencement of a national farm injury data collection system to aid in

the development of effective strategies for injury prevention.

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A NATIONAL DATA COLLECTION FOR FARM INJURY PREVENTION

Objective • To develop a national farm injury data collection system designed for the

identification and assessment of injury risk associated with farms and agricultural practices in Australia, so that effective strategies for injury prevention are developed and implemented by relevant agricultural industries, local and state Farmsafe organisations and Farmers Australia.

Background Farm injury is identified as a major occupational risk but little has been done to quantify the problem. This project seeks to achieve this. Research Data sources were reviewed by a full time employee and a technical committee. Outcomes Agricultural industry data requirements were identified, relating to: local area data, industry specific information, injuries to specific age groups and sexes, information specific to particular processes (eg: harvesting), agency specific information (eg: tractors), injury type, intent of injury - intentional self harm, and body part affected. These specific needs have been incorporated into the document: ‘The Farm Optimal Dataset - Farm Injury Surveillence and Coding Guidelines’. Members of the Technical Committee have both provided advice regarding existing farm injury data collections, and have provided access to farm injury data as is feasible. All relevant sources of farm injury data have been incorporated into ‘The National Farm Injury Data Collection’. The strengths and weaknesses of the various data sources were investigated and considered by a meeting of data managers. The findings are summarised in ‘Farm injury data in Australia: Options for improvement in collection and dissemination’. The ‘Profile of Health and Safety of Australian Farmers, Farm Families and Farm Workers’ has been produced and upgraded on an annual basis. The data has provided the basis for the development and adoption of the goals and targets of Farmsafe Australia - Goals, Targets and Strategy: 1996-2001 May 1996.

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A profile for the NSW Farmsafe organisation was also produced - ‘Profile of the Health and Safety of NSW Farmers, Farm Families and Farm Workers’ June 1996 Recommendations • That improved farm “denominator data” be pursued so that more rigorous baseline

data may be provided on which to base farm injury prevention programs at all levels. • That improved and standardised accident investigation systems be established so that

causal factors may be determined for serious injury and deaths on farms. Specifically these are required for tractor injury and death due to roll over and run over, machinery and child deaths.

• That further attention be given to adoption of the recommended optimal data set for

farm injuries by major data sources. These include hospital, workers compensation, general practitioner and coronial derived injury data systems.

• That increased attention be given to data quality by data managers of major data

systems. Major problems relating to misclassification and missing data are seriously limiting the utility of currently collected data.

• That Farmsafe Australia and its member agencies support efforts being made to

computerise injury and deaths data available through the Coroners’ System in each state.

RIRDC Project No: AHU-1A RESEARCHER: Lyn Fragar ORGANISATION: Australian Agricultural Health Unit PO Box 256 MOREE NSW 2400 PHONE: 067 528 210 FAX: 067 526 639

EVALUATING FARM TRACTOR AND UTILITY/4WD SEATS

Objectives • To assess a range of seats in new and older tractors and farm vehicles to determine

the contribution poor seating has on long term back injury. • Specifically, to evaluate a range of tractor and vehicle seats and prepare a report for

release to the industry.

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Background Farmers who spend long days in their utes, tractors and headers could be prematurely damaging their spinal systems, costing the farming community millions of dollars in lost time and productivity. Test conducted by the Kondinin Group reveal that the seating in the majority of tractors in use today is not adequate for the occupant. And farm vehicles are much worse. Vibration levels exceed levels recorded in tractors and the ergonomic design of the cabins falls short of acceptable levels. This work is a follow on study from project No KDI-8A “An evaluation of farm lift hoist and other back saving equipment”. Much of the problem was thought to stem from inadequate tractor and vehicle seating and hence the need to investigate seating in detail. WorkCover statistics for NSW show that the incidence of back injuries in agriculture is twice that of other industries. The cost is estimated to be around $4.5 m in 1991-92 being an average of $10,700 per person. Most of the claims related to the lower back. Research and Outcomes Back injury is a problem that continues to plague our farming community. The Kondinin Groups’ 1994 National Agricultural Survey (NAS) found that 22% of farmers had suffered back injury in the past 12 months and a further 45% had experienced back pain in this time. One half of the respondents in the survey rated the support their seat offered as below average and 65% of farmers rated their utility (ute) or 4WD seats as having below average adjustments. This contrasts to tractors where only one quarter were critical of the support and adjustments of the seating. Engineering tests and an ergonomic assessment of a range of seats confirmed the opinion of those farmers surveyed. Most tractor and vehicle seats are not providing adequate support for the occupants. Implications It is clear that the range of support provided for farmers by their tractors and farm vehicles is far from being acceptable. This implies that health related problems due to poor backs will continue to plague our community, costing millions of dollars. It is recommended that the WorkCover “Backwatch” program be supported and other initiatives alerting farmers to the importance of the backcare be supported. To a large extent many of the problems associated with bad backs will be reduced through increased awareness and communications.

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Secondly, the ergonomic design of imported 4WD vehicles needs improvement. This has been discussed with the companies concerned and design changes are being considered at present. RIRDC Project No: KDI-10A RESEARCHERS: Geoffrey Hamilton Kondinin Group 51 Gurwood Street PO Box 913 WAGGA WAGGA NSW 2650 CLOVERDALE WA 6105 PHONE: 069 214 047 09 478 3343 FAX: 069 214 182 09 478 3523

SURVEY OF FARM WORK INJURY TO ASSIST INTERVENTION PLANNING BY FARM SAFETY ACTION GROUPS AND INDUSTRY

Objectives • To undertake a statistically based farm survey in four regions of Queensland based on

local authority boundaries, to define the type of workplace injury and illness in the preceding 12 months by agency, context, location, nature, body part, lost time, economic cost and number.

• To identify chronic work-related injury and illness issues and make up of the farm workforce and hours worked.

• To present survey results to local industry groups through seminars, measure the level of acceptance of the survey findings, and discuss strategies on how the results may be used most effectively.

Background Comparison of the extent and severity of rural industry’s non-fatal work-related injury profile with that of other injuries is not well understood. In fact, it is misleading when people extrapolate information about rural injury incidence based on Workers’ Compensation data to the broader industry. In Queensland, the incidence of injury to employees on farms reported to Workers’ Compensation represent only 7-19% of all injuries reported. These data therefore give an incomplete picture of rural injury in Queensland and Australia generally. The data are skewed by those sectors which employ labour (of unpaid family labour on farms). Research

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A detailed survey by means of questionnaire (designed by the Queensland Government Statistician’s Office), within four regions and covering 11 shires and 8 major industries was undertaken to acquire data on farm injuries/illnesses. The acquired data were recorded, encoded, analysed and published in a comprehensive report. Outcomes Of 2188 producers sampled, some 1515 (69%) provided useable responses. A total of 302 injuries/illnesses were reported from 204 farms. Work-related injuries/illnesses comprised 8% of the total and included zoonotic infections (3.6%), chemical poisoning (2.2%) and respiratory illness (2.2%). The average injury rate was 20.2 per 100 farms (2.99 per 100,000 hours worked). Beef cattle had the highest rate of 4.6 per 100,000 hours worked - this is equivalent to the rate recorded (second highest for a Queensland industry) for light manufacturing industry. Rates for both beef and dairy cattle (3.14 per 100,000 hours worked) were significantly higher than those for sugercane (1.92) and cereals (1.54). Activities being undertaken at the time of injury were animal handling (40%), general maintenance (27%), cropping (10%), and produce handling/processing (5%). Specific animal handling activities were those associated with: yards and races (15% of all cases), mustering (16%), and milking (6%). Maintaining equipment in the workshop (11%), fencing (8%), and irrigating crops (5%) were also major activities during which injuries occurred. The average overall cost per injury was $4,449, but for 89% of cases where the medical cost was less than $1,000 and fewer than 30 days’ time was lost, the average cost was $951. The remainder (11% of cases) had an average injury cost of $21,871. RIRDC Project No: QDE-1A RESEARCHER: Mr K H Ferguson ORGANISATION: Department of Training and Industrial Relations Division of Workplace Health and Safety GPO Box 69 BRISBANE QLD 4001 PHONE: 07 3247 4860 FAX: 07 3220 0143

THE EFFECTS OF WHOLE BODY VIBRATION ON THE SPINE IN FARMERS DRIVING TRACTORS

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Objectives • To develop a whole body vibration profile experienced by farmers driving tractors

and to replicate this in the laboratory. • To investigate the effects of the whole body vibration in a seated rotated position, on

fatigue in farmers and in those not normally exposed to vibration. • To develop guidelines for the safe exposure to vibration in rotation and to

disseminate this information to farmers. Background Back pain is one of the most frequently occurring and most costly problems in occupational health. It is more common in occupations such as truck and tractor driving where there is an exposure to vibration. Some 43% of sprain/strain injuries in farmers have been found to be back strain injuries. Whole body vibration, a mechanical stress transmitted via the supporting surface (the seat and back support) to the human body, is believed to make an important contribution to these injuries. A better understanding of the factors involved should lead to a reduction in the occurrence and severity of these injuries by permitting better design of seats/back supports and by the development and promotion of other practices which may minimise the likelihood of injury. Research In laboratory studies both farmers and non-farmers (those with no previous experience of driving tractors) were exposed to whole body vibration at various frequencies and times of exposure on a mechanical device simulating the conditions experienced by tractor drivers on uneven terrain. Following exposure, muscle performance and the degree of lumbar creep (stretching of the spine) were measured. Outcomes In the case of trunk muscle performance, farmers demonstrated a greater response to the experimental condition (vibration in a seated rotated posture) than did the non-farmers. Movements into rotation were most affected, leading to the further question of whether the vibration or the rotated posture was primarily responsible for the changes. For one movement, rotation torque to the right, the response was opposite in farmers to that in non-farmers. Farmers demonstrated less creep in the lumbar spine as a result of exposure to vibration. The mechanisms for this difference are not apparent, but may relate to degenerative changes in the lumbar spine of farmers. No clear effect of vibration on the rate of fatigue of the extensors of the spine could be demonstrated. Further data collection is needed to clarify the effect of vibration and rotation on the rate of fatigue.

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Implications After exposure to vibration and rotation, there was decreased performance in the trunk muscles which produced rotary movements of the spine to the left. After vibration farmers were less able to rotate to the right. In farmers, this decreased strength and amount of movement when turning to the left increases the risk of injury after dismounting from the tractor. A better understanding of the various factors involved should lead to improved seat/back support design, and the development of strategies which will reduce the incidence and severity of lower back injuries in farmers. RIRDC Project No: USA-2A RESEARCHERS: Sheila Scutter & Ian Fulton ORGANISATION: School of Physiotherapy University of South Australia North Terrace ADELAIDE SA 5000 PHONE: 08 8302 6611 FAX: 08 8302 2466

RURAL SAFETY EDUCATION IN PRIMARY SCHOOLS

Objective • To contribute to a reduction in the incidence and severity of injury to primary school

aged children in rural settings through the development, production and distribution of a well targeted curriculum program for teachers.

Background This project was undertaken by the Victorian Farmers Federation, with assistance from a Steering Committee of farmers and health and safety organisations. An unexperienced safety education curriculum consultant was contracted to carry out the project. The project was completed on time and on budget, within a 7 month period spanning 1996-97. This period was greatly reduced (by a total of 3 months) from that originally requested. Consequently the promotion and distribution phases had to be reduced in scope. The shortened form of these were completed by 1 April 1997, one month earlier than originally planned. Research

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The RIPPER material was developed through a process of analysing rural child injury prevention needs, educational opportunities and existing materials. Draft materials were written and trialed by 20 Victorian rural primary schools and reviewed by 10 external reviewers. Evaluation feedback was used to refine and improve the material, and to determine an appropriate promotional strategy. Outcomes The resulting curriculum material - RIPPER - was well received by trial schools and external reviewers. An appropriate promotional strategy was developed and executed through a combination of distributing a media release announcing the program and by a targeted mailout of a promotional brochure to 500 Victorian rural primary schools. There are early signs that other states would also be interested in introducing RIPPER into their primary schools. Implications RIPPER is relevant to rural primary school children around Australia. The material is suitable for use by rural primary schools in all states. Additional support from RIRDC to other states would facilitate and encourage the introduction of RIPPER nationally. Further future developments such as the production of parent materials or the conduct of a parent program would expand the impact of RIPPER and consolidate the children’s learning. This would increase the likelihood of reductions in the severity and frequency of rural child injuries being achieved and make further inroads into developing a culture of safety in farming communities. RIRDC Project No: VFF-1A RESEARCHER: David Griss ORGANISATION: Victorian Farmers Federation Inc. 24-28 Collins Street MELBOURNE VIC 3000 PHONE: 03 9207 5555 FAX: 03 9207 5500 PUBLICATIONS: RIPPER - Rural Injury Prevention Primary Education Resource. Victorian Farmers

Federation ISBN 0646 307886 $15 per copy

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ANALYSIS OF FARMERS' PERCEPTIONS OF RISK TO IMPROVE THE EFFECTIVENESS OF FARM HEALTH AND SAFETY PROGRAMS

Objectives • To identify those attributes of farm hazards that are used by farmers to make

decisions about accepting or reducing the risk associated with these hazards. • To produce perceptual maps and to interpret these to show how farmers perceive

hazardous situations that can lead to physical injury, relative to other hazards they face in the farming occupation.

• To identify strategies for promoting occupational health and safety among farmers by using the perceptual maps to compare the positioning of physical injury hazards with other farm hazards.

• To publicise these strategies among agencies and community groups who are preparing and promoting educational messages about farm health and safety.

Background Among occupational health and safety agencies in Australia, farms are recognised as high risk workplaces. They are also one of the most difficult workplaces to reach with the policy instruments available to government. Some of the reasons for this include the presence of family members in the work place; the fact that many farm businesses are operated by people who are self-employed; the geographical dispersion of farm businesses; and the lack of unionised employees with an incentive to monitor workplace safety standards. For these reasons, regulations are difficult to enforce, and have always been considered reluctantly where farm workplaces are concerned. Consequently, there is an ongoing need for research into alternative ways of promoting occupational health and safety among farmers. Research The research was conducted in three stages. In the first stage, focus groups were conducted with farmers to identify a set of occupational hazards of concern to them. This information provided a basis for the design of the survey that was conducted in the second stage of the research. In this stage, individual interviews were conducted with farmers in which they were asked to make comparative judgements about some of the hazards identified in the first stage of the project. In the third stage we drew on techniques such as perceptual mapping and multiple regression to compare farmers’ perceptions of manual handling hazards with their perceptions of other farm hazards. The insights gained from these analyses were used to

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develop recommendations as to how programs, or educational messages about farm safety might be adjusted so as to increase their effectiveness. Outcomes The research demonstrates that farmers distinguish between farm hazards on the basis of a number of attributes, including the likelihood; controllability; financial consequences; and the potential to impact on other people on the farm. In contrast, horse related injuries were consistently positioned in a region of the perceptual maps corresponding with perceptions of low controllability, low likelihood, low financial consequences and a low potential to impact on others. Not surprisingly, this hazard was also perceived to be relatively unimportant to be doing something about. This is a disturbing finding given that horses have been identified as one of the three most common agents of all farm injuries presenting to hospital emergency departments in north west NSW, and that approximately one quarter of these horse related injuries were to the rider's head. Implications Because different perceptions present different opportunities for promotion, in the research report different strategies are suggested for promoting safe practices with respect to different types of hazards. These strategies are centred on, to varying degrees, design initiatives; initiatives aimed at identifying safe practices; and initiatives aimed at building on, or reinforcing perceptions that farmers already hold, depending on the combination of attributes that farmers associate with a hazard. For example, on the basis of farmers' perceptions of psychological stress, we suggest that farmers are likely to be receptive to promotion strategies that focus on identifying effective mechanisms for them to better manage stress. In contrast, we suggest that strategies for persuading farmers to take action to prevent horse related injuries will need to convince farmers it is important to be taking action to avoid horse related injuries (for example, by highlighting the potential for serious injury and the consequences of a serious injury at a personal level). RIRDC Project No: UNE-42A RESEARCHERS: Ms Jean Sandall and Mr Ian Reeve ORGANISATION: The Rural Development Centre University of New England ARMIDALE NSW 2350 PHONE: 02 6773 2220 FAX: 02 6773 3245 EMAIL: jsandall@metz.une.edu.au ireeve@metz.une.edu.au

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SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURAL SYSTEMS & STRUCTURES

While efforts to focus on sustainability issues have intensified and inevitably will lead to the development of new opportunities for agriculture in Australia, changes from traditional practices and agricultural systems will not be made quickly or easily.

In general terms, clear guidelines are needed by the farming communities to maintain long term profitability and productivity. Until such guidelines have been developed and incorporated into decision making support systems, management decisions will continue to favour agricultural practices based on short term profits and overlook to a large extent the longer term sustainability issues. Both the public and private sectors provide considerable resources to assist in the structural adjustment processes in the primary industries through activities including, education and training, research and development and targeted schemes such as the Rural Adjustment Scheme. Research Highlights for 1996-97 • Playing a lead role in the establishment of the Interim Organic Industry

Council. Organic produce will be a separate program within RIRDC from 1997-98 onwards.

• Investigation into how the application of rare earth elements can enhance the productivity of crops and pastures.

• Publication of a comprehensive report on the behaviour of zinc in soils and plants, which has become an academic text.

• Development of establishment and management technology that increases the productivity and feed value of revegetated saltland.

• Identification of successful adjustment strategies for rural communities.

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RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ON ORGANIC AGRICULTURE IN AUSTRALIA

Objectives • To provide a report that forms the basis for a proposed National Symposium on

Research and Development in Organic Agriculture in Australia. Background Production, processing, distribution, marketing, research and development of organic products is done by a range of fragmented government and private industry institutions and individuals. The Organic Producers Advisory Council, meeting under the auspices of the Australian Quarantine Inspection Service, produces and oversees national organic standards. There is no national industry peak body for industry coordination and policy making as a whole. While the industry is a very small part of Australian agriculture, it is growing quickly and has the potential for very large growth in the future. It could make a substantial contribution to “clean green” Australian agriculture. ANU approached by RIRDC to develop a proposal for the funding of a National Symposium on Research and Development in Organic Agriculture in Australia that will review R&D in organic agricultural products and farming practice, identify key issues and areas of concern, and develop strategic approaches to address issues and concerns. Research The authors of the chapters were chosen for their current knowledge of relevant areas in the report. The tasks were completed by each author using their own compiled research database and searches on line through the ANU ELIZA system. Letter were also sent by the editors to all the known researchers in organic farming methods in Australia to ensure all relevant information was obtained. During the drafting of the report, extensive discussions were held between authors of each chapter and the editors to ensure the final document would fulfil the objectives. Outcomes The interim report was accepted by RIRDC on 12 June 1996. The report was then re-issued as a discussion paper to all symposium delegates by 21 June 1996, providing all symposium participants with a background briefing on the wide range of issues facing

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the organic agriculture industry in Australia. The report also provided the basis for the initial structure of the workshop sessions for the symposium. Implications Following the release of the report, the symposium organisers, particularly Mr Dumaresq and Dr Greene, have received many reports from symposium delegates on the accurate, comprehensive and detailed coverage of the industry provided by the discussion paper. As such the report provided an excellent basis for discussion during the symposium workshops and briefing sessions. The authoritative nature of the discussion paper provided substantial reassurance to many potential participants that the symposium would deal seriously with the issues facing the industry. This reassurance included the acceptance by key industry figures that the organisers of the symposium and RIRDC were serious about achieving real outcomes for the industry. The interim report also signalled serious commitment by RIRDC to the industry from early stages of planning the symposium report through to the start of the symposium sessions. As a consequence of these points the symposium achieved major outcomes. RIRDC Project No: ANU-22A RESEARCHER: Mr David Dumaresq ORGANISATION: Geography Department Australian National University CANBERRA ACT 0200 PHONE: 02 6249 0349 FAX: 02 6249 3770

THE ROLE OF LAND TRANSACTION IN AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT

Objective • To assess the extent to which the land purchasing behaviour of farmers through

cycles of buoyancy and recession in agriculture increases the risk of financial failure and so exacerbates the stresses associated with agricultural adjustment.

Background

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Over the long term, the adjustment of Australia’s farm sector to various sources of stress has involved (among other strategies) the continual increase in the size of farm holdings and the migration of families out of farming. There is substantial anecdotal evidence that the market in farm land rather than facilitating such adjustment, often exacerbates the stress associated with the adjustment process. There is a tendency for farmers to purchase land when commodity prices are buoyant, thus pushing up land prices to levels that will not be sustainable through any ensuing slump in commodity prices. Any debt associated with the land purchase will also be carried into the ensuing slump. On the other hand, during periods of recession the level of land transactions may be lower as many potential purchasers will be experiencing both a fall in their income and in the value of their asset base and, hence, in their borrowing capacity. Research The study was based on mail surveys in 1993 and 1995 of farmers in ten Northern New South Wales shires who made the land transactions in the periods January 1988 to June 1989 (commodity prices relatively buoyant) and January 1991 to June 1992 (declining commodity prices). Outcomes The study shows that the timing of land purchases by primary producers seeking to expand their operations has some influence on their financial viability in the years following the purchase. However, other factors that are equally or more important predictors of financial viability subsequent to the purchase include whether the purchase is funded by borrowing and, if the purchase is not funded by borrowing, whether the funds for the purchase are obtained by the sale of agricultural land or from other sources such as bank deposits or sale of off-farm assets. These financial factors, combined with personal motivations for purchasing land, define four main types of land purchase behaviour by primary producers. • Producers who expand their operations by making land purchases that are funded

from bank deposits or sale of off-farm assets made up 19 percent of the land purchases over 50 hectares for primary production in the study region. These producers are in the best financial position with very few having any debt.

• Producers who made debt-financed purchases of land with a primary goal of

expanding the size of their operations made up 21 percent of the land purchases over 50 hectares for primary production in the study region.

• Producers who appeared not to have a primary goal of expansion, but who appeared to have been induced to expand their operations by other factors made up of 16 percent hectares for primary production in the study region.

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• The remaining type of land purchase behaviour involves purchases that are mainly funded by the sale of agricultural land. Purchases of this type make up 11 percent of the land purchases over 50 hectares for primary production in the study region.

Conclusions A substantial proportion of entrants to agriculture who have no family farming background appear to have taken up farming for the lifestyle or as an experiment, rather than as a career move for which some preparation and/or training has been undertaken. The study suggests that this may not necessarily be a disadvantage in financial performance. While just under one third of primary producers who are expanding their operations do so without prejudicing financial viability, there are at least as many who have put their viability at risk with debt-financed land purchases. In balance, the evidence from this study is not sufficient grounds for intervention in the capital markets that provide finance for agricultural land purchases. Unexpectedly, there was a complete lack of impact of a severe drought on either the equity position or the debt repayment arrangements of those surveyed. Implications The main financial impact of the drought was on the public purse rather than on the wealth of primary producers or the banks. Whether this is a matter of concern, of course, depends on normative judgements as to where the burden of climatic uncertainty should fall. On the one hand, the findings of the study might be taken as evidence that the support services for primary producers are working well. On the other, it might be said the finding is an indication of the ineffectiveness of the National Drought Strategy that sought to shift the burden of climatic risk away from government towards those who were taking the risks in the course of their business activities. RIRDC Project No: UNE-29A RESEARCHERS: Mr I J Reeve, Mr G W Kaine & Mr R A Stayner ORGANISATION: The Rural Development Centre University of New England ARMIDALE NSW 2351 PHONE: 067 732 220 FAX: 067 733 245

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RE-ARRANGING FARM BOUNDARIES TO FACILITATE BENEFICIAL ADJUSTMENT IN PRIMARY INDUSTRIES

Objectives • To establish the extent to which the Australian rural boundary system has remained

fixed since the wave of closer settlement up to the time of the last century. • To establish how this impeded the efficient operation of the rural industries. • To propose a mechanism for re-arranging inappropriate property boundaries. Background The Australian cadastral was developed in a climate of closer settlement and a strong demand for land. The boundaries were set out in squares and rectangles oriented north/south east/west ignoring the topography and land types. This geometric pattern has come to be regarded as fixed by the rural population was well as advisers and planners. Research A geographic information system was established on a pilot area so that the land types, land uses and land boundaries could be overlaid and analysed. Historical records were researched to discover the origins and inappropriateness of the development of the rural holdings. European systems and legislation were investigated as an option for re-allocating the land. Outcomes Social and economic analysis indicated that the subject area was over subdivided and that some form of drastic re-arrangement of boundaries was necessary for the valley to survive as a place of continued sustainable agriculture with a respectable quality of life. Indications were that the European model could be readily adapted for use in Australia. Implications The rural community and farm advisers from all levels of government have a strong perception that boundaries are somehow fixed. The difficulties of an inappropriate, over subdivided landscape need to be brought to the attention of the interested parties and dealt with as part of the serious impediments facing rural industries. The possibility and a mechanism for re-arrangement need to be brought to peoples attention. Modern technology such as GIS and GPS provide the facility for collecting, analysing and presenting the data, as well as making the required measurements.

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RIRDC Project No: QUT-2A RESEARCHER: Brian Hannigan ORGANISATION: Queensland University of Technology School of Planning, Landscape Architecture & Surveying GPO Box 2434 BRISBANE QLD 4001 PHONE: 07 3864 2239 FAX: 07 3864 1809

ENHANCING PRODUCTIVITY OF CROPS AND PASTURES BY APPLYING RARE EARTH ELEMENTS

Objectives • To establish the role of REEs for sustainable growth and nutrient uptake and how

these are influenced by other nutritional, genotype and environmental factors. • To investigate the soil factors controlling REE bioavailability. • To study the effect of REEs on the nutritional qualities of crops and pastures. Background The use of rare earth elements (REEs) as trace nutrients in agriculture is widely practised in the People’s Republic of China. In 1990, the Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering (AATSE) sponsored a mission of eminent Australian scientists on a fact finding mission to China. The mission concluded that there was enough evidence to demonstrate that the technology had potential application under Australian conditions. This project, which began in 1993, involved a systematic study of the role of REEs in agriculture and addressed a number of the key questions proposed by the mission. Research and Outcomes Glasshouse trials, using perlite as a growing medium, showed that application of low concentrations of lanthanum were beneficial to the growth of barley, canola and perennial ryegrass. However, the frequency and magnitude of reposes were reduced when soil was used instead of inert media. Results from glasshouse experiments have also shown that REE application may play a role in uptake of nutrients, such as potassium. For the pot trials using soil, application of lanthanum was found to be beneficial when plants were moisture stressed.

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A total of 56 agricultural soils from Victoria and southern New South Wales were analysed for REE content. Most of the selected soils were relatively low in REEs and in the range reported by the Chinese to be responsive. Crops and pastures grown on such soils may therefore respond to REE application. Pasture production improved by 24% at a field site in Simpson, Victoria, following two applications of 1kg/ha of lanthanum. Although there were no significant beneficial effects for canola or barley when lanthanum was applied to the soil or as a foliar spray in the field, the selected rates were not toxic to plant growth. If moisture shortfall is critical to responsiveness, any beneficial effects may have been masked by the higher than average rainfall recorded in 1995. Implications Results of this study suggest that field responses to REE application are unlikely to be universal for all Australian soils and environmental conditions. However, for soils with low levels of bioavailable REEs, and in seasons with extended dry periods, the likelihood of a response to REE application seems much greater, provided that the timing, rate, frequency and technique of REE application is optimised. A 5% increase in grain production for the low REE soils of the Victorian Mallee would amount alone to benefits exceeding $3m per annum, with an adoption rate of only 20%. RIRDC Project No: RMI-3A RESEARCHERS: Dr B J Meehan K I Peverill ORGANISATION: RMIT University State Chemistry Laboratory 124 La Trobe Street Cnr Sneydes & South Roads MELBOURNE VIC 3000 WERRIBEE VIC 3030 PHONE: 03 9660 2119 03 9742 8704 FAX: 03 9639 1321 03 9742 8700

RARE EARTHS IN AGRICULTURE SEMINAR

Objectives • To hold a seminar to review the case for a more concerted program to evaluate the

application of rare earths, and to review the results of research in Australia. • To debate on what should be done next and the costs involved. Background

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In 1982 the Academy sponsored visits to China to try to determine the validity of Chinese test procedures, which originally reported stimulation of growth of a variety of crops, including rice and wheat. In October 1990 the Academy hosted a seminar to encourage research in Australia which would investigate the possible roles of rare earths in plants growth. A modest amount of research has subsequently been conducted in Australia - with some results indicating that rare earths are toxic to plants, and others showing significant increases in plant growth. The Academy Council therefore asked its International Relations Committee to host a seminar to review progress. Research Research results were presented by the following: • Professor Xiong Bingkun, head of the programme for Rare Earths in Agriculture in

China, provided a paper entitled “Application of Rare Earths in Chinese Agriculture and their Perspective of Development”.

• Mr E Diatloff, Professor C J Asher and Dr F W Smith “Effect of Rare Earth Elements (REE) on the Growth and Mineral Nutrition of Plants”.

• Dr B Meehan, Ms S Buckingham, Dr K Peverill, Ms A Skroce “Rare Earth Research at RMIT University and State Chemistry Laboratory (SCL) Part A: Background and Part B: Application of Lanthanum to Agricultural Plants”.

• Miss D Rosewell “Feeding Rare Earths to Cashmeres”. Outcomes and Implications Further applied research is warranted for both plant and animal systems to establish whether REEs have a role in agriculture. This process can be accelerated through continuing dialogue and co-operative research with key Chinese scientists. More basic research should be undertaken to determine the physiological and biochemical effects of REEs, and to establish any adverse environment or toxicity effects. It is incumbent on RIRF’s and the mining and fertilisers industry to inject sufficient funding to answer fundamental questions regarding the role of REEs in agriculture. Future research should also highlight the effects of growth media, RE interactions with roots/leaves, and mode/timing of application. The Academy continues to be interested in this topic and looks forward to results of additional research being undertaken by CSIRO and RMIT. RIRDC Project No: AAT-1A RESEARCHER: Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering Ian McLennan House 197 Royal Parade PARKSVILLE VIC 3052 PHONE: 03 9347 0622

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FAX: 03 9347 8237

DEVELOPING PRODUCTION SYSTEMS FOR ORGANIC GRAINS IN SOUTH EAST AUSTRALIA

Objectives • To provide support for growers wishing to convert to organic grain production. • To form farmer discussion groups to demonstrate various organic farming

techniques. • To provide assistance to both farmers and agribusiness with the marketing and

production of grains requiring organic accreditation. Background Consumers and governments world wide are demanding food uncontaminated with chemical residues. Australian grain producers and processors need to develop systems which will withstand the scrutiny of quality assurance programs which entail reduced or nil chemical residue standards. Production of grains to meet residue standards cannot be considered on a single crop or industry basis but as part of an overall farm system. The challenge met by this project was to develop organic production systems which limit land degradation through excessive cultivation, maintain soil structure and fertility, and allow economic viability in the face of increasing market demands. Research A literature review and resource centre was the first step in establishing an organic farming network with producers, manufacturers and researchers. A demonstration site was set up at IIAD Rutherglen on an area subject to conventional chemical cropping management for 10 years, under control of a representative steering committee. Agriculture Victoria administered the project including the demonstration site, liaison between industry and producers, preparation of reports and talks for field days, monitoring of soil and plant status and attendance at conferences. Outcomes The major outcomes from the project were: • Literature review and establishment of a resource centre of organic publications

including relevant journals.

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• Consultants’ report surveying the major techniques used for organic grain production in SE Australia.

• Establishment of the organic demonstration site at IIAD Rutherglen and foundation of the Rutherglen Soilcare group.

• Inauguration of the Organic Demonstration Site Steering Committee representing organic growers, manufacturers, service industry (fertilisers), industry extension and researchers.

• Monitoring results on the scale of inputs and production from the three pasture and cropping phases of the cropping rotation implemented by the steering committee.

• Development of an organic extension network. Implications Effective application of rotations in combination with intensive grazing and limited cultivation strategies has allowed production of good standard wheat grain and maintained soil quality in terms of organic matter and biological activity. Economic values of alternative weed management and crop establishment techniques have been greater on farm than conventional chemical methods due to the demands of stock management. Pasture and hay yields from recent conversion to organic systems compare favourably with conventional outputs for a given level of soil fertility and low fertiliser application levels. High productivity of the system and low levels of chemical residue in grain have shown that conversion to organic farming systems is possible within a short time frame. RIRDC Project No: DAV-61A RESEARCHER: Mr Bruce Walker ORGANISATION: Dept of Natural Resources and Environment 165-171 Hargreaves Street BENDIGO VIC 3550 PHONE: 060 32 9208 FAX: 060 32 9827

CONSERVATION FARMING WORKSHOP FOR THE SEMI-ARID TROPICS

Objective • To hold a workshop to ensure that valuable information on Australian semi-arid

tropics is properly collated, evaluated and published.

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Background This project was conceived in 1993 because much of the research into conservation tillage and ley farming undertaken in the Australian semi-arid tropics (SAT), during the previous 20 years, had not been properly evaluated or published. Many of the researchers who formerly worked in the region had left to take up positions elsewhere, acquiring new responsibilities and commitments. Thus, there was the danger that valuable information would be lost to, or overlooked by, both industry and future researchers unless a special effort was made to collate, evaluate and publish past work. With this danger in mind, the Australian Institute of Agricultural science (now Australian Institute of Agricultural Science and Technology, (NT Zone), which administers the Doug Peake Memorial Trust, commemorating a major researcher in conservation tillage and ley farming, decided to hold a workshop at Katherine, in July 1995, for the above purpose and to seek additional funds from RIRDC. The timing of the workshop was considered appropriate, as industry was beginning to adopt conservation tillage and ley farming technology and this trend was expected to increase under the stimulus of the live-cattle export trade and anticipated subdivision of additional pastoral properties in the Daly basin into mixed farming units. Outcomes Two publications, a Special Issue of the Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture (containing 15 review papers which formed the framework of the workshop) and the complementary Proceedings (containing 36 specific research and farmer experience papers) have been completed. A third publication, now being prepared as a separate project by the NT Department of Primary Industry and Fisheries and designed for extension to producers in the SAT, will draw heavily on the two publications above. Although new research personnel cannot be compelled to read the above publications the ready availability of the results of past work in book-form will make it much less likely that past efforts will be ignored or overlooked. Much of the information generated by past work can be included in crop growth and decision support models being developed (some with support from RIRDC) and designed to help producers manage climatic and other risks. In the SAT, there is now greater awareness of the cereal yield increase (10-130%) and cost reduction (up to 50%) possible using conservation tillage and ley farming systems. RIRDC Project No: AIA-5A RESEARCHERS: Mr Andy Chapman, Mr John Sturtz ORGANISATION: Australian Institute of Agricultural Science PO Box 206 BERRIMAH NT 0828

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PHONE: 08 8989 2214 or 08 8989 2214 FAX: 08 8989 2043

ENTERING FARMING AS AN OCCUPATION

Objectives • To describe the paths by which farmers have entered the industry. • To identify the key impediments (or barriers) they have encountered, and describe

ways in which they have attempted to overcome those barriers. • To isolate the factors associated with a successful entry to farming, and propose ways

in which entry processes can be modified or assisted. Background The future health and adaptiveness of the farm sector depends upon the continuing entry to the industry of people with appropriate skills, knowledge, attitudes, motivations, and adequate financial capital. There are concerns, however, that the most appropriate new entrants are not being attracted into the industry. Research A literature review helped refine the conceptual framework for modelling entry. Three mailed surveys were conducted. The target populations were: • a randomly selected sample (n=213) of current farmers in two regions; • two colours of graduates of agricultural colleges (n=262); and • recent purchases of agricultural land in the two regions (n=111). In addition, fourteen individuals or couples from among the above groups were interviewed regarding their entry into farming, to provide the information for case studies. Outcomes There are many ways in which people currently enter farming. Where the ‘conventional’ path is followed, high levels of intra-family harmony, shared long-term aspirations, and effective communication are required. Entrants who had come into farming after another career had paid considerable attention to both business planning and lifestyle objectives. They saw advantages in gaining experience, financial capital, and business perspective in other pursuits.

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Entry to the northern Victorian dairy industry was markedly different from entry to the broadacre dryland grazing and cropping industries in the northern NSW region. The intrinsic attributes of the occupation rather than its tangible or instrumental rewards were the most important. The way into farming is highly likely to involve a considerable period outside agriculture entirely. Many of those who initially became involved in their family’s farm business subsequently left, either to farm on their own or to leave the industry. Entrants commonly perceived both advantages and disadvantages to becoming involved in their family’s existing farming business. The conditions on which a young family member becomes involved in a family’s farm business are often unattractive and unclear, and can erode both family harmony and business performance. Implications Attention should be given to the design and delivery of education and extension packages which will assist entrants and their families to plan for the successful entry of a family member, and of packages for those who enter the industry following careers in other occupations or industries. Financial assistance in the form of subsidised loans for intending entrants is not recommended. Further research needs to be done on the impacts of various institutional factors on the opportunities for entry to the industry. RIRDC Project No: UNE-33A RESEARCHER: Mr Richard Stayner ORGANISATION: The Rural Development Centre University of New England ARMIDALE NSW 2351 PHONE: 067 732 281 FAX: 067 733 245

ZINC IN SOILS AND PLANTS

Objective • To examine and publish information on the behaviour of zinc in soils and plants and

relate it to the diagnosis and correction of zinc deficiency in commercial plant and animal production.

Background Recent changes in formulations have eliminated contaminant zinc from Australian fertilisers and have led to zinc deficiency in crops and pastures on soils previously thought to have had an adequate zinc supply. It is timely to review the behaviour of zinc

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in soils and plants and to examine the latest information on diagnosis and correction of zinc deficiency in crops and pastures. It is also timely to review advances in our understanding of the zinc requirement of grazing animals in relation to zinc reactions and processes in soils and plants. Research The International Symposium on Zinc in Soils and Plants was held at the University of Western Australia on 27 & 28 September 1993. Approximately 175 scientists and advisers, including a large contingent from overseas, participated in the meeting. There were fourteen review papers presented by leading international scientists from the United States of America, Australia, Turkey, Germany and India. The review papers covered the reactions of zinc in soils, the uptake, transport and function of zinc in plants, the diagnosis and correction of zinc deficiency and zinc toxicity and the role of zinc in human and animal nutrition. Additionally, there was an overview paper and forty poster papers. Outcomes The review papers have been edited by Prof AD Robson and published as “Zinc in Soils and Plants” by Kluwer Academic Publishers in their series entitled “Developments in Plant and Soil Science”. Implications The symposium and the resulting book provide the most up-to-date and comprehensive account of zinc in soils, plants and animals. The symposium and the book will lead to better decision-making regarding the diagnosis and correction of zinc deficiency and zinc toxicity in agricultural and horticultural ecosystems. RIRDC Project No: UWA-19A RESEARCHER: Prof AD Robson ORGANISATION: School of Agriculture University of Western Australia NEDLANDS WA 6009 PHONE: 08 9380 2505 FAX: 08 9380 1140

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IMPROVING THE NUTRITIVE VALUE AND GROWTH HABIT OF THE FODDER SHRUB TAGASASTE

Objective • To commercialise a highly nutritious prostrate and upright line of the leguminous

fodder shrub tagasaste (Chamaecytisis palmensis). Background Between 1985 and 1992, some 20,000ha in south Western Australia had been established to the deep rooted fodder shrub tagasaste. However, there are about 3 million ha of deep sand that have been cleared and are now both poorly productive and at risk from wind erosion and/or are acting as recharge areas for saline seeps. Two of the primary constraints to further adoption of tagasaste are the cost of annual cutting (approx. $35/ha) and poor animal production from a feed that has an estimated in vitro digestibility of 70-75% and is 15-20% crude ptn. The overall program of work with tagasaste has also recognised the need to explore the possibility of genetic improvement of the species. This has required focus on two major areas: to develop criteria on which selection strategies might be based; and to understand the reproductive biology and propagation potential of tagasaste so that optimum breeding and dissemination methods can be adopted. Research The development of selection strategies has been directed by the methods employed to establish tagasaste in areas with deep, infertile sands and to utilise the shrubs by direct grazing, initially by sheep and more recently by cattle. Parameters such as early growth, dry matter availability in summer and autumn, applied nutrient response and realised animal production have all been crucial to the evaluation of the species to date. Experimental work on a specific tagasaste phenotype (prostrate or weeping habit) has encompassed components of both major research areas. The hypothesis that the prostrate or weeping form may be advantageous emerged from the field trials, where plants were identified at a time when mechanical cutting was proving to be a major expense to the emerging management system. Outcomes The most outstanding feature of tagasaste has been the adaptation of mixtures of locally adapted germplasm to the rigours of the management systems that have been developed over the past 10 years on the impoverished sandy soils of Western Australia. This material has withstood a variety of attempts by grazing animals, mechanical harvesting

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and various experimental contrivances to compromise its productivity and is now providing a clear demonstration that MRPs original modelling projections of a system that would last for at least 15 years were well founded. At the same time, collections of more clearly identified lines of germplasm are showing that selection amongst existing material may well offer an avenue for production gains, at least in the first 3 years of growth. Additionally factors such as general palatability and growth habit may be part of any selection process. This will only be clarified by clear breeding objectives for particular end use strategies such as production or land reclamation. Derek Woodfield, now AgResearch New Zealand is examining the most recent information from the site at “Newdale”, New Norcia with a view to joint Australasian registration of a number of tagasaste types. Implications The robust nature of the mixed selections used to date may present a case for retaining diversity in a perennial species that will be grown in challenging environments. While selection may offer some gains we will need to be convinced that any consequent loss in diversity doesn’t compromise tagasaste in the systems that we have been testing. In view of the latest animal production and agronomic information about the seasonally of the nutritive value of tagasaste, it would be valuable to make a systematic study of the variability of chemical composition among the 27 accessions of tagasaste at times other than summer-autumn while continuously grazed by cattle. RIRDC Project No: UWA-13A RESEARCHER: Dr Chris Oldham ORGANISATION: Martindale Research Project School of Agriculture University of Western Australia NEDLANDS WA 6009 PHONE: 08 9380 3589 FAX: 08 9380 1040

MAXIMISING THE PRODUCTIVE AND NUTRITIVE VALUE OF PASTURES ON SALTLAND

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• To develop establishment and management technology that increases the productivity and feed value of revegetated saltland.

The hypothesis behind this objective is that plant biomass and animal production will increase if saltland is revegetated with mixtures of halophytic shrubs and salt-tolerant grasses. Background It was anticipated that the predictability of these lands would improve with the introduction of halophytic shrubs and other salt tolerant shrubs. Research Six field experiments were conducted in the project. Outcomes Forage production Forage production by saltbushes was generally less than 0.6 t/ha. In contrast, the production by under-storey species was 1.3-3.0 t/ha. There was an inverse relationship between the production by saltbushes and under-storey. With under-storey production of 2.5 t/ha, there was little saltbush. However with under-storey production of 1.5 t/ha there was production of 0.3-0.6 t/ha of saltbush forage. Forage quality Ash concentrations in the saltbush and under-storey forage were 25-29% and 5-6% respectively. The high ash concentrations in saltbush are a major problem in its utilisation by grazing animals as it substantially reduces the energy yields of the fodder. Alternative under-storey perennials Perennial under-storey species may not be substantially better alternatives to saltbush. Of twenty under-storey perennials assessed, only two (Puccinellia ciliata, Thinopyrum elongatum) continued to survive at two sites for 17 months. On the more benign site, most perennials failed at EC values greater than 900 mS/m. The most salt-tolerant perennial was puccinellia which had maximum growth at about 2,400 mS/m, and average yields of 1.4 and 2.1 t/ha. Implications If this model is accepted then increased attention will need to be focused on saltbush species previously rejected as being unsuited as forages. It may also be necessary to broaden the range of halophytes under consideration to include other ‘functional mimics’ of saltbush. It is likely that revegetation benefits will be relatively soil specific. We expect greatest benefits on saline sands and deeper duplex soils. Further research will be

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required into improving the production of sub-storey species through improved pasture selections and agronomic practices. RIRDC Project No: DAW-43A RESEARCHERS: Dr ED Barrett-Lennard, Dr BE Warren, Mr S Vlahos ORGANISATION: Resource Management Agriculture Western Australia Locked Bag No 4 BENTLEY DELIVERY CENTRE WA 6983 PHONE: 08 9368 3278 FAX: 08 9368 3355

SUCCESSFUL ADJUSTMENT STRATEGIES FOR RURAL COMMUNITIES

Objectives • To document eight case studies of rural communities who have successfully

developed and implemented strategies to cope with the changes going on in their area.

• To use these cases to identify the essential criteria and successful strategies that have been used to successfully implement adjustment programs in rural communities.

• To promote the results of the study to government agencies, rural communities and any other organisations interested in local and community development.

Background It is widely recognised that rural towns across Australia are declining, both in terms of population and employment opportunities. However, there are cases where some rural communities have been able to halt or at least slow down this decline. How did they go about this and what lessons can be drawn from their experiences? Research Eight case studies of community based groups were selected based on past achievements and representing a range of agricultural industries and locations, whether they were externally funded or not and whether local government was involved in the group. The groups selected were the Cowra Export Packers Cooperative (NSW), Nyah District Action Group (Vic), Mallee Enterprise Development Organisation (Lameroo SA), Tumby Bay and District Action Group (SA), Donald Development Committee (Vic),

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Pyramid Hill Development Committee (Vic), Farm Advance (North Centre Vic) and the Northern Victorian Committee for Dairy Industry Development (Goulburn Valley, Vic). The research officer spent over a week in each community interviewing both people who were involved in the groups and others who had dealings with the group but were not formally part of it. From these interviews, the processes of initiation, development and maintenance of the groups were established, including initiatives taken by the group and mistakes that were made. From this, a list of key components was drawn up. Outcomes There were ten key components of successful groups identified. Whilst it was not essential that every group had to have all of these ten factors, the more they had, the greater the chances of the group being successful. These key components included the need for local, trained leadership, common goals, right representative structure, continual recruiting and regular injection of new ideas, regular monitoring and addressing the social needs of group members. The important roles of the local media and local government were also identified. Implications The destinies of rural communities lie in their own hands. Successful adjustment strategies depend on having trained local leaders who can motivate and lead their communities through the change process, utilising government programs and resources but not solely dependent on them. There is an obvious need for leadership training at the local level which is easily accessible to the majority of people. RIRDC Project No: DAV-82A RESEARCHER: Dr Greg Cahill ORGANISATION: Dept of Natural Resources and Environment Box 2500 BENDIGO VIC 3550 PHONE: 054 304 444 FAX: 054 484 982

STRATEGIC FARM PLANNING BY OPEN LEARNING

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• To improve the rural sector's ability to achieve financial viability, sustainable production and self reliance in drought by identifying and analysing the needs for training in strategic farm planning.

Background In May 1993 the Rural Training Council of Australia released the National Competency Standards for Farm Business Management after extensive consultation with the rural sector. In line with the national training reform agenda, these standards should now form the basis of all accredited vocational agricultural education curricula in Australia. Research To undertake the study, two farmer groups were organised, one in New England Tablelands and the other in the Central West Slopes. The groups were established using existing farmer and departmental contacts. Outcomes The project’s learning outcomes highlight several areas within the National Competency Standards which need expansion for those developing curricula on strategic planning. Implications In summary, curriculum developers of strategic planning courses need to: • consider the ability of producers to resolve conflicts between goals in the strategic

planning process; • include not only knowledge of sustainable production systems, but also the need to

impart a good understanding of land capability, climatic and financial constraints and other limitations to sustainability so that realistic and achievable goals can be set;

• address interpersonal communication skills including facilitation and conflict resolution;

• enable learners to acquire skills and attitudes so that individuals involved in the planning process are motivated to undertake strategic planning. This motivation, drive and ambition must then be maintained so that the plan will be revised and updated as required;

• realise that some success needs to be achieved in order to maintain the self esteem and motivation of all involved in the planning process;

• instil in learners the ability to maintain strategic planning through a dynamic and open minded thought process and be structured to provide processes that encourage learners to continually seek out information and take advantage of further education opportunities;

• enable the farm manager to work as part of a team and delegate responsibilities. This requires a range of business and personal skills including maintaining accurate up-to-

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date records of the business’s situation and its resources and remaining aware of the goals and vision of the business; and

• recognise the importance of leadership skills in the strategic planning process. RIRDC Project No: DAN-112A RESEARCHER: Mr BP Walsh ORGANISATION: C B Alexander Agricultural College, Tocal NSW Agriculture PATERSON NSW 2421 PHONE: 049 398810 FAX: 049 385549

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SUSTAINABLE PEST, WEED & DISEASE CONTROL STRATEGIES

Pest, weed and disease control costs Australian farmers an estimated $800 million per year in chemical and biological control agents before the addition of application costs. Yet without their use an estimated one third of the harvest, valued around $3 billion in 1990, would be lost to pests and diseases. While the control of individual pests, weeds or diseases may be beyond the capability of a particular industry it could be within the resource capability of the rural sector as a whole. RIRDC recognises a need to work closely with other rural industry research funding corporations and research agencies in pest and disease control and to take a lead role in coordinating R&D in some circumstances. The Corporation believes there is an urgent need to reduce the environmental and social impacts on other industries associated with both chemical and biological pest and disease control. It also recognises that pests and diseases are part of a biological system themselves, are continually evolving, and therefore will require ongoing attention. Research Highlights for 1996-97 • Better understanding of the host range of root-knot nematode species to

allow more effective non-chemical management strategies to be developed in a wide range of vegetable industries.

• Research into the biological control of mouse plagues.

• Isolation of novel BT toxin strains for controlling insect pests.

• Development of a new generic computer model of modular growth of plants to improve pest and disease management by simulating damage responses in host plants to attacks by pests or pathogens.

• Evaluation of the national capability to effectively diagnose plant diseases and identification of areas of deficiencies.

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ROOT-KNOT AND CYST NEMATODES WORKSHOP

Objectives • To run a two day workshop focussing on the impact, identification and control of

root-knot and cyst nematode problems in Australian and New Zealand agriculture. • To provide a forum for Australasian nematologists to exchange information on the

diseases which these species cause. Background Root-knot and cyst nematodes cause most of the estimated annual losses of $300-400 million/year attributed to nematode diseases in Australian and New Zealand crops. With declining numbers of experienced nematologists in Australia and New Zealand, it is becoming increasingly important that opportunities be provided for this group of scientists to meet on a discipline basis to exchange information on nematodes and the diseases they cause. The holding of biennial Australasian Plant Pathology conferences provides an opportunity to hold such workshops in conjunction with them, to take advantage of reduced costs by having the maximum number of participants present (often funded by other sources). At the last conference, in Hobart in 1993, a similar workshop on root lesion nematodes was funded by GRDC. This workshop brings together a wide range of experts, including those from other fields. Research The workshop was structured to allow discussion on: • Impact of root-knot and cyst nematodes in cropping systems (symptoms, crop loss

assessment, density dependent effects) • Interactions (host-parasite models; interspecific competition, nematode and fungal

interactions; interactions between different nematodes) • Identification (systematics of the Heteroderidae; species separation, intraspecific

differentiation and pathotyping systems using molecular markers) • Control (chemical options, cultural practices, plant resistance). Practical sessions on identifying the various nematode species were also held. Outcomes

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A very effective workshop was held, which was attended by more than thirty scientists. The workshop provided a valuable opportunity for the limited number of experienced nematologists still employed, to provide advice to the small group of young inexperienced scientists now dealing with nematode diseases. Implications At relatively small cost to the Corporation, the discipline of nematology has been given considerable support. Potential new areas of work have been identified and, already, research proposals have been received. Such workshops ought to be supported every three or four years to maintain the impetus of the discipline. RIRDC Project No: AAN-1A RESEARCHER: Dr J Curran ORGANISATION: Australasian Association of Nematologists C/o- CSIRO Division of Entomology PO Box 1700 CANBERRA ACT 2601 PHONE: 02 6246 4294 FAX: 02 6246 4000

RESISTANCE TO BT IN LEPIDOPTEROUS PESTS

Objectives • To examine the potential for development of resistance to Bt and the possibility of

cross resistance to other ICPx (incesticidal crystal proteins) using Helicoverpa armigera as a model.

• To elucidate the mechanism of resistance, and develop resources and techniques required for monitoring and managing resistance to Bt in insect pests.

Background Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is the most widely used microbial insecticide and, as such, plays a major role in reducing our dependence on synthetic chemical insecticides. The development of resistance to Bt detected in some lepidopterous pests poses a significant threat to reducing environmental damage resulting from pesticide use. Knowledge of such factors as increasing use of Bt sprays and the cloning of a Bt ICP gene into cotton for the control of H. armigera, developing resistance to a Bt ICP, examining the possibility of cross resistance to other Bt ICPs, and elucidating the

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mechanism(s) underlying resistance, will help to maintain (extend) the life of such a valuable biological insecticide for use in a range of crops. Research Various techniques were employed in attempts to select populations of the insect resistant to Bt. Susceptibility (resistance) was estimated in dose-mortality experiments with insects being exposed to ICPs form various sources. This was complemented by studies on progeny from selected genetic crosses, and by the use of EMS metagenesis. Additionally, bioassays were used to compare individual ICPs, and to compare interactions between ICPs to the mid-gut epithelium of insects. Outcomes Sixteen Bt ICPs were tested on the insect, but only four had any significant effect. However, as there is little difference between these, it is likely that only one offers an alternative to the widely used form Cry1Ac. The lack of response to selection for resistance so far indicates that there is not a high level of resistance genes existing in Australian H. armigera at present. All the evidence from studies on another insect Plutella xylostella overseas confirms the notion that resistance to Bt in H. armigera will occur when the usage of Bt ICPs becomes sufficiently common. This process will be accelerated when both Bt sprays and Bt transgenic crops are used. Implications The relatively small number of options for alternative Bt genes for pyramiding in transgenic crops is a matter for concern. The data available from this project indicate the cross resistance between Cry1A ICPs is highly likely and so the only alternatives at present are Cry2A and the new genes which have been identified in a related project funded by RIRDC and the Grains Research & Development Corporation. RIRDC Project No: CSE-55A RESEARCHER: Dr Ray Akhurst ORGANISATION: CSIRO Division of Entomology GPO Box 1700 CANBERRA ACT 2601 PHONE: 02 6246 4123 FAX: 02 6246 4173

NOVEL BT TOXINS FOR CONTROLLING INSECT PESTS

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Objective • To isolate insecticidal crystal protein (ICP)-producing Bacillus thuringiensis strains

that can be developed as microbial insecticides or insert genes for transgenic plants for the control of a range of insect pests of Australian agriculture.

Background Some agricultural industries rely heavily on the use of insecticides for controlling insect pests, but this method of control has its attendant problems of environmental contamination, effects on non-target organisms, residues in harvested produce, etc. An alternative to synthetic insecticides is the use of biological, particularly microbial agents, such as the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) which produces insecticidal crystal proteins. Microbial insecticides based on Bt offer the most promising current option for replacing the use of conventional insecticides. Bt comprises a group of bacteria which carry a wide range of ICPs. The ICPs have a high degree of specificity and are harmless to other animals including humans, making them more acceptable to regulatory authorities. Some 105 ICP gene sequences have now been reported in strains of Bt. These represent 58 distinct ICP genes which can be divided into major classes and subclasses which reflect differences in host specificity. Until recently, identification of new Bt ICPs has relied on bioassay of samples isolated from the environment. A disadvantage of this technique is the repeated isolation and re-creening of the same ICPs, but the introduction of PCR techniques allows this to be overcome. Research New technologies were exploited to isolate novel ICPs from Bt, aimed particularly at the control of beetle pests. Some 5000 isolates of Bt, from both the CSIRO’s existing collection, and from environmental samples collected from all mainland states and territories were assessed. Following primary screening for ICP production, secondary screens employing PCR techniques were used to identify ICP genes which are already known. Isolates which did not match known profiles were then assayed against 18 insect pest species in feeding tests. Cloning of the ICP genes from the most toxic isolates was then undertaken as a further step in developing potential new biological insecticides for use against beetle pests. Outcomes Sixty eight isolates were found to have novel activity: 13 against Coleoptera (beetles), 43 against Lepidoptera (moths), 9 against Diptera (flies), and 3 against Orthoptera (locusts/crickets). No activity was found against Isoptera (termites).

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Two isolates were toxic against the lesser grain borer, and other grain pests were susceptible to other isolates. The susceptibility of the important cotton pest Helicoverpa armigera to 30 isolates raises the prospect of finding effective ICPs that can be used, either as sprays or in transgenic plants, to manage resistance to Bt by this pest which is expected to arise from the use of a single ICP in transgenic cotton. Implications The isolation of these novel strains of Bt offers the potential for new bioinsecticides to be developed against a wide range of pests of Australian agriculture. Their ultimate use will contribute to the continued reduction in use of chemical insecticides and protection of export markets. The wealth of useful Bt strains derived from this project could lead to the establishment of a local bioinsecticide production facility. Before this can occur it will be necessary for the various sectors of industry which could benefit, to contribute funds for further research and development. This project has effectively laid the necessary groundwork for further developments. RIRDC Project No: CSE-57A RESEARCHER: Dr Ray Akurst ORGANISATION: CSIRO Division of Entomology GPO Box 1700 CANBERRA ACT 2601 PHONE: 02 6246 4123 FAX: 02 6248 4173

MINIMISING PESTICIDE USE THROUGH CONTROLLED RELEASE FORMULATIONS OF BACILLUS THURINGIENSIS

Objectives • To minimise the use of synthetic insecticides and their consequent residues in the

dried fruit and grape, horticultural, vegetable and cotton industries through the development of improved formulations of the bacterial insecticide, Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt).

• To develop controlled release formulations of Bt which will extend their periods of effectiveness under field conditions, thus making them more competitive with conventual insecticides.

• To improve the adhesion of Bt formulation to target locations such as leaf surfaces and thus increase their effectiveness against lepidopteran pests.

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Background Many pesticide spray formulations (both chemical and biological) are severely degraded by UV light after application, and rapidly become ineffective against their target pest. This is particularly so in Australia, where UV levels are frequently higher than in other parts of the world. The ability to produce formulations with enhanced UV protection allows lower rates of product to be applied without losing activity, resulting in lower costs and reduced risks of environmental contamination. This project was directed at improving the UV stability of formulations of the biological insecticide Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), which is becoming increasingly used on a wide range of Australian crops to control lepidopteran pests such as Helicoverpa armigera in cotton. Research The active ingredient in all the research was based on a commercially available source of water-based flowable, “Biobit XLP”. Various solid formulations of Bt were developed as wettable powders because of their economic benefits (low bulk and long shelf life). “Celite 545” was chosen as a suitable inert carrier having a large pore diameter, good porosity, and being inexpensive. Various formulations were developed using polymer coatings and other ingredients including adjuvants. Methods were developed to test the degradation of these formulations under UV, in comparison with unprotected Biobit XLP, and efficacy against larvae of lightbrown apple moth was evaluated. Outcomes The final formulation developed (BT30) was found to perform to an equivalent standard to the industry leader in encapsulation technology (Encapsid). Both BT30 and Encapsid were significantly more stable under UV than Biobit XLP. BT30 was field trialed on grapevines exposed to natural sunlight, where its efficacy against lightbrown apple moth was excellent. The formulation also maintained good persistence relative to other commercially available products. Implications All currently available commercial formulations of BT are produced and formulated overseas (ie imported as formulated product), as the size of the local market does not justify the establishment of a local production facility. Despite the potential benefits which could arise from this project, it is unlikely that new formulations based on this technology will be developed for use in Australia. Attempts are, however, continuing in an attempt to attract a commercial partner to whom the technology can be on-sold. The industry which will benefit most, is the wine and grape industry. This is not because of the development of an improved formulation of BT, but by the acquisition of a better understanding of the application methods and use rates that are needed to effectively control lightbrown apple moth. Many grape growers have been trying for years to apply BT at effective use rates without contaminating the wine produced from the treated crop. This is now possible to achieve.

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RIRDC Project No: DAV-60A RESEARCHERS: Dr A. M. Smith Dr B. Hawkett ORGANISATIONS: Agriculture Victoria Pty Ltd Daratech Pty Ltd Inst. for Horticultural Dev. Monash University Private Bag 15 CLAYTON VIC 3168 South Eastern Mail Centre VIC 3176 PHONE: 03 9210 9222 03 9820 0588 FAX: 03 9800 3521 03 9820 0480

BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF FRUIT PIERCING MOTHS

Objective • To evaluate two egg parasitoids from PNG, for potential as biocontrol agents of fruit

piercing moths, and if successful, to prepare submissions to both AQIS and ANCA for their introduction and release.

Background Five species of fruit piercing moths are serious pests of tropical and sub-tropical fruit in eastern and northern Australia. The two most important species are pests throughout the year in the tropics and migrate in late spring to southeastern Queensland and northern NSW, where they breed, build up and damage fruit until suppressed by the cooler months. In the tropics, the other three species are destructive at certain times of the year. Unlike most moth pests that cause damage when larvae, adult fruit piercing moths cause damage at the ripening stage by piercing the rind and withdrawing juice. Natural enemies are believed to maintain the moths at populations below economic damage thresholds in certain countries such as PNG, where at least two such parasitoids are known. In Australia natural enemies are few in abundance and in species diversity and are unable to keep the moths below thresholds. The two parasitoids from PNG have been successfully tested and introduced to Fiji, Tonga and Western Samoa for control of fruit piercing moths. This project seeks to evaluate these two parasitoids for potential use in Australia. Research The two parasitoids Telenomus lucullus and Ooencyrtis papilionis were introduced for evaluation against a range of non-target species of moths (either closely or distantly related to fruit piercing moths), under quarantine conditions.

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Outcomes Not all the non-target moth species initially proposed for testing could be obtained (partly due to the severe drought which occurred in Queensland during the project), and some failed to oviposit; the eggs therefore were not available for exposure to the parasitoids. One of the candidates, O. papilionis, failed to satisfy the stringent host-specificity requirements, since the host recognition of the parasitoid was affected by the plant substrate. This resulted in parasitoids attacking eggs of moths unrelated to the target species when certain plants were present. On other occasions parasitoids wouldn’t attack their known host when certain plants were present. Based on results obtained, the other candidate, Telenomus lucullus appears to be sufficiently specific to be eligible for a recommendation for its release. A list of moth species which do or do not support parasitoid development has been produced. Implications This project has identified a possible new biological control agent for fruit piercing moths for introduction into Australia. Telenomus lucullus has satisfactorily demonstrated host specificity in laboratory tests. Approval will now be sought from AQIS and ANCA for its release in Australia but further financial support will be needed to rear parasitoids for release, distribution and field evaluation. RIRDC Project No: CSE-60A RESEARCHER: Dr D P A Sands ORGANISATION: CSIRO Division of Entomology Private Bag No. 3 INDOOROOPILLY QLD 4068 PHONE: 07 3214 2803 FAX: 07 3214 2885 PUBLICATION: Workshop on Fruit Piercing Moths - Program and Abstracts, CSIRO Division of

Entomology in association with ACIAR, 16-21 January 1995

STRAIN IMPROVEMENT OF THE INSECT BIOCONTROL AGENT METARHIZIUM ANISOPLIAE

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• To employ molecular techniques to increase our understanding of the genetic basis for pathogenicity and host specificity of the biocontrol fungus Metarhizium.

• To use these techniques to screen/identify more effective strains resulting from genetic transformation of other strains of the fungus.

Background The entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae infects a wide range of insects and is being developed as a mycoinsecticide. In Australia it is being evaluated against termites and various soil insects such as scarabs and wireworms. It is already commercially available for use in several overseas countries. An important characteristic of the fungus is its innate genetic variability. Individual strains vary in morphological characteristics, pathogenically, temperature requirements, and biochemical requirements. A study of the genetic basis for this variation, using molecular techniques, may permit the development of a “super strain” of the fungus which is more pathogenic than existing strains. This project aimed to screen and “fingerprint” large libraries of the fungus in an attempt to understand the phylogeny of the fungus with the view to being able to patent new more effective strains. Research Various molecular and biochemical techniques were used to study the genetics of Metarhizium anisopliae, with a view to identifying markers which could be used in population studies. Large numbers of isolates of the fungus were studied. Outcomes This project was not able to identify the genetic basis of pathogenicity of the fungus, or to improve the pathogenicity of isolates/genetic crosses, but has resulted in: a proposed change in the taxonomy of the genus Metarhizium; improved “finger printing” of isolates of the fungus using two complementary molecular techniques; and a better understanding of the host specialisation in Metarhizium. Strains of the fungus can now be identified which are pathogenic to crickets, solder fly, redheaded pasture cockchafer, peanut scarabs, termites, and root aphids. Implications Although new “super strains” cannot be produced using current technologies, it is likely that these will be produced satisfactorily in the future. RIRDC Project No: CSE-61A RESEARCHER: Dr Richard Milner ORGANISATION: CSIRO Division of Entomology

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GPO Box 1700 CANBERRA ACT 2601 PHONE: 02 6246 4169 FAX: 02 6246 4042

DEVELOPING PHEROMONE BASED CONTROL SYSTEMS FOR PEST LEPIDOPTERA

Objectives • To develop a field version of electroantennogram (EAG) equipment to detect

pheromone concentrations using the antenna of a live insect. • To build a wind tunnel which will allow release rates of pheromone dispensers to be

measured in the laboratory over a range of temperatures and air velocities. • To develop an actograph which will allow the flight activity of female moths to be

measured in the laboratory. Background Improved monitoring of insect pest populations provides the basis for introducing refined control strategies and thereby reduce dependence on the use of synthetic chemical insecticides. One such activity is the use of synthetic sex pheromones in cropping situations to better monitor insect populations, and in some cases to disrupt mating behaviour. Pheromone technology, especially in the area of mating disruption, is under continuous development but the tools for evaluating its performance are often inadequate. This project seeks to design improved instrumentation of three key areas so that better and more effective monitoring of pest populations can be undertaken. Research Electroantennogram (EAG) measurements were conducted in orchards using both Light Brown Apple moths and Codling moths. The equipment used was capable of detecting pheromone pulses emanating from pheromone dispensers, and was comparable in performance to that developed for similar research in NZ and Germany. The characteristics of pheromone dispensers (currently on sale commercially for controlling Oriental fruit moth), and of a new range of dispensers being evaluated against Codling moth, were tested in a wind tunnel. The flight activity of females of three species (Codling moth, Light Brown Apple moth, and Oriental Fruit moth) were measured over a range of ages. The effects of exposing the latter two to synthetic pheromone was also investigated.

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Outcomes In the EAG studies, the instrument which was developed performed well but it was found that strong responses to environment odours prevented the measurement of absolute concentrations of pheromone for the two species of interest. The release properties of the pheromone dispensers were characterised over a wide range of conditions with a level of precision which was previously unattainable. A number of important formally unidentified conditions were established for accurately measuring dispenser performance. The flight activity patterns of female moths were found to be species dependent, and these did not change when the air was permeated with pheromone. Implications These results of these studies, while not having any further immediate industry application, continue to improve our understanding of pheromones and the role they may usefully play in improved insect control strategies which rely less on the use of insecticides. RIRDC Project No: CSE-63A RESEARCHERS: Dr E R Rumbo Dr T E Bellas ORGANISATIONS: CSIRO CSIRO Division of Entomology Division of Entomology Private Bag No. 3 GPO Box 1700 INDOOROOPILLY QLD 4068 CANBERRA ACT 2601 PHONE: 07 3214 2811 02 6264 4093 FAX: 07 3214 2885 02 6264 4000

DEVELOPING CO-FORMULATIONS OF HERBICIDES TO PREVENT RESISTANCE

Objectives • To improve the adoption strategies aimed at the prevention of herbicide resistance by

developing co-formulations of triallate and trifluranlin which can be delivered in a convenient single pack.

• To evaluate the agronomic performance of these co-formulations against industry standards.

• To ensure that company sales and technical staff are adequately informed of the advantages of these formulations.

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Background The development of herbicide resistance posed a major threat to various cropping enterprises in Australia, with resistance in annual ryegrass alone costing around $57 million per annum. Prevention of the onset of resistance is vital and involves, amongst other strategies, the use of mixes of herbicides from various chemical groups. The adoption of this strategy by farmers has been limited, due mainly to the inconvenience of tank-mixes or problems with tank-mix antagonism. In addition this tank-mix has been regarded as having problems with antagonism and volatilisdation. Herbicide manufacturers tend not to develop co-formulations for two main reasons - in their present form many herbicides are incompatible and so cannot be readily combined, and, the markets are too small to warrant the research expense required. If re-formulation strategies can be developed to permit the blending of active constituents without the need for using flammable solvents, then it may be possible to produce co-formulations of Group D herbicides (triallate and trifluralin) which can be delivered in the same pack. This would remove some of the impediments to a wider uptake of this desirable weed control strategy. Research Enhanced delivery systems for triallate/trifluralin co-formulations having high loading levels of active constituents were developed in the laboratory. Three major delivery systems (=formulation types) viz. wettable powders (WP), emulsions in water (EW), and emulisifiable concentrates (EC) were examined. Initially, these were evaluated in the laboratory for their various chemical and biological attributes, and the most promising were further evaluated in field trials over two seasons (various rates of application were compared with the “industry standards”). Outcomes In the first year’s field testing, two emulsion in water (EW) co-formulations provided biological efficacy against wild oats and annual ryegrass equivalent to that of the tank-mix. The extra cost of manufacture of this formulation however, preluded any further attempt to commercialise it. In the second year, an emulsifiable concentrate (EC) significantly outperformed the standard treatment. This formulation (EC6) has reduced volatilisation (a clear benefit if used in a tropical environment), is expensive to manufacture and package, and contains a low flammability solvent. Implications Although the aims of this project have clearly been accomplished, there is little likelihood that the technology developed will be commercialised. The benefits of the new co-formulation are obvious to the commercial collaborator, Nufarm Limited, the Australian manufacturer of trifluralin. Monsanto, the sole manufacturer of the second

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component of the co-formulation (triallate) was, until recently, interested in the proposed product but following market research, has decided that to proceed would be at the expense of other more profitable products in its current range. Without the active support of Monsanto, there is little opportunity for successful commercialisation. RIRDC Project No: DAR-28A RESEARCHER: Dr Brian Hawkett ORGANISATION: Daratech Pty Ltd 3rd Floor 493 St Kilda Road MELBOURNE VIC 3000 PHONE: 03 9820 0588 FAX: 03 9820 0480

VIRTUAL PLANTS: A REVOLUTIONARY APPROACH TO CROP EXPERIMENTATION

Objective • To augment a new, generic, computer model of modular growth of plants to enable

pest and disease management options to be stimulated, initially by measuring responses of stylo to attack by Heliothis and anthracnose and building response-simulation routines into the model.

Background There has been little work at the intermediate level of plants as populations of modules, and almost no work at this level investigating the effects of diseases and pests. Now, there is affordable hardware and the software is being developed to fill this gap. The development of this type of computer modelling has the potential to improve research efficiency in many areas of cropping, grazing, pruning, and biological control of weeds by allowing “virtual experiments”(simulatating damage responses in host plants to attack by pests or pathogens) to be undertaken in greater numbers at little cost, leading to more focussed design of actual field experiments. Research Using the tropical pasture species “stylo” (Stylosanthes scabra) as the host plant, the pest Heliothis and the fungal pathogen Colletotrichum, software was developed to reflect plant development in the presence of these damaging agents. The study was designed to

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explore the effects of both agents on each other and on the morphogenesis of a shared host. The principal aim was to investigate how necrosis by the fungus and removal of apical meristems by larvae of Heliothis affected morphogenesis of the host. Experiments were designed to investigate plant responses to various damage scenarios. Observations of plant development were analysed statistically and converted into rules of morphogenesis. These were then expressed to create visual representations of sequential plant growth. The research was undertaken in close collaboration with the world expert in this field, Prof. Prusinkiewicz, of the University of Calgary, Canada. Outcomes Insect grazing alone caused minimal damage in whole-plant development rate but did affect main stem internode lengths, and leaf size on branches. Simulated grazing (using scissors) to remove apical meristems had a greater effect on morphogenesis than removal of leaf tissue only. A shift in apical dominance and compensatory growth by the top three remaining branches was noted as a result of apex removal, resulting in plants which were shorter and more “bushy”. Similarly, anthracnose infection which stopped apical growth caused greater branch development lower down the plant than on control plants, but the effect was less than when apical meristems had been removed with scissors. Infection also reduced internode growth, stunting the most recently emerged internode regardless of position or the age of the plant. Oviposition and larval grazing by Heliothis were reduced in the presence of anthracnose disease, but larval grazing did not affect disease, but larval grazing did not affect disease establishment at three inoculum concentrations. Implications The major objective of using the stylo study to provide practical experience and feedback when extending and further developing software for use in modelling the structural development of plants has been highly successful. Copies of the software, and the user manual, for 3D digitising plant architecture and conversion of records into lengths, angles and “stick” images of plants have been made available to the research community via the “Virtual Plants” site on the world wide web at: http://www.ctpm.uq.edu.au/Programs/IPI/ipivp.html The virtual laboratory software for simulating structural growth of plants has also been augmented by the Canadian collaborators at the University of Calgary, and is available for downloading free of charge, from their site at:http://www.cpsc.ucalgary.ca/projects/bmv/vlab/index.html RIRDC Project No: CSE-58A RESEARCHER: Dr Peter Room

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ORGANISATION: CSIRO Div. of Entomology Private Bag No. 3 INDOOROOPILLY QLD 4068 PHONE: 07 3214 2700 FAX: 07 3214 2885

MOLECULAR DIAGNOSIS OF ROOT-KNOT NEMATODE (MELOIDOGYNE SPP)

Objective • To improve a previously developed diagnostic test by increasing its reliability,

predicting host range and detecting root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne, in soil and plant roots.

Background Root-knot nematode is a multi-industry problem affecting nearly every crop species grown, and causing an estimated yield loss in Australia of more than $200 million each year. Nematicides control all species and races of root-knot nematodes but many non-chemical control methods, such as crop rotation, resistant cultivars and biological control, are species-specific. To use these strategies for root-knot nematodes, it is necessary to detect and identify nematodes in root and soil samples. Current identification methods using morphological features and a standard host range test are insensitive, inaccurate, and time-consuming. The development of improved molecular diagnostic techniques will overcome these deficiencies. Research Work in this project built on achievements in a previous project by optimising the PCR-based mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) diagnostic test already developed, and by exploiting the possibilities of improving the test to predict host range and to detect nematodes in soil samples and plant roots. Optimisation of the test involved devising primers which are positioned so that amplification is reliable and optimising all amplification conditions and reagent concentrations. Several additional plant genotypes were tested for their ability to distinguish mtDNA groups. Further genetic studies, involving the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region of the nuclear ribosomal RNA gene and RAPD assays using long primers, searched for markers related to host range. Outcomes

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The diagnostic test based on mtDNA groupings was refined to allow reliable amplification in 95% of cases and can also detect components of mixtures if present as at least 50% of the total DNA. No plant genotypes were found which elicited reactions which were related to mtDNA groupings. Furthermore, although nematode reactions on certain host were variable, differences between populations were not sufficient to act as easily recognisable race markers. The ITS region has a very complex structure, so is not likely to be useful as a molecular marker. However, two RAPD loci may have potential as specific markers for M. incognita. A diagnostic test is now available to identify any life stage of Meliodogyne populations. Although the test will not predict host range of all Australian populations, it is an extremely important research tool eg. for distinguishing populations which exist in a cropping system in a region, and thus allowing screening for resistance specifically to them. It is now in use by QDPI for management of root-knot nematodes on tobacco, vegetables, and sugarcane. RIRDC Project No: DAQ-151A RESEARCHER: Dr Jim Stanton ORGANISATION: Qld Department of Primary Industries PO Box 46 BRISBANE QLD 4001 PHONE: 07 3877 9574 FAX: 07 3877 9574

NATIONAL EVALUATION OF DIAGNOSTIC CAPABILITIES FOR AUSTRALIAN PLANT INDUSTRIES

Objectives To provide Australian cropping industries with a diagnostic capability of world standard by: • conducting a skills gap analysis of the current diagnostic capability in Australia; • developing a communication network between existing diagnostic laboratories; • critically evaluating new techniques for their introduction into Australian

laboratories; and • identifying future research directions for the improvement of delivery of diagnostic

services. Background Australian agriculture relies heavily on the use of agrochemicals for control of pests, weeds and diseases, at an annual cost of more than $800 million. These chemicals are often used needlessly or inappropriately, resulting in increased costs to growers, a likely increase in chemical resistance, adverse environmental effects, and threats to trade. The

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key to judicious use of chemicals is rapid and accurate diagnosis of the presence of pests or diseases to establish the need for such treatments. In Australia expertise in pest and disease diagnostics is diminishing, while there is an increased demand for these services by industry. A skills gap analysis is required of current national diagnostic capabilities. This will facilities the development of a coordinated national approach to the most efficient use of existing expertise in Australian diagnostic laboratories. Research Australia’s plant pest and disease diagnostic laboratories were identified and their current capabilities determined by means of a questionnaire survey. This was followed by a national workshop at which a wide range of issues relating to diagnostics were discussed. The need for a national diagnostics communication network was canvassed, and a desktop study of diagnostic technologies was undertaken, and reviewed by workshop participants. Outcomes Our national diagnostic capabilities (or lack of) have been clearly established, and a range of deficiencies identified. At the workshop, the importance of herbarium reference collections as an aid in diagnostics, particularly for quarantine purposes, was highlighted. Unfortunately these collections are not being adequately supported. Training programs are needed to offset the loss in the diagnostic skills base, and there is a need to upgrade computing, communication and business skills of current diagnosticians. A new communications network for diagnosticians has been established as has a database on the world wide web, which contains information about Australian plant disease diagnostic services (eg: numbers of staff, services offered, contact details etc.). This is available at: http://www.vicnet.netau/~primary/av/regions/ihd/industry/diagdata.html A desktop study of new technologies has resulted in the development of a database of more than 400 references on new technologies, and applications in the field of plant pathology. Implications Unless the gradual demise of our national diagnostic capability is arrested, many agricultural industries will be at risk, particularly those which are export oriented. Deficiencies in training have been identified, and future research directions prioritised. Adoption of new technologies not currently being used will provide an opportunity for improving the quality and timeliness of diagnostic services. RIRDC Project No: DAV-107A

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RESEARCHER: Ms Jane Moran ORGANISATION: Agriculture Victoria Institute for Horticultural Development Private Bag 15 SOUTH EASTERN MAIL CENTRE VIC 3176 PHONE: 03 9210 9222 FAX: 03 9800 3521

AUSTRALIAN PHYTOPLASMA DISEASES: RAPID IDENTIFICATION TECHNIQUES AND PREDICTION MODELS

Objective • To develop rapid identification techniques for the detection of phytoplasmas thereby

permitting the validation of economic prediction models for the control of phytoplasma diseases.

Background Phytoplasmas (formerly called MLOs) are associated with more than 200 diseases, many of which occur in horticultural crops. In Australia, phytoplasmas of economic importance include tomato big bud, potato purple wilt, grapevine yellows, and strawberry little leaf. In all these diseases the phytoplasmas are phloem restricted and can not be cultured in vitro. This has resulted in great difficulty in establishing rapid and accurate diagnostic techniques for phytoplasmas, both for plants and insect vectors, resulting in epidemiology studies being long term and labour intensive. Recent advances in technology such as PCR (polymerase chain reaction) offer opportunities to develop sensitive and rapid techniques for the detection and characterisation of phytoplasmas, leading to cost-effective control strategies such as those based on predictive models. Major outbreaks of phytoplasma diseases occur unpredictably, and in many years, control measures are not warranted. The use of prediction models, verified through the use of reliable detection techniques would ensure that growers employ control measures only when the disease incidence is above the economic damage threshold. These models would have potential for a wide range of important crops such as tomatoes, potatoes, grapes and strawberries. Research

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The economically important disease Tomato Big Bud (TBB), transmitted by the leafhopper vector Orosius argentatus, was selected for use in this study. The phytoplasma was maintained in two hosts (periwinkle and tomato) in a glasshouse, while the leafhopper vector was also maintained on three hosts (celery, mallow, and broad bean) in a separate glasshouse in the absence of Tomato Big Bud. Leafhoppers were collected from two field sites at Rochester (from lucerne) and Ovens (from white clover) in northern Victoria, and used to establish a working colony. The parent population was reared on mallow, grown in cages in the glasshouse under controlled conditions. Subsequent populations were maintained on celery plants under similar conditions. Subsequent populations were maintained on celery plants under similar conditions. PCR was used to test for the presence of phytoplasmas in the colonies. Healthy leafhoppers were fed on TBB infested plants to acquire the phytoplasma, and then transferred to healthy celery plans before transmission tests were undertaken on a range of indicator plants. Plants and leafhoppers were tested for the presence of TBB. Standard techniques were used for extracting DNA from both plants and leafhoppers and the samples were tested using PCR. Outcomes A primer specific for phytoplasmas was successfully used to detect TBB in both the leafhopper and infected plants. The technique developed cannot, however, be used to detect phytoplasmas in leafhoppers which have been stored in 90% ethanol at room temperature for longer than one month (ie. is unsuitable for testing stored material such as in museum collections). Implications The protocols developed for detecting TBB in leafhoppers and various host plants has been successfully adapted to detect other phytoplasmas in 43 different plant species from 17 families. The protocol is now being successfully used in Agriculture Victoria’s commercial diagnostic service. RIRDC Project No: DAV-93A RESEARCHER: Jane Moran ORGANISATION: Agriculture Victoria Institute for Hort. Development Private Bag 15 South Eastern Mail Centre VIC 3176 PHONE: 03 9210 9222 FAX: 03 9800 3521

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ASSESSMENT OF SYSTEMIC INDUCED RESISTANCE IN PLANTS AS A COMPONENT OF INTEGRATED PEST AND DISEASE MANAGEMENT

Objective • To assess the biological spectrum, mechanisms and effectiveness of systemic induced

resistance in legumes as brought about by biological and chemical means. Background Systemic induced resistance (SIR) is a process whereby a plant becomes resistant to a pathogen after earlier exposure to a pathogen, an attenuated form of a pathogen, or a chemical that is not itself a pesticide. The continued development and use of traditional pesticides is under severe pressure internationally and in Australia for economic, environmental, legal and political reasons. The plant protection industry is undergoing major readjustment. As part of that readjustment, integrated pest and disease management will become a major goal. One strategy in achieving the goal will be the manipulation of natural defence mechanisms in plants, including the use of systemic induced resistance wherever possible. No commercial examples of systemic induced resistance currently exist, but this study, in collaboration with the multinational agrochemical company Ciba Geigy, is aimed at elucidating some of the mechanisms of the process concerned using Phaseolus beans and certain foliar fungal diseases as a model system. Research Under either controlled environment or field conditions, seedling plants of Phaseolus vulgaris were challenged with inoculum of various fungal pathogens, or with a chemical inducing agent (CGA 41396). This was done by inoculating the first seedling leaf on each plant. After appropriate intervals the second leaves or later developing plant parts received inocula of the pathogens concerned. Disease development was assessed on these leaves or plant parts using relevant disease keys (indicating % of tissue diseased), routinely at weekly intervals. Assessments on treated and control plants were contrasted and analysed for variance and significance of differences. Trials were undertaken against rust and anthracnose diseases, and against root and stem base infections in Phaseolus. Activities of the enzymes glucanase and chitinase and concentrations of salicylic acid were measured in different parts of treated plants.

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Outcomes Following pre-treatment of the first leaf with either a pathogen or the chemical inducing agent, the numbers of resultant disease lesions were significantly lower for pre-treated plants than for the controls. The chemical inducing agent CGA 41396 was as effective or more so than the fungal pathogens in protecting Phaseolus plants against the pathogens used. These results were consistently obtained with fungal foliar diseases, but systemic induced resistance was not effective in the case of soilborne diseases. Implications The results obtained confirm the feasibility of using this approach to disease control, but considerable research is still required to fully elucidate the mechanisms involved. Since this project commenced, Ciba Geigy have developed a new more effective compound than was used by these researchers (CGA 245704). Registration for commercial use of the compound is currently being sought. Systemic induced resistance (or at least one example of it) will become commercial reality within a few years, and it will both reduce the dependence on the use of conventional fungicides, and enhance the adoption of integrated pest and disease management strategies. RIRDC Project No: US-21A RESEARCHER: Prof. B.J. Deverall, ORGANISATION: Department of Crop Sciences University of Sydney NSW 2006 PHONE: 02 9351 2531 FAX: 02 9351 4172 EMAIL: bdeveral@extro.ucc.su.oz.au

BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF MOUSE PLAGUES

Objectives • To determine through a restricted field release on the Darling Downs in south eastern

Queensland and in the Mallee wheatlands of north western Victoria, whether biological control of mouse plagues is effective and economic using a liver nematode, Capillaria hepatica.

• To monitor changes in the occurrence of murine viruses during fluctuations in mouse populations on the Darling Downs.

Background Mouse plagues occur nationally, causing high economic losses to grain growers and major social problems. In 1993 economic losses in southern Australia were estimated to

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be around $65 million, and > $5 million in south eastern Queensland. Extensive use of chemicals, as occurred in 1993 and 1994, causes environmental problems and puts at risk important export markets. Clearly, a biological method for controlling mouse plagues may provide an environmentally and potentially economically attractive alternative to the use of chemicals. The evaluation of potential biocontrol agents against mice is therefore warranted. Research In this project, restricted field releases of a nematode liver parasite, Capillaria hepatica, were made in 1992 and 1993 on the Darling Downs in south eastern Queensland, and in late 1993 in the Mallee wheatlands of north western Victoria. The population dynamics of the mice following release of the parasite were monitored in both regions and the presence and distribution of the parasite was determined. The dynamics of other diseases of mice was examined with the research on C. hepatica. This study was concentrated on viruses, other helminth parasites and a bacterium Streptobacillus moniliformis. Outcomes Although effective baiting methods have been developed and the nematode parasite can be effectively distributed in the field, the level of infections which occur in mice are not sufficient to control mouse plagues. A level of mouse control can be achieved when populations are high, but low mouse populations mitigate against effective dispersal of the parasite from one mouse to another. No major new biocontrol agents were identified in studies on other diseases of mice on the Darling Downs. Implications This study, which was also funded by GRDC, generated large amounts of data and attracted the collaboration of scientists from other countries. It is clear that the nematode parasite used in this study is effective against individual mice, but does not appear to have the potential to be used effectively to prevent the occurrence of plagues. Current long-term studies focussed on immunocontraception using a genetically engineered virus are more likely to rely to provide a solution to this problem. RIRDC Project No: CSW-27A RESEARCHER: Dr GR Singleton ORGANISATION: CSIRO Division of Wildlife and Ecology PO Box 84 LYNEHAM ACT 2602 PHONE: 02 6242 1600 FAX: 02 6241 3343

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NEMATODE CONTROL WITH ORGANIC AMENDMENTS AND ROTATION CROPS

Objectives • To screen crops for resistance to Australian populations of root-knot nematode. • To evaluate nematode-resistant rotation crops in the field and examine their potential

for use in nematode management. • To devise an assay system to quantify the suppressiveness of soils to root-knot

nematodes and determine whether the natural biological suppression that is induced by organic manuring can be predicted by measuring the microbial status of soil.

Background Root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) are Australia’s most important nematode pest. They have a debilitating effect on many perennial crops, and are one of the major factors limiting production in many intensively managed cropping situations. Crop rotation is one of a limited range of nematode control options that are currently being investigated as alternatives to the use of chemicals. It has never, however, been universally used against root-knot nematodes because they have an extremely wide host range (more than 2000 plant species), resistance tends to be species-specific, and species of Meloidogyne have been difficult to identify reliably. Recent developments in molecular identification technologies have removed this impediment and there is now renewed interest in the possible incorporation of crop rotations into integrated management systems for root-knot nematodes. Research Approximately 240 accessions of 73 crops were screened for resistance to Meloidogyne javanica, M. incognita (races 1 and 2), M. arenaria (race 2), and M. hapla - the four most common root-knot nematode species in Australia. In initial screening the level of reproduction was measured by counting eggs produced after about 8 weeks. The most resistant material was then re-examined in more comprehensive tests. A range of organically amended and non-amended soils from home gardens, organic farms and field trial sites were bioassayed for suppressiveness to root-knot nematode, while their biological status was also determined by measuring % organic carbon, microbial biomass and microbial activity. Outcomes Almost half the crops tested contained accessions that were resistant to at least one species of Meloidogyne. Accessions of most crops exhibited a similar level of resistance

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to all species of Meloidogyne, but there were important exceptions. For example, Capsicum was only susceptible to M. incognita. In some crops (eg. Setaria, Avena, Sorghum, and Zea) some accessions were resistant and others susceptible, while in other crops, all accessions were either resistant (eg. Arachis, Brachiaria, Chloris, and Panicum) or susceptible (eg. Phaseolus, Vicia, and Vigna). Some soils were found to be suppressive and there was a significant relationship between the microbial activity of soil and suppressiveness. Implications Many of the resistances identified can be used in crop rotations to minimise the damaging effects of root-knot nematodes. Results of field experiments clearly show, for example, that a susceptible crop such as zucchini is not heavily galled (damaged) when it is planted in rotation after relatively resistant crops such as forage sorghum, pinto peanut and watermelon, but heavy losses occur if it follows susceptible crops such as maize or sweetcorn. The results from studies on suppressiveness suggest that it might eventually be possible to measure specific soil parameters and determine whether a soil is biologically active enough to provide some control of nematodes. RIRDC Project No: DAQ-152A RESEARCHER: Dr. G.R. Stirling, ORGANISATION: Department of Primary Industries, Plant Protection Unit, Meiers Road, INDOOROOPILLY QLD 4068 PHONE: 07 3896 9392 FAX: 07 3896 9533

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CLIMATE CHANGE Climate change and the so called ‘greenhouse effect’ pose both threats and opportunities for Australian agriculture. Higher carbon dioxide levels will enhance plant growth rates, lower rainfall, and reduce soil moisture availability. Reduced productivity overseas will offer market opportunities, but a climatic shift in Australia may reduce our production base. RIRDC has a small strategic program of research on climate change specifically orientated to the likely impact on agricultural industries. The Corporation provides a coordinating role for rural industry research funding interest in climatic change and greenhouse effect issues. Research Highlights for 1996-97 • Determination of the potential for carbon sequestration in Australian

agricultural soils.

• Workshop on the impact on the impact of global change on Arthropod pests, weeds and diseases.

• Assessment of the potential productivity benefits to tropical and subtropical tree fruit and nut crops from elevated CO2 levels.

• The Climate Variability program, jointly funded with LWRRDC and other agencies, convened a national conference on the Development of a National Drought Alert Program which indicated that current long term RIRDC projects would be highly valuable to that strategy.

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POTENTIAL PRODUCTIVITY BENEFITS TO TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL TREE FRUIT AND NUT CROPS FROM ELEVATED CO2 LEVELS

Objective • To investigate the effect of atmospheric CO2 enrichment through the production of

‘greenhouse gases’ on potential opportunities for improved yield and quality of subtropical and tropical tree fruit and nut crops (avocado, macadamia and mango) in northern Australia.

Background ‘Greenhouse gas’ emissions are predicted to increase mean temperatures (1-2°C in the tropics) and atmospheric CO2 concentrations. There is ample evidence that CO2 enrichment of the atmosphere leads to a substantial increase in plant biomass production in C3 species. However, this will only be beneficial if dry matter partitioning favours increases in the harvest index. This study investigates potential productivity benefits for subtropical and tropical tree fruit and nut crops from predicted increases in atmospheric CO2 concentrations. Research The research consisted of 3 integrated areas: defining CO2 response curves and the effects of sink limitation on CO2 assimilation for the three crop species investigated; studying nutrient and photoassimilation dynamics during long-term exposure to CO2 enriched atmospheres; and determining the impact of CO2 enriched atmospheres on fruit and nut retention, growth and yield. Outcomes The three C3 crop species studied in this project was highly responsive to CO2 enrichment with short-term assimilation rates increasing by 50 to 80 percent at the 2050 projected atmospheric CO2 concentrations of 450-520 µmol CO2 mol-1. While this represents a significant increase in photosynthetic capacity of these fruit and nut crops the benefits of CO2 enrichment were diffused when root systems (sinks) were constricted (container-grown trees). Following long-term exposure to CO2 enriched atmospheres there was a reduction in CO2-use efficiency by the three crop species. However, the rate of CO2 assimilation remained significantly higher (≈ 40%) than those trees grown at the ambient atmospheric CO2 level (350 µmol mol-1). In a study with mangoes, leaf levels of some nutrients declined

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following long-term exposure to enriched CO2 atmospheres. In particular P and the trace elements Fe, Cu and B showed a significant reduction in leaf concentration and trees developed chronic boron deficiency. Trees grown in CO2 enriched atmospheres retained higher numbers of fruitlets during the post-flowering period indicating that fruiting is source-limited. Increased retention translated into a significant increase in fruit yield with mean fruit/nut size enhanced. Implications The increased demand for nutrients under enriched CO2 atmospheres, particularly boron, has implications for tree fruit and nut crops growing in northern Australia. Most soils used for horticultural production in this region occur in high rainfall (< 1000 mm pa) areas which have been subjected to leaching. Boron is deficient in these areas and appropriate application is necessary throughout the year to control the problem. With some crops (e.g. avocados) uptake is already difficult to achieve and increased requirements due to future elevated CO2 concentrations will place an additional burden on the production of these crops. This may be partially offset by the selection and development of superior rootstocks as boron uptake has been shown to be genetically influenced. There is a clear indication that elevated atmospheric concentrations of CO2 will improve the productivity of fruit tree crops through increased fruit retention. There is also the potential to improve fruit quality through increased kernel size in macadamia and larger fruit size in avocado cultivars where this is a problem in warm climates. RIRDC Project No: DAQ-156A RESEARCHER: Mr Tony Whiley ORGANISATION: Qld Dept. of Primary Industries GPO Box 46 BRISBANE QLD 4001 PHONE: 07 3441 2211 FAX: 07 3441 2235

POTENTIAL FOR CARBON SEQUESTRATION IN AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURAL SOILS

Objectives • To estimate the size and turnover rates of carbon pools in a range of Australian

agricultural soils under varying environments. • To determine the charcoal content in the inert fractions of these soils. • To optimise the Rothamsted and SOCRATES carbon models for Australian

conditions.

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• To determine which management practices have the potential to sustain or increase soil organic matter in the long and short term in Australian agricultural soils.

Background Soil carbon is significant in the global carbon budget, equating to a reservoir of twice the atmospheric pool and about one half of all the known fossil fuel reserves. Carbon simulation models, which are used to predict the distribution of carbon in a number of conceptual pools, can be used to predict changes in soil organic carbon provided that these pools can be measured. Of these pools, inert carbon (IOM), identified by 13 C-NMR to occur mostly as charcoal, has a major effect on the long-term prediction of carbon. The Division of Soils has recently developed a photo-oxidation technique to determine this fraction. After optimisation for Australian conditions, the calibrated computer models can be used to predict the carbon dynamics of major soil types under the common cereal/pasture rotations used in Australia. This information enables modelling to be performed with greater confidence to predict the sequestration of soil organic carbon resulting from different agricultural rotations and global climate changes. Research The research was in two areas: the identification and quantification of the carbon in the lablle, humic and IOM carbon pools in selected soils from long-term and short-term field trials by fractionation techniques and 13 C-NMR spectroscopy; and in the long-term prediction of soil carbon levels using carbon models. Outcomes Soil residues left after uv-photo-oxidation and HF acid treatment were characterised as having a plant cellular morphology and a strong 160-110ppm 13 C-NMR signal. This material (averaging 26% of all soil organic carbon for the samples analysed) was the source of carbon inert to biological degradation through physical or chemical protection. The major component of this inert pool in most soils was identified as charcoal. The data from laboratory soil fractionation’s and uv-photo-oxidation was used to determine an optimum set of parameters for two carbon dynamics models: Rothamsted and SOCRATES. Computer simulations fitted the known carbon data reasonably well, taking into account the usual soil and cropping variability. As expected, the rate of carbon sequestration resulting from high yielding continuous pastures was sufficient to maintain or increase carbon levels but all other crop/pasture rotation resulted in a decline of surface soil carbon. Soils high in IOM were less susceptible to carbon loss than those with low IOM levels. Simulations extended to 100 years from present showed that for most sites under conventional cropping, carbon sharply declined after initial clearing of native vegetation

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with further gradual decline to low levels. Approximately one half to a third of carbon remaining after 100 years cultivation was inert. Implications Land subjected to historic burning of native grasses can have build up high concentrations of charcoal. Alluviation can concentrate charcoal, along with other clay-sized materials in some soil types such as black earths. As a major component of the inert pool, charcoal which is determined as organic carbon by all conventional soil organic carbon methods of analysis, can be misleading in terms of carbon status, particularly if carbon is implicated with soil structure and nutrients. This non-inert fraction has been shown to decline with conventional cropping practices and the long-term prognosis for further losses is not good. This decline in carbon can be largely reversed by the use of high yielding pastures either in rotations or as a monoculture. RIRDC Project No: CSO-5A RESEARCHERS: J. O. Skjemstad, L. J. Janik ORGANISATION: CSIRO Division of Soils Waite Road, URRBRAE SA 5064 PHONE: 08 303 8445 FAX: 08 303 8427

IMPACT OF GLOBAL CHANGE ON ARTHROPOD PESTS, WEEDS AND DISEASES - WORKSHOP

Objectives • To produce an assessment of the likely impacts of global change on arthropod pests,

weeds and diseases, and facilitate and conduct • To facilitate and conduct a workshop on the Impact of Global Change on Arthropod

Pest, Weeds and Diseases of Australia Terrestrial Ecosystems. Research The research consisted of a review of the impacts of global climate change on pests, diseases and weeds in Australia in the light of the latest overseas findings. In addition a case study was prepared to act as a basis for international evaluation of Australia’s capability to conduct national impact assessments. The results of the study were presented on the www homepage: http://www.modeling.ctpm.uq.edu.au/dest_public/, also accessible through the CSIRO Entomology and IGBP-GCTE Homepages.

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Outcomes The workshop was held in Brisbane from 9-12 October 1996 and the report on state of the art assessment of the likely impacts of pests, weeds and diseases in Australia was published in December 1995. Feedback was received to the effect that the workshop was the most useful and well run that many national and international scientists had ever attended. An implementation plan for a collaborative international research program was prepared for IGBP-GCTE and published in June 1996. Implications Global climate change is now generally accepted as being a reality and emphasis has now moved to evaluate potential impacts on different sectors of society. Agriculture is likely to affect more than most industry sectors and it is important for it to anticipate new climatic conditions that can no longer be predicted from past experience. A national capability to evaluate impacts is a priority and pests, diseases and weeds need early attention, given their potential to cause major adverse impacts. The research has provided a ‘no regrets’ introduction to research approaches that are suitable to assist industry exploit newly emerging opportunities arising from the growing ability to provide climate forecasts up to 12 months in advance. There are a number of opportunities arising for international collaboration on global change research through IGBP-GCTE if the Australian effort can be maintained. RIRDC Project No: GCT-1A RESEARCHER: R W Sutherst ORGANISATION: CSIRO Entomology, GPO Box 1700 CANBERRA ACT 2601 PHONE: 02 6246 4008 FAX: 02 6246 4095

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INDEX (*COLIN TO ORGANISE A KEYWORD INDEX)

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Inside back cover

KEY CONTACTS RIRDC MANAGEMENT Managing Director Phone: (02) 6272 5920 Mr Peter Core Fax: (02) 6272 5877 Email: peterc@rirdc.gov.au General Manager, Research Phone: (02) 6272 5472 Dr David Evans Fax: (02) 6272 5877 New and Emerging Industries Email: davide@rirdc.gov.au General Manager, Research Phone: (02) 6272 4152 Dr Jeff Davis Fax: (02) 6272 5877 Established Industries Email: jeffd@rirdc.gov.au General Manager, Research Phone: (02) 6272 4033 Dr Roslyn Prinsley Fax: (02) 6272 5877 Agribusiness, Trade,& Email: roslynp@rirdc.gov.au Sustainable Agriculture Manager, Business and Finance Phone: (02) 6272 4656 Mr Claudio Ciuffetelli Fax: (02) 6272 5877 Email: claudioc@rirdc.gov.au Communications Manager Phone: (02) 6272 3186 Ms Eva Hickman Fax: (02) 6272 5877 Email: evah@rirdc.gov.au

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Outside back cover Postal Address RIRDC PO Box 4776 Kingston ACT 2604 Location Level 1 AMA House 42 Macquarie Street Barton ACT 2600 Telephone 02 6272 4539 Facsimile 02 6272 5877 Email rirdc@netinfo.com.au Homepage http://www.dpie.gov.au/rirdc