River Atrato Decision (English), Dignity Rights Project

Judgment T-622/16 (The Atrato River Case) Constitutional Court of Colombia (2016)

Translation: Dignity Rights Project, Delaware Law School, USA

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SuggestedCitation:JudgmentT-622/16(TheAtratoRiverCase),ConstitutionalCourtofColombia(2016),translatedbytheandavailableatDignityRightsProject,Copyright©2019.

CenterforSocialJusticeStudiesetal.v.PresidencyoftheRepublicetal.

JudgmentT-622/16ConstitutionalCourtofColombia(November10,2016)

TheAtratoRiverCase+Translator’scomment:This is an acción de tutela by disadvantaged ethnic communities before the constitutional court toprotectthefundamentalrightstolife,health,water,foodsecurity,ahealthyenvironment,thecultureand the territory of the active ethnic communities, and to address the health, socio-environmental,ecological and humanitarian crisis in the Atrato River Basin, its tributaries and surroundingterritories.Thecourt’ssyllabusanddecisionfollowstheexcerptsprovidedbelow.“Insummary,plaintiffsaskedtheconstitutionalcourttoprotectthefundamentalrightstolife,health,water, food security, a healthy environment, and the culture and the territory of the active ethniccommunities.Andasaresult,thiscourtissuesaseriesofordersandmeasurestoaddresstheserioushealth,socio-environmental,ecologicalandhumanitariancrisisthatexists intheAtratoRiverBasin,itstributariesandsurroundingterritories.”“It is necessary to remember that the plaintiffs, being ethnic communities, farmers, and subjects ofspecialconstitutionalprotection,areworkingwiththeobjectivethattheirfundamentalrightstolife,humandignity,health,water,tofoodsecurity,ahealthyenvironment,toculture,andtoterritoryareprotected.”“[Thelaw]developedbytheConstitutionalCourthasbeencharacterizedbyensuring,ingeneraltermsand according to the possibilities of the State, a broad catalog of fundamental rights under thefoundingprinciplesof thesocial justice,humandignityandgeneralwelfare, threeconcepts thatarecentraltoourconstitutionalisminsofarastheyconstitutethestartingpointtoeradicate…injustices.”“Oneofthemainconcernsofthe1991ConstituentinconstructingtheSRLformulationwasfocusedonthemostadequate,modernandefficientwaytoprotecttheenvironment,asawhole.Atthesametime,theneedtoguaranteeasustainablemodelofdevelopment,afactthatresultedintheconsecrationintheconstitutionaltextofaseriesofprinciples,rightsandduties,immersed,ofcourse,withinthenotionof the SRL. At the same time, this model seeks to achieve the endsmentioned, by allowing humanbeings - the foundation of every constitutional construction since the origins of modernconstitutionalism - to liveand interactwithinahealthyenvironment thatallowshimtodevelophisexistence in decent conditions, without the latter being threatened by the extractive activity of thestate. In simpler words: the defense of the environment is not only a primary objective within thestructure of our SRL, but it also integrates, in an essential way, the spirit that informs the entirePoliticalConstitution.”

+ThisisaSpanish-EnglishtranslationbyThomasSwan,DelawareLaw’19,andProfessorsErinDalyandJamesR.MayoftheDignityRightsProjectatWidenerUniversityDelawareLawSchool,inconsultationwithProfessorHugoEcheverría.Imagesandendnotesomitted.Anyerrorsinformortranslationareunintendedandtheresponsibilityofthetranslatingteam.



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Protection action filed by the Center of Studies for Social Justice "Tierra Digna", on behalf of theGreaterCommunityCouncilofthePopularFarmerOrganizationoftheAltoAtrato(Cocomopoca),theGreater Community Council of the Integral Farmer Association del Atrato (Cocomacia) , theAssociation of Community Councils of Bajo Atrato (Asocoba), the Inter-Ethnic Forum of SolidarityChocó(FISCH)andothers,againstthePresidencyoftheRepublicandothers[1].SYLLABUSRIGHTSOFTHEETHNICCOMMUNITIES–OriginoftheprotectionactionRIGHTSOFTHEETHNICCOMMUNITIES–InternationalInstrumentsSOCIALRULEOFLAW–HistoricalbackgroundPOLITICALFORMULAOFTHESOCIALRULEOFLAW–ScopeSOCIALJUSTICE–Scope/PRINCIPLEOFDISTRIBUTIVEJUSTICE–Scope

AUTONOMY OF TERRITORIAL ENTITIES– Consequences of the Social State ofLaw

PLURALIST PRINCIPLE OF THE SOCIAL RULE OF LAW– Characterized bytheeffectiveprotectionofminorities

PRINCIPLE OF ETHNIC AND CULTURAL DIVERSITY OF THE NATION–Scope

HUMANDIGNITYINTHESOCIALRULEOFLAW–Content

PRINCIPLE OF SOLIDARITY IN THE SOCIAL RULE OF LAW– Involvesobligationsforthestateandsociety

FRAMEWORKOFTHEPRINCIPLEOFSOLIDARITY–

Onparticular interestsas longas theparticular interest isnotcoveredbya fundamentalright

SOCIALRULEOFLAW–Generalwelfare/SOCIALRULEOFLAW–ObjectiveNATURALANDCULTURALWEALTH–ProtectionECOLOGICALCONSTITUTION–Concept

HEALTHY ENVIRONMENT– Principal objective within the current structure of thesocialRuleoflaw



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ECOLOGICALORGREENCONSTITUTION–Protection.

HEALTHY ENVIRONMENT AND BIODIVERSITY– Planning policies forprotection

ECOLOGICAL CONCEPTION OF THE POLITICAL CONSTITUTION–Eco-centricprinciples

BIOCULTURALRIGHTS–ConceptandscopeThe so-called bio-cultural rights, in their simplest definition, refer to the rights that ethniccommunitieshavetoadministerandexercisesovereignautonomousauthorityovertheirterritories-according to theirown laws, customs -and thenatural resources thatmakeup theirhabitat.Theirculture,traditions,andwayoflifearedevelopedbasedonthespecialrelationshiptheyhavewiththeenvironment and biodiversity. In effect, these rights result from the recognition of the deep andintrinsic connection that exists between nature, its resources, and the culture of the ethnic andindigenous communities that inhabit them, . all of which are interdependent with each other andcannotbeunderstoodinisolation.

BIOCULTURALISMANDBIODIVERSITY–Legalandjurisprudentialfundamentalsfortheirprotection

ETHNICANDCULTURALDIVERSITY–Jurisprudentialthread.

SPECIALPROTECTIONOFRIVERS,FORESTS,FOODSOURCES, ENVIRONMENTANDBIODIVERSITY

FUNDAMENTAL RIGHT TO DRINKING WATER– Normative and jurisprudentialevolution

FUNDAMENTALRIGHTTOWATER–Constitutionalprotection

FUNDAMENTAL RIGHT TO WATER – Obligations of the State to guaranteeavailability,accessibilityandqualityofwaterservice

FUNDAMENTALRIGHTTOFOOD–ContentandscopeRIGHTTOFOODSECURITY–InternationalInstruments

PROTECTIONOFFORESTSANDFOODSECURITYOFTHEETHNICCOMMUNITIES

RIGHT TO THE PHYSICAL, CULTURAL AND SPIRITUAL SURVIVAL OF THEETHNICCOMMUNITIES–Territorialandculturalrights

CULTURALCONSTITUTION–Concept



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TRADITIONALMININGINCOLOMBIAMININGINCOLOMBIA–LegaldevelopmentMININGACTIVITY–ConstitutionaljurisprudenceMINING–Highriskactivity

ENVIRONMENTALPRECAUTIONARYPRINCIPLEAND ITSAPPLICATIONTOPROTECTTHE RIGHT TOHEALTHOF THE PEOPLE– Application of mining activity to the ethniccommunitiesofChocóthatinhabitbasinoftheAtratoRiver

GOLDMININGINCHOCÓ–PastandPresent

CLASSES OF MINING THAT DEVELOPED IN THE CHOCÓ – Inputs andsubstancesfortheiruse

MERCURY AS A TOXIC CONTAMINANT SUBSTANCE– It is used mainly inmining activities to separate and extract gold from the rocks in which it is foundbecauseitisveryeasilyalloyedwithgoldandsilver

Itsuseinminingistoaddmercurytothematerialwherethegoldisfound,forminganamalgamthat,afterbeingheated,facilitatestheseparationofthedifferentminerals,resultingintheevaporationofthemercuryduringtheprocess.

PRINCIPLE OF PREVENTION– Concept / PRINCIPLE OF PREVENTION INENVIRONMENTALLAW–Content

ThisprincipleinsiststhattheactionsoftheStatesareaimedatavoidingorminimizingenvironmentaldamage,asanobjective in itself, regardlessof therepercussions thatmayoccur in the territoriesofothernations.Itthereforerequiresactionsandmeasures-regulatory,administrativeorotherwise-tobeundertakenatanearlystage,beforethedamageoccursorbecomesworse.PRINCIPLEOFPRECAUTIONINENVIRONMENTALLAW–ContentTheprincipleofprecautionstandsasalegaltoolofgreatimportance.Itrespondstothetechnicalandscientific uncertainty that often hangs over environmental issues, due to the incommensurability ofsome contaminating factors, the lack of adequate measurement systems, or by the fading of thedamageovertime.

PRINCIPLEOFENVIRONMENTALPRECAUTION–Constitutionaljurisprudence

MINING–Effectsonwater,theenvironmentandhumanpopulations



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RIGHT TO HEALTH, TO LIFE, AND TO A HEALTHY ENVIRONMENT OF ETHNICCOMMUNITIES–Liability of state authorities fornot takingeffective actions to stop thedevelopmentofillegalminingactivitiesintheAtratoRiverBasin

ILLEGALMININGINCOLOMBIA–Consequences

RIGHT TO HEALTH, LIFE, FOOD SECURITY, AND A HEALTHY ENVIRONMENT OFETHNIC COMMUNITIES– Liability of state authorities for not taking effective actions tostopthedevelopmentofillegalminingactivitiesintheAtratoRiverBasin

EFFECTSINTERCOMMUNIS–adoptedtoprotecttherightsofallthosewhoaresimilarlysituated.

RIGHT TOWATER AS A SOURCE OFWATER – Vulnerability due to illegalmining thattakes place in the Atrato River Basin and its tributaries. The mining and its seriouscontaminationthreatensoneofthemostimportantsourcesofwaterandbiodiversityintheworld

RIGHT TO FOOD SECURITY OF ETHNIC COMMUNITIES– Vulnerability dueto illegal mining activities that pollute and seriously threaten water sources andforests

RIGHT TO WATER AS A SOURCE OF WATER– The Atrato River, its basin andtributaries are recognized as an entity subject to rights of protection, conservation,maintenanceandrestorationbytheStateandethniccommunities

RIGHT TO HEALTH, LIFE, FOOD SECURITY AND A HEALTHY ENVIRONMENT OFETHNIC COMMUNITIES– An order with inter communis effect for national andinternational organizations in conjunction with the active ethnic communities, to designandimplementaplantodecontaminatetheAtratoRiverBasinanditstributaries

RIGHT TO HEALTH, LIFE, FOOD SECURITY AND A HEALTHY ENVIRONMENT OFETHNICCOMMUNITIES–Anorderwith inter-communis effects to entities in conjunctionwith the involved ethnic communities, to implement a plan of action to neutralize anddefinitivelyeradicatetheactivitiesofillegalminingthattakeplaceintheDistrictofChocó

CenterforSocialJusticeStudiesetal.v.PresidencyoftheRepublicetal.

JudgmentT-622/16ConstitutionalCourtofColombia(November10,2016)

TheAtratoRiverCase+Reference:FileT-5.016.242

+ThisisanEnglish-SpanishtranslationbyThomasSwan,DelawareLaw’19,andProfessorsErinDalyandJamesR.MayoftheDignityRightsProjectatWidenerUniversityDelawareLawSchool,inconsultationwithProfessorHugoEcheverría.Anyerrorsareunintendedandtheresponsibilityofthetranslatingteam.



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ChiefJustice:JORGEIVÁNPALACIOPALACIOBogotá,D.C.,10November2016The Sixth Chamber of Review of the Constitutional Court, composed of Justices Aquiles ArrietaGómez (e), Alberto Rojas Ríos and Jorge Iván Palacio Palacio (Chair) in the exercise of itsconstitutionalandlegalpowers,professesthefollowing:JUDGEMENTWithintheprocessofreviewofthejudgmentsdeliveredbytheStateCouncil-SecondSection,SubsectionA-,and theAdministrativeCourtofCundinamarca -SectionFour,SubsectionB-, in theacciónde tutela institutedby theCenter forSocial JusticeStudies "TierraDigna"onbehalfof theGreaterCommunityCouncilof thePopularFarmerOrganizationoftheAltoAtrato(Cocomopoca),theGreaterCommunityCouncilof the IntegralFarmerAssociationof theAtrato(Cocomacia), theAssociation of Community Councils of the Bajo Atrato (Asocoba), the Inter-ethnic Forum ofSolidarity Chocó (FISCH) and others, against the Presidency of the Republic, the Ministry ofEnvironmentandSustainableDevelopment,andothers.I.BACKGROUND

1.ContextThedistrictofChocó,wherethefactsofthepresentprotectionactionhavedeveloped,hasanareaof46,530km2(28,913.40mi2),whichisequivalentto4.07%ofthetotalareaofColombia.Thedistrict contains30municipalitiesdistributed in5regions:Atrato,San Juan,NorthPacific,Baudó(South Pacific) and Darién [2]+. It is inhabited by multiple racial groups, with a population ofapproximately 500,000 inhabitants, of which 87% of the population is Afro-descendant, 10%indigenous and 3% mestizo. 96 percent of the continental surface is constituted by collectiveterritories of 600 black communities grouped into 70 larger community councilswith 2,915,339titledhectaresand120indigenousreservesof theEmbera-Dobida,Embera-Katío,Embera-Chamí,Wounan and Tule ethnic groups, which correspond to 24 of the 30municipalities of Chocó; theremaining4%isinhabitedbythemestizofarmerpopulation.Chocó is located in one of the most bio-diverse regions of the planet known as the bio-geographicChocó[3].Itisoneoftherichestterritoriesinnatural,ethnic,andculturaldiversityinColombia.Chocóhostsfourregionsofhumidandtropicalecosystems,where90%oftheterritoryisaspecialconservationarea[4]andhasseveralnationalparkssuchas"LosKatíos","EnsenadadeUtría"and"Tatamá".Italsohasalargevalleylocatedfromsouthtonorth,throughwhich,runtheAtrato, San Juan and Baudó Rivers. The Atrato River Basin, with 40,000 km2 (24,854.85 mi2),represents just over 60% of the area of the district, and is considered one of the highest wateryields in theworld.TheSan JuanRiver (15,000km2) (9,320.56mi2) runsnorth/southand flowsintothePacificOcean.It isoneoftherichestriversintheworldintimberandmineralresources.TheBaudóRiver(5,400km2)(3,355.4mi2)runsparallelandbetweentheSanJuanRiver,andthePacificCoast.

+Translator’snote:Bracketednumbersrefertoendnotesintheopinion,whichareomittedforthesakeofbrevity.



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TheAtratoRiveristhelargestinColombiaandalsothethirdmostnavigableinthecountry,aftertheMagdalenaRiverandtheCaucaRiver.TheheadwatersoftheAtratoRiveraretothewestoftheAndesmountainrange,specificallyintheCerroPlateadoat3,900meters(2.4mi)abovesealevel,andemptiesintotheGulfofUrabá,intheCaribbeanSea.Itsextensionis750kilometers(466mi),ofwhich500km(310mi)arenavigable.Thewidestpartoftheriveris500meterslong(547yd.)andthedeepestpart isestimatedtobecloseto40meters(44yd.). Itreceivesmorethan15rivers and 300 streams. Among the main ones are: Andágueda, Baté, Bojayá, Buchadó, Cabí,Cacarica,Capá,Domingodó,Napipí,Neguá,Muguindó,Murrí,Opogodó,Puné,Quito,Salaquí,Sucio,TagachíandTruandó.TheAtratoRiverBasinisborderedtotheeastbythewesternmountainrangeandtothewestbythemountainousareasoftheBaudóandDarién.TothesouthisthewatershedoftheSanJuanRiverdefinedbytheisthmusofIstmina.Itisrichingold,woodandisconsideredoneoftheregionswiththehighestfertilityforagriculture.ThehydrographicbasinoftheAtratoRiverismadeupofethnic communities that live in themunicipalities ofAcandí, BajoAtrato, Riosucio, Bojayá, Lloró,MedioAtrato,Quibdó,RíoQuito,Unguía, CarmendelDarién (Curvaradó,DomingodóandBocas),Bagadó,CarmendeAtrato,inChocó;andMurindó,VigíadelFuerteandTurbo,inAntioquia.The banks of the Atrato are home to many Afro-Colombian and indigenous communities,including the plaintiffs, who have inhabited them ancestrally; where there are also mestizocommunitiesdescendedfrommigrantsfromdifferentregionsofthecountry.Amongthetraditionalformsof lifeandsustenancecharacteristicofthesecommunitiesareartisanalmining,agriculture,huntingandfishing,withwhichtheyensuredforcenturiesatotalsupplyoftheirfoodneeds.Someoftheseactivities-whichremainedintactuntilthe1980s-weremainly:(i)agriculture,carried out through the sowing and programmed cultivation of various food crops such as corn,rice, chontaduro, cocoa, coconut, caimitos, guamas, sugar cane and banana; and, (ii) fishing, bymeans of arrows, cast nets and rustic tools; (iii) artisanal mining that applies various ancestralmethodsofgoldandplatinumextraction.ThecommunitieshavemadetheAtratoRiverBasinnotonlytheirterritory,butthespacetoreproducelifeandrecreateculture.Theyaresettled-alongtheupperandmiddleAtrato-andareorganized through the following Community Councils: (i) the Greater Community Council of thePopularFarmerOrganizationoftheAltoAtrato–Cocomopoca-whichiscomposedof3,200afro-descendant families congregated in 43 communities with 73,000 hectares titled as collectiveterritories [5]; (ii) The Greater Community Council of the Integral Farmer Association of Atrato,Cocomacia, is composed of 120 Afro-descendant communities with 695,245 hectares titled ascollective territories [6]. Additionally, there is the Association of Community Councils of BajoAtrato, Asocoba, and the Inter-ethnic Forum of Solidarity Chocó -FISCH- (made up of 47organizations), both of whom have lived in their territories ancestrally, and in which they haveestablishedtheirtraditionalwaysoflifethroughagriculture,hunting,fishingandartisanalmining.Activitieswithwhichguaranteetheirtotalfoodsupply,whichnow,intheopinionoftheCourt,isindangerduetotheintensivedevelopmentofillegalminingandloggingactivities;inaregionthathassufferedtherigorsofwarandforceddisplacementwithinthe frameworkof the intensificationoftheinternalarmedconflict.



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Additionally, social exclusion in Chocó has deep historical roots due to the fact that afterindependence, inclusive political-administrative institutionswere not adopted, but rather purelyextractiveinstitutions,withveryfewcontrols,whichhasfavoredcorruptionsincecolonialtimes.Atpresent,thedistrictofChocópresentspopulationindexesaccordingtowhich,48.7%liveinextremepoverty.AccordingtotheIndexofUnsatisfiedBasicNeeds(NBI),whichmeasuresifthebasicneedsofthepopulationarecoveredaccordingtominimumcriteriainthedifferentregionsofthe country, it is found that the NBI for this region is 82.8%, the highest of the country, withinwhichabout79%ofitsinhabitantshaveatleastoneNBI,whichiswhytheyhavethelowestqualityoflifeindicatorinthecountrywith58%,comparedtothenationalaverageof79%[7].

2.MotivationfortheRequestforProtection2.1. In this case, the representative of the ethnic communities is claiming that the acción detutela isnecessarytorestrainthe intensiveand large-scaleuseofvariousmethodsofminingandillegallogging.Thesemethodsincludeheavymachinery,suchasdredgersandbackhoes,andhighlytoxic substances, such asmercury, in theAtratoRiver (Chocó), its basins, swamps,wetlands andtributaries. The methods have been intensifying for several years and are having harmful andirreversibleconsequenceson theenvironment, therebyaffecting the fundamental rightsofethniccommunitiesandthenaturalbalanceoftheterritoriestheyinhabit.2.2. In regard tomechanizedmining exploitation,whichhasbeendevelopingon a large scaleillegallysincetheendofthe1990’sbydifferentactors,itmainlyaffectstheupperandmiddlebasinof the Atrato River (and even itsmouth in the Gulf of Urabá). Aswell as itsmain tributaries, inparticular,theQuitoRiver,theAndáguedaRiver(Cocomopocaterritory),theBebaráRiverandtheBebaramáRiver (Cocomacia territory). Specifically, through the use of heavymachinery, such assuction dredgers, also called by the locals "dragons," hydraulic elevators and backhoes, thesedestroy the riverbed and perform indiscriminate dumping ofmercury and other substances andsupplies required for the development of these activities in the Atrato and its tributaries; inaddition[plaintiffscomplainof]thedispersionofvaporsoftheabove-mentionedchemicalentailedbythemining.2.3. The illegal mining exploitation that takes place in the Atrato River, its currents andcontiguous territories, which in 2013, according to data from Codechocó, the regionalenvironmental authority, estimated 200 established miners and approximately 54 dredges inoperation. These are characterized by the extraction of precious metals, especially gold andplatinum,forwhichdifferenttypesofexploitationareusedwithheavymachinery.Thefirstformofminingisalluvialmining,whichinvolvesthedirectextractionofmetalsfromtheriverbedbymeansofsuctiondredgesandtheapplicationofmercury.Thesecondformisopen-pit veinmining through the use of backhoes that lift large layers of earth, thereby openingdeepholesinwhichmercuryisusedfororeseparation.2.4. In the same sense, it is affirmed that among the pollution factors associated with theactivities of illegal mining in the Atrato river basin, one of the most serious is the dumping ofmercury, cyanide and other toxic chemical substances related to mining. The toxic chemicals



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represent a high risk for the life andhealthof the communities since the riverwater is used fordirectconsumption.Theriverwateristhemainsourceofwaterforagriculture,fishingandforthedailyactivitiesofthecommunities.Inconsequence,itisconsideredthatthepollutionoftheAtratoRiveristhreateningthesurvivalofthepopulation,thefishandthedevelopmentofagriculturethatare indispensable and essential elements of food in the region, which is the place where thecommunitieshavebuilttheirterritory,andtheirculture.Ithighlightsthatthesituationoftheenvironmentalcrisisthathasbeenunleashedasaresultoftheactivitiesdescribed,hashadadramaticeffectconcerningthelossoflifeoftheindigenousandAfro-descendant children. According to several reports from the Ombudsman's Office [8], in theindigenous communities of Quiparadó and Juinduur,which are located in the sub-region of BajoAtrato(Riosucio),during2013thedeathof3minorsandthepoisoningof64peoplebyingestingcontaminatedwaterwererecorded.Similarly, theEmbera-Katío indigenouspeople, locatedinthebasinoftheAndáguedaRiver,atributaryoftheAtrato, in2014reportedthedeathof34childrenforsimilarreasons.Regarding the Afro-Colombian communities, it is affirmed that as a consequence of thecontaminationproducedbyillegalminingandforestryactivitiesthereisagrowingproliferationofdiseasessuchasdiarrhea,dengueandmalariainthecommunitiesaccordingtothereportsfromtheOmbudsman'sOffice.[9]Inaddition,concerningthesituationdescribedabove,theregiondoesnothaveanadequatehealthsystemtoaddressthesediseasesortheethnicgroups.2.5. Additionally,loggingischaracterizedbytheuseofheavymachinery,chemicalsubstancestoimmunizethewood,andbytheconstructionofartificialcanalsforcarryingit.Theseactionshaveendangeredlivingspeciesofthearea,bothplantsandanimals,andhavechangedthenaturalcourseof the rivers; thereby affecting their marshes and wetlands. All of which implies seriousconsequencesforthesubsistenceofthecommunitiessettledthere.Infact,itisarguedthatofthe18navigablebranchesoftheAtratoRiver,currentlyonlyonebranchisnavigable,duetothecloggingand sedimentation of thewater sources,which is produced by the inadequate disposition of thewoodsandtheirwaste.2.6. Itisaffirmedthatdespiteseveralurgentappeals,includingthatoftheOmbudsman'sOfficethat declared a humanitarian and environmental emergency in Choco in September 2014, it ishighlyworrisome that the competent state institutions, including the Presidency of the Republicand theMinistries of Health, Environment,Mining, Agriculture, Housing, Education, Defense, theNationalHealth Instituteand theDistrictsofChocóandAntioquia, amongothers,havenot takencomprehensiveactions to faceand resolve this serious situation that threatens thequalityof thewatersoftheAtratoRiver,itsmaintributaries,theexistenceofitsforests,anditspopulation.2.7. Inthesameway,itisdenouncedthecompleteabandonmentoftheregionbytheColombianState,intermsofbasicinfrastructure,whichdoesnotincludeanaqueduct,sewerageorfinalwastedisposal systems. In this regard, it is indicated that the lack of an adequate and efficient supplysystemofdrinkingwaterandbasicsanitationdeepensthedescribedconsequences.Sincetherearenosanitary landfillsorothermechanismsof finaldisposalandtreatmentofgarbage, thewaste ismostlylocatedintheopenorthrownintotheAtratoRiveranditstributaries.



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2.8. It is reiterated, that without there having been concrete actions by part of the State, forseveral years the communities and their representatives have warned about the urgency ofprotecting and guaranteeing the dignity of the ethnic communities - Afro-Colombian andindigenous-that livealongtheAtratoBasin.Nowadays,theproblemsreportedhavedeepenedtothe point of setting an unprecedented crisis, caused by the contamination of water by toxicsubstances, erosion, palisades that restrict mobility, accumulation of garbage, intensivesedimentation,dumpingofsolidwasteandliquidsintotheriver,deforestation,pluggingofcreeksand navigational branches of the river, and loss of species; all this, in themiddle of a historicalscenarioofarmedconflict.It ispointedout, that themultipleenvironmental, social andhealth impacts that the illegalminingandforestryexploitationthatistakingplaceintheAtratoRiver,hasmotivatedthecreationofsomespacesforinstitutionalcooperationsuchastheso-called"Inter-institutionalMiningTable."Thisinstitutionhasnotoperatedtotheextent,thattheyarenotaddressingthestructuralpoliciesrequiredbythedistrictofChocótoovercomethissocio-environmentalcrisiscausedbymining,northemeasuresneededtoachievetheprotectionoftherightsofcommunities,amongsttheactivists.2.9. It also highlights that several popular actions have been presented, some ofwhich havebeen ongoing for several years and others have failed in favor of the ethnic communities, evenwithouthavingachievedanystateactiontosafeguardthepopulationsandundertaketherecoveryoftherivers.Finally,itpointsoutthatthesejudicialclaimshavenotbeeneffective:withthepassageoftime,thisseriousproblemfacedbythecommunitieshasincreasedexponentially,whichhasledtoamassiveandsystematicviolationoftheirrights.2.10 Insummary,plaintiffsaskthetheconstitutionaljudgetoprotectthefundamentalrightstolife,health,water, foodsecurity,ahealthyenvironment,thecultureandtheterritoryoftheactiveethniccommunities,andto issueaseriesofordersandmeasures todetailstructuralsolutions totheserioushealth,socio-environmental,ecologicalandhumanitariancrisisthatexistsintheAtratoRiverBasin,itstributariesandsurroundingterritories.

3.ProcedureofPetitionandArgumentsoftheDefendant3.1. The acción de tutelawas filed by the plaintiffs on January 27, 2015 before theAdministrativeTribunalofCundinamarca.TheTribunalconvenedonthesameday,tooknoticeofthe action and ordered the defendants to be notified so that they could exercise their right ofdefense.Asaresultofthisprocedure,thefollowinganswerswereobtained:3.2.Intheirresponse,theMinistryofEnvironmentandSustainableDevelopmentrequeststodeny the protection claimed by the plaintiffs. TheMinistry alleges that plaintiffs lack standingbecauseinaccordancewithDecree3570of2011[10]theMinistryisnotinchargeofthefunctionsofissuingenvironmentallicensesnorcanitexerciseanytypeofcontrolinrelationtothefactsthatsupporttheacciondetutela.Additionally, it is the responsibility of the Ministry to direct the SINA - NationalEnvironmentalSystem-whosepurposeistoensuretheadoptionandexecutionofenvironmentalpolicies,plans,programsandprojects,but that the specificpower to takeactionon the reported



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factsrestswithotherentitiessuchastheMinistryofHousing,CityandTerritory,ViceMinistryofWater and Basic Sanitation, in regards to public services; the National Agency of EnvironmentalLicenses -ANLA-, regarding licenses formining activities; theRegionalAutonomousCorporationswith jurisdiction in the area, regarding forest use; and finally, in the territorial authorities thatexercisepolicepowers.3.3. TheMinistryofHousing,CityandTerritory,statesthatArticle365oftheConstitutionandLaw142of1994[11]madeaprecisedistributionofpowersindomiciliarypublicservicesbetweenthenation,districtsandmunicipalities.Totheextent,thenationalgovernmentonlycorresponds,inageneralway, toprovide financial, technicalandadministrativesupport to theentitiesprovidingpublic services. For their part, the districts are responsible for the functions of support andcoordination,andatthemunicipalleveltheformulationandexecutionofprojects.AccordingtothePublic Services Law (Article 5), the municipalities are responsible for ensuring the effectiveprovisionofthepublicservicestoitsinhabitants,functionsthatarenotinchargeoftheMinistryofHousing.In conclusion, it is requested: (i) the accion de tutela be denied because the argumentpresented in this case lacks standing since theMinistry ofHousing is not competent to hear theclaimsmadebythePlaintiffs,andnofundamentalrighthasbeenviolatedorthreatened;and(ii)theactionisdeclaredinadmissiblebecauseothermeansofjudicialdefensecanbeapplied.3.4. The Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development requests to be dissociated from theprocessofthisaction,andinsubsidy,thattheprotectionisdeclaredinadmissible,duetothelackofpassivedefendant.BasedonArticle59ofLaw489of1998[12]andDecree1985of2013[13],theMinistry of Agriculture as head of the agricultural sector has to fulfill functions of direction,coordinationandevaluationofagriculturalpolicies,fisheriesandruraldevelopment.It ispointedout thatalthough theMinistry is effectively responsible fordrawinguppublicpoliciesonfoodsecurity,theexecutionofthesecorrespondstoothergovernmententitiesattachedtothisministerialportfolio,suchastheColombianInstituteofRuralDevelopment(INCODER),andtheDepartmentofSocialProsperity(DPS).Theseportfoliosareattachedto thePresidencyof theRepublic,whoseparticipationintheimplementationofsuchpoliciesis integral,thereforethereisno relationship between the facts reported by the Plaintiff and the actions or omissions of theMinistry of Agriculture andRuralDevelopment. The alleged responsibility that is intended to beendorseddoesnothaveanylegalormaterialjustification.3.5. TheMinistryofMinesandEnergyconsidersthattheaccióndetutela isnotappropriateinthepresentcasebecauseothermeansofjudicialdefenseexist.Inthefirstplace,itaffirmsthattheStudy Center "Tierra Digna" instituted a land restitution process before the First Civil of theSpecialized Circuit in restitution of lands of Quibdó. In which it requested as a precautionarymeasurethesuspensionof thestudyandtheprocessingofseveralapplicationsandminingtitles.ThepetitionwasdeniedbyorderofJuly1,2014.Regardingthesuspensionofminingconcessioncontracts,theMinistryofMinesandEnergywarns that Title II of Chapter V of the Mining Code establishes the events in which the miningconcessioncanbe suspendedandadds that inaccordancewith theprovisionsofDecree4134of



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2011[14], theminingauthorityof thecountry is theNationalMiningAgency-ANM-andnot theMinistryofMinesandEnergy.Duetothis,thePlaintiffshouldbebeforetheNationalMiningAgency,whichshoulddecideonthesuspensionoftheminingconcession.Finally, it is argued that within the framework of execution of the formalization andcompliancepolicyoftheminingstrikeagreementsofChocócarriedoutin2013,theframeworkiscontinuallyadvancingworktableswiththepopulationthroughtheMineFormalizationDirectorate.It is affirmed that these efforts have yielded good results in the2013-2014period,which showsthat theMinistry has been a guarantor in formulating serious sustainablemining policies for allcommunities.3.6. TheMinistryofHealthandSocialProtectionrequests that theacciónde tutelaprotectionactionbedeclaredinadmissible.It indicatesthatintheexerciseofitsfunctionsofmonitoringandevaluation of compliancewith public policies ofwater quality for human consumption, has beendefinedthroughtheTen-YearPublicHealthPlan-EnvironmentalHealth-aseriesofgoalsfor2021,toaddress theproblemofdrinkingwater,diseasesandprotectionof theenvironmentwithin thecomponentsof"HealthyHabitat"and"HealthSituationsrelatedtoenvironmentalfactors."TheDistrictofChocóalsoargues that there isahealthmodel that isbasedonprimaryandintercultural care strategies, which are based on the exchange of knowledge between Westernmedicine and traditionalmedicine, to restore confidence in the EPS. Similarly, it is added that aserviceprovisionmodelhasbeenbuilt,basedonthestrengtheningofthephysicalstructureandtheprovisionofcheckpoints.Finally,itisindicatedthattheaccióndetutelaisresidualandsubsidiary,andtothatextentitonly proceeds in those events in which there does not exist a different constitutional or legalinstrumentthatallowsthePlaintifftorequesttheprotectionofhisorherrights;unlessthePlaintiffintendstoavoidirreparabledamage,thedamagesmustbeaccreditedintheprocess.Itisconcludedthatforthesereasonsthetutelageactionisinadmissible.3.7. Themayor of Carmen deAtrato requests not to process theacción de tutela. In his briefanswer, he highlights the historical, cultural and economic factors that characterize themunicipality, to then point out that his city is a pioneer in the provision ofwater and sewerageservices.Likewise,itisaffirmedthatwithinthejurisdictionofElCarmendeAtratotherearenoillegalminersthataffecttheenvironmentwiththedumpingofmercury,cyanideorothertoxicsubstances;onlytraditional(pan-sifting)miningiscarriedoutbytheindigenouscommunities.Themayoralsowarnsthattimberextractionisnotcarriedout indiscriminately,giventhatthemajorityoftimberoperations are carried out for domestic use and those destined for other uses are regulated byCodechocó.Consequently,themayorconsidersthatiftheclaimsoftheplaintiffsareprocessed,continuityin the excellent administrative service provided to the inhabitants of the municipality could beaffected.Neitherillegalminingorloggingaremattersthatoccurwithinthemunicipality,andthat



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contaminatetheAtratoRiver.SuchsituationsdooccurostensiblyinotherregionsofthedistrictofChocó.3.8. TheDelegateOmbudsmanforConstitutionalandLegalmattersintervenesinthisprocessincompliance with its constitutional functions to contribute to the claims of the lawsuit. TheOmbudsmanaddsthatasbeingresponsibleforpromotingthedefenseofhumanrightsinColombia,hehascarriedoutapermanent follow-upwork indifferentareasof thecountry, including in thedistrictofChocó,wheretherehavebeenserioussituationsofthreatandviolationof fundamentalrightsinthecommunitiesoftheregion.TheOmbudsmanaffirms that in thestudiescarriedoutby theentity in theareawhere theactivecommunitiesarelocated,itisevidenthowthegoldminingactivitiesgenerateserioussocio-environmental conflicts. The jungle is being destroyed due to indiscriminate deforestation. Thecourseoftheriversandwatersourcesarebeingdestroyedwiththedumpingoffats,oilsandheavymetalssuchasmercury,thusthreateningtheconservationofthenaturalheritageofChocó,whichislistedasoneoftherichestareasofbiologicaldiversityintheworld.There,90%oftheterritoryisaspecial conservation area. Also, to promote the effective protection of human rights, theOmbudsman's Office has expressed its concern for the humanitarian crisis suffered by theinhabitants of Chocó. As well as its multiple social, economic and environmental consequences,whichwere referenced in the Ombudsman Resolution No. 64 "Humanitarian Crisis in Chocó" ofSeptember29,2014.ItstatesthatthisaccióndetutelawaspresentedonbehalfofseveralcommunitycouncilsandAfro-descendantandindigenousorganizationsthatinhabitthebasinandonthebankoftheAtratoRiver.TheAfro-descendantandindigenousorganizations,accordingtoArticle1ofDecree2591of1991, have full legitimacy as an ethnic community and as subjects of special constitutionalprotection,whoserightscanbeprotectedthroughthisaction.Ineffect,itpointsoutthatinthecaseunder examination there is no other remedy or means of effective judicial defense for theprotectionof the fundamental rights of the communitieswhoseprotection is sought through theaction of tutelage. It adds that a popular action is not an effective judicial remedy in this casebecause: (i) what is sought to protect are the fundamental rights of communities and not onlycollectiverights;and,(ii) it isastructuralproblemthataclassactioncannotprotectbecausethiscase requires the taking of complexmeasures and inter-institutional articulation that exceed thescopeoftheactioninquestion.Finally,theOmbudsmanconsidersitaprioritytoadoptthenecessarymeasurestoceasetheviolationof fundamental rightsof the communities that areactive in theenjoymentof: ahealthyenvironment,ecologicalbalance,water,publicsafetyandhealth,accesstopublicservicesandthatthedeliveryoftheseservicesareefficientandtimely;health,amongotherrights,arebeingviolatedinothermunicipalitiestowhichthisactionrefers.3.9. TheMinistryofNationalEducationand themunicipalitiesofAcandí,Bojayá,Lloró,MedioAtrato,Murindó,Quibdó,VigíadelFuerte,Turbo,Riosucio,RíoQuito,Unguía,CarmendelDarién,BagadóandYutoremainedsilent.II.JUDICIALDECISIONSUNDERREVIEW



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1.InstanceofFirstJudgmentBy decision, on February 11, 2015, theAdministrative Tribunal of Cundinamarca -SectionFour,SubsectionB-decidednottoproceedwiththeactionoftutelage.Thecourtverifiedthattheactioncannotproceedbecausewhatwasintendedwithitwastheprotectionofcollectiverightsandnot fundamentalrights.Forthisreason,thecourtaddedthatthePlaintiffsshouldgotoapopularactionandnottotutelagetopursuethedefenseoftheirinterests.Inthesameregard,thecourtaddedthatdespitewhattheplaintiffsargued,afterexaminingthe file, the requirements of constitutional jurisprudence were not met, to the regard ofdemonstratingthatclassactionsarenot the idealmechanisminthespecificcase for theeffectiveprotectionoftherightsallegedlyviolated.Inconclusion,thetribunalconsideredthattheplaintiffs,beforefilinganaccióndetutela,shouldhavemadeuseofthecomplaintcontainedinArticle41ofLaw472of1998toaddressthefailuretocomplywiththejudgmentsinthepopularactionvenue.

2.ObjectionThe Center of Studies for Social Justice "Tierra Digna" filed an objection against the firstinstance ruling, addressing three matters: (i) ignorance of the violation and threat to thefundamentalrightsofthecommunitiesintheclassaction;(ii)irregularitiesinthejudicialprocessoftheacciondetutela,and(iii)theexecutionofotherjudicialactionsthathavenotbeeneffective.Theplaintiffsconsideredthattheaforementionedaspectsarefundamentalinthestudyofthecase,andthattheywerenottakenintoaccountbythetrialjudge,who,ingeneraltermsoptedfortheinadmissibilityoftheaction.Thejudge,estimatingthat"throughtheactionimpetratedbyAfro-descendant and indigenous communities settled in the Atrato River Basin, they pursue theprotectionandsafeguardingofcollectiverights",particularlythatoftheenvironmentinconnectionwiththerighttofood.Therefore,thetrialjudgeerroneouslyconcludedthattheappropriatejudicialmechanismtoaddressthelegalproblemthatarisesisaclassaction.

3.InstanceofSecondJudgmentTheStateCouncil-SecondSection,SubsectionA- intheorderofApril21,2015,confirmedthe contested decision. The section concluded that there is no violation of the collective rightsalleged by the Center of Studies for Social Justice "Tierra Digna," as the plaintiffs: (i) failed todemonstrate the irreparableharmor the ineffectivenessof theclassactions forprotectionof therightsthattheyconsiderviolated;(ii)theyhavetheopportunitytopresentthecomplainttoajudge,whoretainsthecompetenceonpopularactionstoexecutethenecessarymeasurestocomplywiththe judgment insofar as it cannot be sought through theaccion de tutela to replace the ordinarymeansofaccesstotheadministrationofjustice.Consequently, the State Council confirmed the instance of first judgment proffered by theAdministrative Tribunal of Cundinamarca, which declared the action for protection filed by theplaintiffsasinadmissible.III.ACTIONSINREVIEW



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1. ThisAppellateReview,byorderofOctober14,2015, theChiefMagistratedecided to linkandrequestinformationrelatedtothecaseandsub-examineseveralentitiesofthenationalorderand district order to consider that, although theywere not sued in the presentaccion de tutela,giventhescopeandseriousnessofthesituationdenounced,thenationalanddistrictordercouldbeinvolvedwithwhatisfinallydecidedinthisprocess.In response, 26 replies were received, which by their extensionwill be referred to in theattachedfootnote[15].2. Subsequently, by order of November 13, 2015, the Sixth Chamber of Revision invitedseveraluniversities,NGOsandinternationalorganizationstoconsidersomeissuesofinteresttotheCourt in thiscase.TheCourt,alsoorderedthecarryingoutofa judicial inspection inQuibdóandsomesectorsoftheAtratoRiverBasininthedistrictofChocóonJanuary28and29,2016.Lastly,itdecreedthesuspensionofterms,toruleonthepreliminarymatter.Inresponse,17interventionswerereceived,whichbytheirextensionwillbereferredtointheattachedfootnote[16].Additionally,ajudicialinspectionwascarriedoutinthecityofQuibdó(Chocó),onJanuary28and29,2016.TheJudicialInspectionFinalActisonpages2095-2193intheNum.5.3. Finally,byorderofApril29,2016,asaresultofthefindingsofthejudicialinspection,theChamberdecidedtomakeanewlinkofthreestateentitiesandrequestinformationrelatedtothecaseunderthestudyoftheMinistryofFinanceandPublicCredit,theSpecialAdministrativeUnitofInformationandFinancialAnalysis-UAIF-andtheOfficeoftheAttorneyGeneraloftheNation[17].Additionally,inthisactthesuspensionoftermsthathadbeenpreviouslydecreedwasextended.The complete recount of the aforementioned actions, including answers, concepts,interventionsaswellastheFinalActoftheJudicialInspectionconstitutetheAnnextothejudgmentand there they can be consulted.With this, the Chamberwill refer to the relevant evidence thatappearsinthefilesinthechapterofthisjudgmentinwhichitanalyzesthespecificcase.III.CONSIDERATIONSANDBASIS

1.ScopeThisCourt iscompetentto issue judgmentofrevision, inaccordancewiththeprovisionsofArticles86and241-9ofthePoliticalConstitutionandArticles31to36ofDecree2591of1991.

2.PresentationofthecaseandapproachtolegalproblemsBasedon the foregoingbackground, and taking into account the claimsof the complainantcommunitiesinthistutelageaction[18],theCourtconsidersthatthecaseunderexaminationraisesseveralcomplexconstitutionallegalissues.Theseissuesrelatetoillegalminingexploitation,whichmay some repercussions over the content, scope and limitations of the Colombian statemining-energypolicy.



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Inthisorderofideas,theCourtconsidersthatthelegalproblemtobesolvedonthisoccasionis to determine whether due to illegal mining activities in the Atrato River Basin (Chocó), itstributariesandsurroundingterritories,andwhetherbytheomissionofthestateauthoritiessued(inchargeofdealingwiththissituation,bothatthelocalandnationallevels),thereisaviolationofthefundamentalrightstolife,health,water,foodsecurity,ahealthyenvironment,andtothecultureandterritoryoftheactiveethniccommunities.For thepurposeof resolving thismatter, theCourtwill address, asapreliminaryquestion,the analysis of the procedure of the tutelage action to protect the fundamental rights of ethniccommunities.Then,thisCourtwillconductthestudyof:(i)theconceptionofthesocialRuleoflawinrelationto(a.)theconstitutionalrelevanceoftheprotectionofrivers,forests,foodsources,theenvironment and biodiversity, (b.) the right to physical, cultural and spiritual survival of ethniccommunities, as a guarantee of a traditionalway of life; (ii)mining and its effects onwater, theenvironment and ethnic communities in relation to the precautionary principle. Finally, (iii) thisCourtwillcarryouttheanalysisofthespecificcase.

3. The accion de tutela and its procedure to protect the fundamental rights ofethniccommunities.Reiterationofjurisprudence.

3.1. Requirement of Immediateness.The accion de tutela is designed to obtain theimmediateprotectionoffundamentalrights,sothatinprinciple,whoevergoestothismechanismmust do sowithin a fair and reasonable period of time [19]. However, the jurisprudence of thisCourthasarguedthatthisisnotanabsoluteparameter,butitshouldverifythetimelyexerciseoftheacciondetutelaineachparticularsituation.To establish the reasonableness of the time elapsed between the unknown of thefundamentalattributionandtheclaimbeforetheconstitutionaljudge,thelawhasestablishedasetofstepsor timelineof justification. In thisregard, judgmentT-743of2008stated that itmustbedetermined: (i) if there is a valid reason for inactivity of the plaintiffs; (i ) if justified inactivityviolates the essential core of the rights of thirdparties affectedby thedecision; (iii) if there is acausallinkbetweenthelateexerciseoftheactionandtheviolationofthefundamentalrightsoftheinterestedparty[20];(iv)ifthebasisofthetutelageactionaroseaftertheviolationoffundamentalrights,inanywaywithinaperiodnottoofarfromthefilingdate[21].From the development of the notions mentioned by the tutelage judge, one can find theproportionalitybetweenthejudicialmeansusedbytheplaintiffandtheendpursued;todeterminethe origin of the tutelage action of as an appropriate mechanism for the protection of thefundamentalrightcomplained.Additionally, jurisprudence has also indicated that itmay be admissible for a considerableperiod of time to elapse between the fact that caused the violation and the filing of the tutelageaction whenever two circumstances arise [22]: (i) when it is demonstrated that the damage ispermanent in time, and (ii)when it can be established that "the special situation of that personwhose fundamental rights have been violated,makes discharging the burden of going to a judge



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disproportionate;forexample,thestateofdefenselessness,interdiction,abandonment,minorityofage,physicaldisability,amongothers"[23].In conclusion, the limit for filing the request for protection is not the passing of a specificperiod,butratherthereisanactualimpactoffundamentalrightstoberemedied.[24].Withregardtotheforegoing,theCourtmustpointout,thataccordingtotheassertionsoftheplaintiffs, in the present case there has been damage that has been occurring for several years.AgainstwhichboththeRegionalAttorney'sOfficeandthecommunitieshavefiledseveralactions,bothadministrativeandconstitutional(threeclassactions,sixinjunctions).Theactionsfiledweredone with the objective to achieve a solution to the problems generated by the large-scaledevelopmentofillegalminingactivities.Eveniftheproblemsfromillegalmininghavenotoccurredyet,itistheRegionalAttorney’sOffice’s-opinionthattheillegalactivitycontinuesasaresultoftheomissioninthefulfillmentofthefunctionsbythedefendantentities.InthissenseandbecausetheactionwasfiledonJanuary27,2015,beforetheaggravationofthesituationwasdenouncedbytheethniccommunities,itisconsideredthattheclaimisactualandthatitpersistsovertime.As a result, this Court concludes that in the preliminarymattermeets the requirement ofimmediacy.3.2. Legitimation by active. This Court has insisted that the procedure of protectionpromotedbyethnicminoritiesand,ingeneral,bygroupsandsubjectsinasituationofvulnerability,shouldbeexaminedwithweightedcriteria.Such flexibility is justified in theneed tobreakdownthe obstacles and limitations that have prevented these populations from accessing the judicialmechanisms that the legislature designed for the protection of their rights under the sameconditionsthatothersectorsofthepopulationcando[25].In order to compensate for these difficulties and to make effective the duty of specialprotection, the authorities and, especially, the tutelage judges, have a duty to the groups andsubjectsofspecialconstitutionalprotection.TheCourthasadmitted, forexample, that thetutelasseekingtheprotectionofthefundamentalrightsofanethniccommunity,caninstitutethoserightsby any of itsmembers, or even, by the organizations that group themembers of the communityconcerned.Thatpossibility, that again, seeks to facilitate access to justice forpopulations traditionallyremoved from the judicial system for reasons of geographical isolation, economic prostration orculturaldiversity.ItisfullyjustifiedwithintheframeworkofacomprehensiveState,theexistenceofethnicdiversityandofthespecificitiesthatcharacterizethosegroupsthatidentifythemselvesasculturallydistinctfromthedominantsociety.With this purpose, the Constitutional Court has relaxed the procedural conditions of theprotectionspromotedtosafeguardthefundamentalrightsofethnicallydifferentiatedcommunities;afactthatalsorespondstotheneedtoensurethattheauthoritiescomplywiththeircommitmentstotheprotectionofindigenousandtribalpopulations.Recall,inthisregard,thattheInternationalLabor Organization’s (ILO) Covenant 169, incorporated into domestic law by Law 21 of 1991,commits itsmember States to protect thepeoples concerned against the violationof their rights



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andtoensurethattheycaninitiatelegalproceedings,"personallyorthroughtheirrepresentativebodies,"toensurethattheserightsarerespected.Inthesamesense,judgmentT-955of2003,interpretedinabroadwayILOConvention169,extending its interpretation toblack communities.Thereby consolidating abio-cultural approachbyrecognizingthetiesofthewaysoflifeofindigenous,tribalpeoples,andtheethniccommunitieswiththeterritoriesandtheuse,conservationandadministrationoftheirnaturalresources.Inthisregard,thejudgmentpointedoutthat"thesubsistenceofindigenousandtribalpeoplesdependsonthe recognition of ethnic and cultural diversity, and it is theywho can preserve and project thepluri-ethnic andmulticultural nature of theColombiannation, thebasis of the socialRule of lawembraced in the Charter. This recognized pluri-ethnic and multicultural nature, refers to theindigenousandtribalpeoples,amongthemtheblackcommunities.”Additionally,inregardstotheactivelegitimizationofthemembersofethniccommunitiesortheir representatives to file the tutelage action, the Court has recognized "not only the status ofcollectivefundamentalrightsbywhichtheethniccommunitiesaresubjectto,buthasadditionallyestablishedthatboththeleadersandtheindividualmembersofthesecommunitieshavestandingtofiletheaccióndetutelainordertopursuetheprotectionoftherightsofthecommunity;aswellas"theorganizationscreatedforthedefenseoftherightsoftheindigenousandtribalpeoplesandtheOmbudsman'sOffice."[26].Inanycase,fortheCourt,itisclearthattheCenterofStudiesforSocialJustice"TierraDigna",hasfullydemonstratedthattheactiveethniccommunitieshaveconferredthepowertorepresentthem legally in this process. It is understood that “Tierra Digna” is legitimized to promote thepresenttutelageactioninthenameandonbehalfoftheGreaterCommunityCouncilofthePopularFarmers Organization of the Alto Atrato (Cocomopoca), the Greater Community Council of theIntegralFarmersAssociationofAtrato(Cocomacia),theAssociationofCommunityCouncilsoftheBajoAtrato(Asocoba),theInter-ethnicForumofSolidarityChocó(FISCH)andothers[27].3.3.Compliancewiththesubsidyrequirement.Byvirtueoftheprincipleofsubsidiarityasarequisiteoftheadmissibilityofthetutelageaction,thisCourthasarguedthatincaseswherethereareordinaryjudicialmeansofprotectionavailabletotheplaintiff,theprotectionwillbeapplicableiftheconstitutionaljudgeisabletodeterminethat:(i)ordinarydefensemechanismsandresourcesarenot adequate andeffective enough to guarantee theprotectionof rights allegedly violatedorthreatened; (ii) constitutionalprotection is requiredas a transitorymechanism, since, otherwise,therewouldbeirremediabledamage;and(iii)theholderofthefundamentalrightsthreatenedorviolatedisasubjectofspecialconstitutionalprotection[28].In this regard, it is necessary to remember that the plaintiffs, being ethnic communities,farmers,andsubjectsofspecialconstitutionalprotection,areworkingwiththeobjectivethattheirfundamentalrightstolife,humandignity,health,water,tofoodsecurity,ahealthyenvironment,toculture,andtoterritoryareprotected.The argument of the trial judges is that the tutela is not appropriate because it seeks toprotectnon-fundamental collective rights.Additionally, thenon-fundamental collective rights aresusceptible to protection through other means of judicial defense. The acción de tutela is not



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acceptableinthepresentcasefortwomainreasons.Inthefirstplace, it istruethattheplaintiffs’claim serious damage to the environment in which they live and that the right to a healthyenvironmentisacollectiveright.However,inthepresentcase,theviolationoftherighttoenjoyahealthyenvironmenthasrepercussionsonotherconstitutionalrightsandprinciplesthatboththetextoftheConstitutionandthejurisprudenceoftheCourtrecognizeasfundamental.Sucharetherightstohealth,bothofchildrenandoftheelderly,andtheprincipleofhumandignity,recognizedasafundamentalprincipleinArticle1oftheConstitution.IsinthiswayArticle44ofthePoliticalConstitution recognizes the distinctive fundamental right to health and physical integrity ofchildren,while from JudgmentsT-060of2007,T-148of2007andT-760of2008, thedistinctivefundamentaloftherighttohealthwasrecognized.Secondly,itmustberememberedthattheplaintiffsareblackcommunities,dulyrecognized,as alreadyoutlined in the statementof factsof the lawsuit. These communitieshavehistoricallyoccupied territories that have been recognized as being under common ownership according totheirpractices,uses,andtraditionalcustoms,asestablishedinArticle1ofLaw70of1993.Tothatextent,theprotectionofahealthyenvironmentofwhichthesecommunitiesareholders,iscloselylinkedwith theprotectionof the territory.Ahealthy environment goesbeyond simplebiologicaldiversity; it is a necessary condition for the effective enjoyment of the right to territory. In thissense, it is understood that having a healthy environment is a necessary condition to guaranteeotherfundamentalrightsofethniccommunities,suchas:collectiveidentityandculturalintegrity.When the conditions of environmental deterioration of the territory does not allow themembers of an ethnic community to have basic individual goods such as health and personalintegrity,theyareforcedtomovetootherpartsofthecountrywherethoserightsareguaranteed,or less, not directly threatened. On the other hand, this phenomenon of displacement not onlyaffects the lives of individuals who leave their land, it also destroys the social fabric that holdscommunitiestogether,whichallowsthemtomaintainculturaltraditionsandthedifferentwaysoflife that are, in short, those thatmaintain thevalidityof thepluralist characterof theColombianState, a fundamental principle enshrined in Article 1 of the Constitution Charter. Therefore, theprotectionofahealthyenvironmentoftheblackcommunitiesacquiresspecialrelevancefromtheconstitutional point of view, since it is a necessary condition to guarantee the validity of theirlifestyleandtheirancestraltraditions.Inacomplementarysense,theargumentoftheinadmissibilityofthepresentaccióndetutelawillnotbeacceptedduetotheexistenceofotherjudicialdefensesuchasclassactions(Article86Superior),isnotaccurateeither.Althoughclassactions,intheory,aredesignedtoprotectcollectiverights such as the environment, in this case, said mechanism faces two problems: (i) theimpairmentofbothfundamentalandcollectiverights,and(ii)theineffectivenessofclassactionsasa suitable resource to solve the complex problems raised in the preliminary case. Regarding thefirstassumption,theCourtmustpointoutthataccordingtothecrisisgeneratedbyillegalminingexploitation that equally affects the rights to life, human dignity, health, food security, culture,territory and the health of the environment, this case equally involves the alleged violation offundamentalrightsofethniccommunitiesascollectiverightsandinthissense,thetutelageactionistheappropriateremedytoprotecttheclaimsoftheplaintiffs.



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Inrelationtothesecondpointraised,boththeactiveethniccommunitiesandtheJudicialandAgrarianAttorneyofChocó [29]have filedandpreviouslywonseveral classactions thathadnotbeenenenforcedbythetimeofthesubmittingofthisaccióndetutela.Asanexampleoftheabove,it is worth bringing up the Annual Report 2013 of the aforementioned judicial attorney of theregion,inwhichareviewismadeofthefilingofthreeclassactionsandsixinjunctionsbeforetheAdministrativeCourtofChocóandseveraladministrativecourtofficesofdifferentmunicipalitiesofthedistrict.AllofwhichhavebeenruledinfavorofthePublicMinistryandtheethniccommunitiesfor the protection of water and the environment without having concrete results of theimplementationofsaiddecisions.It isworthadding, that inNovember2015, theAdministrativeCourtofCundinamarca [30]ruledanotherclassactioninfavorofseveralethniccommunitiesintheQuitoRiverBasin(tributaryoftheAtrato),inordertoachieveprotectionoftheircollectiverightstotheenvironment,waterandnatural resources, that to this day, after more than a year of a series of orders to protect thecollectiverightsreferredto,haveyettobefulfilledbythedefendantauthorities.In conclusion, the Court considers that one of the reasons that could explain theineffectivenessofclassactionssuchasthissetforthcanbefoundinthenatureofthemattertoberesolved. Since it is a structural problem, it requires the adoption of complex measures and aninter-institutional articulation that exceeds the normative and practical scope of the action inquestion;butwiththeonesthatdohavetheacciondetutela,itwasdesignedpreciselytorespondto complex and structural problems. From the foregoing, the tutelage action is the appropriateresource for the effective protection of the fundamental rights of the ethnic communities of theAtratoRiverBasin.Due to the above, it is clear that all the requirements for the admissibility of the action oftutelagearemet.Havingsaidthat,wewillproceedtostudythemeritsofthematter.

4.TheFormulationoftheSocialRuleofLawThecase thatoccupies thisCourt raises important reflectionson theconcept,developmentandscopeoftheformulationoftheSocialRuleofLaw.TheSocialRuleofLawwasconceivedbytheConstituentAssemblyof1991anditssubsequentimplementationwasbytheConstitutionalCourt,over the course of 25 years of jurisprudence. This formulationwas implemented, in particularly,towards thesatisfactionof themostbasicneedsofColombians, in termsofhumandignity, socialjustice and general well-being; the protection of the weakest or people in a highly vulnerablecondition, therecognitionofdiversity,ethnic,andcultureof thenation,and theprotectionof theenvironmentandnaturalresources;allofwhich,arefoundingpillarsoftheRepublic.Thus, this section will examine the nature, meaning and scope of the formulation of theColombianSocialRuleofLaw(hereinafterSRL), in the followingorder: (i)historicalbackground;(ii) jurisprudential development of the formulation of the SRL, and finally (iii) some briefreflectionsontheconceptofSRLwillbepresented.HistoricalBackground



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4.1.TheformulationoftheSRLemergedgraduallyinaparticularlyconvulsiveera.Althoughsomeauthorstracetheirfirstbackgroundsinthesocialmovementsandtheworkers'demandsofthe19th century (Forsthoff, 1954,Abendroth, 1977), the fact is the SRLdidnot appearuntil theConstitutionsofMexico(1917)andoftheWeimarRepublic(Germany,1919).ThosetextswerethefirstinthewholetraditionofWesternconstitutionalismtoincludealistofsocialrights.4.2.Morespecifically,someyearsaftertheFirstWorldWar,theoristHermannHeller,whoina famous article entitled "Rechtsstaat oder Diktatur?" (1930), would define the Rule of Law -hereinafter,ROL-inthetermsofaSRLasaformofoppositiontotheoldabstractvisionofliberalconstitutionalism.Atthattime,liberalconstitutionalismwasalreadyconsideredobsoleteandwornoutinthefaceoftheadventofsocialrevolutionsandindustrialization.TheSRLwillintroducethe“social” adjective in the classical conception of ROL to recover the ideas-values to which thisformulation was originally associated when it served as an instrument in the struggle of theAmericans andFrench against absolutism,namely: social justice, equality, freedom, generalwell-being,andevenhappiness.This fact, of capital importance for the modern constitutionalism, constituted much morethantheintroductionofasimpleornamenttotheclassicformulationoftheROL,sinceitevidencedthe deep transformation of the old structure, ROL, in relation to the State-civil society in thepostwarperiod.Theliberalbourgeoisie,severalcenturiesbefore,hadtakengreatpainstoconstructatheoryfollowingtheHegeliantheoryofdualism.Eachtheory,hasclearlydifferentiatedinterestsandspheres, inwhichtheStatedominatedallareasof"generalinterest".The“generalinterest”isunderstood as the overcoming of the contradictory private interests of civil society and as theguarantee of internal and external security of the state organization. These theories wereconstructed without dealing with any issues related to the most basic social needs of thepopulation,forexample,work,socialsecurity,healthoreducation.Thus,underthisStatemodel,anabstractconceptionofthe“generalinterest”andofrightswereimposed,inwhichtheindividual,aspartofcivilsociety,understoodhimselfwith theability toensurehisownphysical,material,andculturalsubsistence.However,everythingwasabouttochange.4.3. It took nearly two decades, a newworldwar and amajor economic crisis for theformulationoftheSRLconceivedbyHellertobeformallyhostedinaConstitution.Ithappenedwiththe Fundamental Law of Bonn in 1949. It is precisely this German constitutional text that willintegrate awhole new form of organization of State-civil society relations; inwhich the State isdefined as "democratic and social" (article 20), governed by the principles of the "republican,democratic and social StateofLaw" (article28) [31]. In thisway, the constitutionalizationof theSRLmodel implied a great transformation, since thatmoment, the State and its institutions arethinkingabouttheobligationofsatisfyingindividualneedsnotachievablebycivilsocietyandwiththat,theconstructionofaSocialStatethat,fromnowon,willwatchovertheprovisionofsuchbasicservicesandbenefits.By posing theROL as a SRL, and linking it to the ideas of reason and social justice,HellerfoundanalternativewaytoovercometheclassicalconceptionofROLandcorrectitslimitationsintermsofnewsocialdemands.ThuswasbornanovelformofstateorganizationthatweknowtodayasasocialStateoflaw,whosepurposeisto"createthesocialassumptionsofthesamefreedomforall,thatis,tosuppresssocialinequality."[32]



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4.4.Inthiscontext,itispertinenttospecifythat,unliketheROLmodel,which,ashasbeenpointedout,exclusivelydealswitha formalconceptofequalityandfreedom, intheSRL,materialequality is a fundamental principle that guides the tasks of the State in order to correct existinginequalities,promoteinclusionandparticipation,andguaranteepeopleorgroupsatadisadvantagethe effective enjoyment of their fundamental rights. In this way, the SRL seeks to realize socialjusticeandhumandignitythroughtheadherenceofpublicauthoritiestotheprinciples,rightsandsocialdutiesofconstitutionalorder[33].The SRL formulation did not take long to replicate progressively in other countries and inotherconstitutions,withsomedraftingandscopedifferences,bothinEurope(Italy,1949,France,1958,Spain,1978)andinLatinAmerica(Peru,1979,1987,Brazil,1988,Colombia,1991,Paraguay,1992, Venezuela, 1999, Ecuador, 2008) and even in some countries that are tributaries of theEnglishcommonlawtradition,suchasIndia(1950)andSouthAfrica(1996).JurisprudentialdevelopmentoftheformulationoftheSocialRuleofLawAshadbeenpointedoutat thebeginningof thissection, thecaseat thistimethatoccupiestheCourtraisesimportantreflectionsontheconcept,developmentandscopeoftheformulationofSRL.Thisisinrelationtotheprotectionoftheweakestorpeopleinconditionofgreatvulnerability;therecognitionoftheethnicandculturaldiversityofthenation,butinparticular,theprotectionofthe environment and natural resources. Next, the construction of the main constitutionalguaranteeswillbeoutlined.4.5. Fromthemomentoftheissuanceofthenewconstitutionalorder, itwasthedutyofConstitutional Court to interpret the content, nature and scope of the new Political Charter: amodern instrument that incorporated - for the first time inourhistory - the threegenerationsofhumanrightsinasinglecatalogofrightsandprinciplesthatisincludedinTitleI.TheFundamentalPrinciples andTitle II. Of rights, guarantees andduties, both ofwhich constitute a constitutionaltoolboxfortheconstructionofaSRL,whichistheultimategoalofColombiansocietyandthestateorganization that, moreover, would be completely meaningless but the new Political Charter isunderstoodasamechanismaimedattherealizationofrights.4.6. OneofthefirsttasksundertakenbytheConstitutionalCourtwastointerprettheSRLformulationconceivedby the1991constituent. Inparticular, ithasbeendoingsosince theearlyyearsof its jurisprudence.Oneof the first judgments thatundertook thementionedclause (SRL)was the T-406 of 1992 [34] -now considered precedent setting- that analyzes and develops thepostulates that inspired the consecration of the SRL as a cardinal principle of our legal-politicalorder;whichradiatestoalltheinstitutionsandstateauthoritiesinordertoachievethepromotionandestablishmentofdignlivingconditionsforallpeople,andthesolutionofrealinequalitiesthatariseinsociety.Inthisregard,itispointedoutthattheprimarychallengeofvaluesandprinciplestranslated into fundamental rights does not lie in their enunciation, but in their application andeffectiveness,whoseguaranteeisattheheadofconstitutionaljudges:"There is a new strategy for achieving the effectiveness of fundamental rights. Thecoherence and wisdom of interpretation and, above all, the effectiveness of fundamental



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rights in the Constitution of 1991, are assured by the Constitutional Court. This newrelationshipbetweenfundamentalrightsandjudgesmeansafundamentalchangeinrelationtotheprevious Constitution; This change can be defined as a new strategy aimed at achieving theeffectiveness of rights, which consists of granting priority to the judge, and not to theadministrationorthelegislator,theresponsibilityfortheeffectivenessoffundamentalrights.Intheprevious system the effectiveness of fundamental rights ended up being reduced to its symbolicforce.Today,withthenewConstitution,rightsarewhatjudgessaythroughtutelaorders."[35]This provision also states that constitutional principles and values constitute the legalaxiological structure on which the entire regulatory system is constructed and oriented. Thisprovision clarifies thenature and scope of the catalog of fundamental rights, establishing that inconnectionwitha fundamentalright it isalsopossibletoprotecteconomic,social,culturalrights,ESCR (Articles42et seq.), collectiveandenvironmental (Articles78et seq.), and thatbyexpresscriteria,alsoexpresstherightsincorporatedthroughtheConstitutionalityBlock(article93).4.7. Since then, the jurisprudence of the Court has continued to develop broadly thenormative postulates of the SRL, as a foundational element of the Political Charter or aconstitutionalprinciple,whichgivesmeaning to theentire legal system.TheSRL isderived fromthe following mandates and constitutional obligations: (i) the commitment for the defense offundamentalprinciplesandrights,andcompliancewiththeguidingprinciplesofstateactivity[36];(ii) to promote real and effective equality through the adoption of measures in favor ofmarginalizedordiscriminatedgroups(articletoeradicatetheinjusticespresent)[37];(iii)specialprotection for personswho, because of their social, economic, physical ormental condition [38],find themselves in a circumstance ofmanifestweakness [39]; (iv) the need for the adoption, byCongress,oflegislativemeasuresthatallowtheconstructionofajustpolitical,economicandsocialorder[40];(v)theguaranteeofrightsthatallowtheenjoymentofbasicconditionstomaintainorimprovethequalityoflifeofpeopleinadignifiedmanner[41];(vi)thepromotionanddefenseofpluralism and the ethnic and cultural diversity of the nation [42]; (vii) respect for the foundingprinciples of solidarity and human dignity [43]; (viii) the best interest in protecting theenvironment through the so-called "Ecological Constitution" [44]; (ix) the prevalence of generalinterest [45]; and (x) the prioritization of any other allocation to public social spending for thesolution of the unmet needs for health, education, basic sanitation and drinking water, amongothers,intheplansandbudgetsofthenationandterritorialentities[46].Theformulationof theSRLthusdemandsthat thestateentitiesconstructandarticulateaninstitutionalreality-basedonanintimaterelationshipofcollaborationbetweenthestateandthesocial sphere - that responds to the fundamentalprinciplesof a just socialorganization.TheSRLthus allowsa solution to theunsatisfiedbasicneeds that shouldbe addressedas apriority, thusovercoming the classic conception of the ROL, inwhich the State did not intervene to attend tosocialneeds.4.8.Specifically,thestatementthatColombiaisanSRLstateimpliesthelegallinkingoftheauthorities to principles tending towards the achievement of material equality, and theeffectivenessoftherightsanddutiesofall.Inparticular,asafundamentalprinciplethatguidestheState'staskswiththegoalofcorrectingexistinginequalities,promotinginclusionandparticipationandguaranteeingpeopleorgroupsatadisadvantagetheeffectiveenjoymentoftheirfundamental



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rights. In this way, the Colombian SRLmodel seeks to achieve social justice, human dignity andgeneral well-being by subjecting public authorities to constitutional principles, rights and socialduties. In thissense, the judgmentsT-426of1992[47],T-505of1992[48],SU-747of1998[49]andC-1064of2001[50],respectively,haveclarifiedthescopeofourSocialRuleofLaw.The aforementioned means that the Colombian State, as a direct consequence of theinterpretationanddevelopmentofthe1991Charter,haseffectuatedasubstantialchangeinvariousmatters related, essentially, to the protection, guarantee and effectiveness of rights: this hasgeneratedawholerevolutionofrightstowardstheconstructionofagenuineSocialRuleofLaw.4.9. Next,abriefcharacterizationwillbemadeofsomeofthefundamentalprinciplesthatcovertheentirelistofrightsthatmakeupourSRL,andwillbeofspecialimportanceforthecasethatatthistimeoccupiestheattentionoftheCourt,intermsofequalityandmaterialjustice,socialjustice,equal justice, autonomy of the territorial entities, pluralism, ethnic and cultural diversity of thenation,humandignity,solidarity,prevalenceofthegeneralinterestandconstructionofthegeneralwelfare.In the first place, constitutional jurisprudence has been concerned with examining theevolutionof justice froma formal toamaterialconcept,which implies therecognitionthat law--andtherefore,institutions--mustaddresstheexistenceofsituationsofnatural,historical,socialoreconomic inequality of diverse groups, collectives, communities, populations and, consequently,with favorable treatment -- translatedasaffirmativeactionsandresources-- for thosewhosufferdiscrimination. In otherwords, the concept ofmaterial equality that emboldens the SRL is fullymanifestedinthemandateofspecialprotectionfortheweakest[51].4.10.Regardingtheprinciplesofsocialandequaljustice[52],theCourthasindicatedthatinrelation to the first, the social nature of the Colombian rule of law implies an active role for theauthorities and a permanent commitment in the promotion of social justice and the creation ofgeneralconditionsofequitythroughpublicpoliciesandinclusiveandeffectivedevelopmentplans.In effect, the defense of the supreme values of the Political Charter then forces the State tointervenedecisively,withintheconstitutionalframework,toprotectpeopleintheirhumandignityand demand social solidarity when it is indispensable, to guarantee the full effectiveness offundamentalrights.In relation to equal justice, it has been estimated that the allocation of the economicresourcesofasocietyshouldtendtoprivilegethelessfavoredsectors.Thisprincipleservesasthebasisforthedesignandimplementationofataxregime,rulesofbudgetpreparation,thehierarchyof spending, and the setting of priorities in the provision of public services. In fact, one of theessential purposes of our SRL model is to promote general prosperity and guarantee theeffectivenessof constitutional rights,dutiesandprinciples,which, togetherwith the fundamentalrighttoequalopportunities,guidetheinterpretationoftheEconomicConstitution,andanimateallareasofregulation,suchasforexample,inmatterssuchastaxregime,budget,publicexpenditure;exploitationofnaturalresourcesandproduction,distribution,anduseandconsumptionofgoodsandservices.



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4.11.Regardingtheautonomyofterritorialentities,[53]theCourthasindicatedthat,apartfromtheState, territorialentitiesplaya fundamentalrole inofferingmaterialaccesstothesetofrights recognized in the Constitution, and in the realization of the SRL. Article 288 Superiorestablishes that the competency attributed to thedifferent territorial levelsmustbe exercised inaccordancewiththeprinciplesofcoordination,concurrenceandsubsidiarity.Thefirstoftheprinciples,stipulatesthattheadministrativeauthoritiesmustcoordinatetheiractions for the adequate fulfillment for thepurposesof the State (Article209), coordination thatmust occur, both between territorial entities, and between those entities and the nation. On theotherhand,theprincipleofconcurrenceimpliesaprocessofparticipationbetweenthenationandtheterritorialentities,sothattheyinterveneinthedesignanddevelopmentofpolicies,programsandprojectsaimedatguaranteeingthegeneralwelfareandtheimprovementofthequalityoflife.Onlyinthiswaywillitbepossibletoadvanceintheeffectiverealizationofconstitutionalprinciplessuchasdecentralizationandterritorialautonomy.Finally,theprincipleofsubsidiarityestablishesthatonlywhentheterritorialentitycannotexercisecertainfunctionsindependently,isitallowedtoappealforthehelpofhigherlevels-suchasthedistrictorthenation-sothattheyassume, inprinciple temporarily, the exercise of their competencies until the situation that led to theapplication of these measures is resolved. This of course implies the understanding that theautonomyrecognizedtotheterritorialentitiesisnotabsoluteandadmitslimitationsliketheonesexposed.4.12. Thepluralist principle [54] is anotherof thematerial values that informs the SRLformulation as an integral part of the 1991 Constitution. In effect, the constitutional textconsecratesan integrationofdiversevalues,principlesand ideologies, at the same time, that theconfluenceofdifferentraces,ethnicgroups,languages,sexesandbeliefsisprotectedwiththeaimof establishing a normative framework that allows tolerance and peaceful coexistence. TheseaspirationsarereflectedinthepreceptscontainedinthePreambleandinarticles1(participatoryandpluralistdemocracy),5 (supremacyof the inalienable rightsof theperson),13 (equal rights,freedoms,opportunities),16(freedevelopmentofpersonality),26(freedomtochooseprofessionortrade),27(freedomofeducation),67(righttoeducation),70(accesstoculture),71(freedominthepursuitofknowledge)and72(protectionofculturalheritage).In the particular case of ethnic communities, whether Afro-Colombian or indigenous,constitutionaljurisprudencehasrecognizedtheimportanceofpluralismintheconfigurationoftheSRL.Inparticular,takingintoaccount:(i)thediversityofculturesandethnicidentitiesthatcoexistin Colombia, (ii) the need to assure them equal treatment and respect, (iii) the fact that they allformpartofthegeneralidentityofthecountryand,finally,(iv)thattheyhavetherighttosubsistandremaininthenationalterritoryindefinitely,underdecentandfairconditions[55].4.13. Withregard to theconstitutionalrecognitionof theprincipleofethnicandculturaldiversityofthenation[56],theCourthasunderstoodthatitrespondstoanewvisionoftheState,inwhich the human person is no longer conceived as an abstract individual, but as a subject ofparticular characteristics, who claims for himself his own ethical conscience. Values such astoleranceandrespect fordifferencesbecome imperativeswithinasociety that isstrengthened indiversity; in the recognition that each individual is unique and a subject that canmake their life



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projectpossible. Inthisnewmodel, theStatehasthespecialmissionofensuringthatall formsofseeingtheworldcancoexistpeacefully.In this sense, the State has to make compatible its duty to preserve peaceful coexistencewithin its territorywhile guaranteeing the rightsof its citizens, andwith the recognitionof theirparticular needs, as members of multi-ethnic and multicultural groups. In this task, the stateorganization is forbidden to impose a particular conception of the world and individualdevelopment, because such an attitudewould undermine the principle of respect for ethnic andculturaldiversity,andagainsttheequaltreatmentofdifferentculturesthatithasrecognizedintheConstitution.Likewise, the Court has indicated that the fundamental rights of ethnic communities arespecified, amongothers, in the right to subsistence,derived from the constitutionalprotectionoflife(Article11);therighttoethnic,culturalandsocialintegrity,whichinturnderivesnotonlyfromthemandatetoprotectthediversityandpluralisticnatureofthenation(articles1and7),butalsofromtheprohibitionofanyformofdisappearanceandforceddisplacement(article12);therighttocollective ownership of land (articles 58, 63 and 329); and, the right to participate and to beconsultedondecisions regarding theexploitationofnatural resources in their territories, that is,therighttoprior,freeandinformedconsultation.4.14.Inconjunctionwiththeguaranteeoftheprincipleofethnicandculturaldiversityofthenation, thisCourthas also expressed thathumandignity [57] is a superior value anda foundingprinciple of the SRL. A principle in which all people should receive the same treatment inaccordancetotheirhumannature,andthatmorethanarightinitself, istheessentialformoftheconsecrationandeffectivenessof thewhole systemof rightsandguaranteescontemplated in theConstitution. In this way, dignity stands as a fundamental right of direct effectiveness whosegeneralrecognitioncompromisesthepoliticalfoundationoftheColombianState.Thismeansthattheprincipleofhumandignitymustbeunderstood:(i)asafoundingprincipleofthelegalsystem;(ii)asaconstitutionalprinciple,and(iii)asanautonomousfundamentalright.Additionally, the Court has established that the 1991 Charter is essentially humanistic,insofar as the entire normative system has been constructed to protect dignity and personalautonomy,notintheabstract,butfromamaterialandconcretedimension:thatiswhytherespectforhumandignityshouldinspireallactionsoftheState.Inthisway,inourSRL,thepersonisthesubject,thereasonandtheultimategoalofpoliticalpower and the entire constitutional order. The Charter not only tends to the person in a formalsense, but in his ontological materiality, adds an indispensable quality: dignity. It is then aboutdefendinglife,butalsoacertainqualityoflife.Intheterm"dignity"predicatedon"human",thereisa quality - or level - of life, which is a qualitative criterion. In that order of ideas, for ourconstitutionalism,itisnotenoughsimplythatthepersonexists;itisnecessarythatitexistswithinaframeworkofmaterial,culturalandspiritualconditionsthatallowustolivewithdignity[58].In this sense, the Court has identified in its jurisprudence three clear and differentiableguidelines on the principle of humandignity as an axiological center of our constitutional order,namely:(i)humandignityunderstoodasautonomyorasapossibilitytodesignaplanoflifeandof



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self-determinationaccordingtoone'sownpreferences,thatis,toliveasonelikesoraschosen;(ii)humandignityunderstoodascertainconcretematerialconditionsofexistence,thatis,livingwellorinwelfare conditions; and (iii)humandignityunderstoodas intangibilityofnon-propertyassets,such as physical, moral, and spiritual integrity, which means living free of any kind ofharassment[59].Insynthesis,inconstitutionaljurisprudence,humandignityhasbeentreatedasanexpressionof individual autonomy, as a manifestation of certain material conditions of existence, or as asymbol of the intangibility of physical and moral integrity. In this context, the constitutionalprovisionaccordingtowhichtheStateisfoundedonrespectforhumandignity,imposesonpublicauthoritiesthedutytoadopttheindispensablemeasuresofprotectiontosafeguardthelegalrightsthatdefinemanasaperson;and these include freedom,autonomy,physical,moral, spiritualandcultural integrity, the exclusion of degrading treatment, personal and family privacy, as well ascertainmaterialconditionsofexistencethattheSRLmustguarantee[60].4.15. Closelyrelatedtotheprincipleofhumandignity,theCourthasalsoreferredtotheprincipleof solidarity [61] under the understanding that it constitutes one of the basic postulates of theColombian SRL. In general terms, it is pointed out that solidarity is that community of interests,feelings and aspirations, from which it emanates, an agreement of mutual aid and a sharedresponsibility for the fulfillment of the proposed purposes: the satisfaction of individual andcollectiveneeds.Theconstituentof1991institutedsolidarityasthefoundingprincipleofourSRL,intherespectofhumandignity,workand theprevalenceof thegeneral interest.TheCourthas indicated that theconsecrationoftheprincipleofsolidarityconstitutesawayoffulfillingtheessentialpurposesoftheState - for which it has been instituted - and to ensure the recognition of the rights of all themembersofthesocialconglomerate.Regardingitscontent,thisCourthasdefineditasaduty,ataxoneverypersonbythemerefactofbelongingtothesocialconglomerate,consistingofthenexusofone'sowneffortandactivitytothebenefitorsupportofotherassociatesorcollectiveinterests.Similarly,ithasbeenpointedoutthatthesolutionoftheunsatisfiedbasicneedsofimportantsectorsofColombiansociety-framedinarealityofdeepsocial,territorialimbalancesandalackofresources - is a commitment from all that appertains to both the State and society as a whole.Hence, solidarity is interpreted as a kind of backbone for the articulation of will towards thecommonpurposeof theconstructionofpeaceful coexistence,equity, socioeconomicdevelopmentandthegeneralwelfareofthepopulation.4.16.Regardingtheprincipleofprevalenceofthegeneralinterest[62],ithasbeenunderstoodasageneral rule, that it allows preferring the achievement of common objectives - within theframeworkoftheprincipleofsolidarity-overparticularinterests,aslongastheparticularinterestis not protected by a fundamental right. Indeed, the Court has repeatedly pointed out that thisprinciple does not imply, per se, that the interests of the majority and the collective well-beingshould be preferred, or that, by virtue thereof, the achievement of common objectives overparticular interests be privileged, since the latterworks as a limit of general interestwhen it islinked to a fundamental right. In this sense, itmust be understood that respect for fundamentalrightsisacomponentthatalsointegratesthecomplexconceptofgeneralinterest[63].



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Thus,theCourthasreiteratedaninterpretationofthisprincipleaccordingtowhich,itisclearthat the simple invocation of the general interest or the need to ensure peaceful coexistence,economicdevelopmentorpublicorder,doesnotrepresentanargumentthatjustifies,byitself,thelimitationandrestrictionofoneormorefundamentalrights.Insummary,ithasbeenpointedoutthatinthestudyofeachspecificcase,theconstitutionalprinciplesintensionmustbeharmonizedandweightedtoresolvetheissueinquestion.4.17. Finally, with respect to the concept of general well-being[64], according to which itcorresponds to the public power to guarantee the satisfaction of social demands in relation to awiderangeofcollectivebasicneeds,whichhasbeentakingshapesincethebeginningofthe20thcentury. It is a direct consequence of themodel of the European "Welfare State". The Court hasindicatedthattheconceptofgeneralwell-beingconstitutesoneofthesocialpurposesoftheState,togetherwith the improvementof thequalityof life of thepopulationand the satisfactionof themost basic needs such as health, work, education, food, security, environmental sanitation anddrinking water. And, in general, an adequate infrastructure that allows for the continuous andefficientsupplyofpublicservices.Becauseoftheconceptofgeneralwell-being,onecandemandthenationalandterritorialentitiesberequiredtodesignandincludespecialattentiontotheseneedswithintheirplansandbudgets,whichmustalsoreceivepriorityoveranyotherallocationastheyarepartofwhathasbeencalledsocialpublicexpenditure[65].

Likewise, ithasbeenpointedout that theState is required,bothat thenational levelandterritorialentities, toprioritize the financingofpolicies,plansandprojects thatcontribute to therealizationoftheState'ssocialgoals:

"Thislegitimacy[co-financingmechanismsofnation-territorialentities]findssupportinthemandatesoftheConstituentenshrinedinArticles366and288ofthePoliticalCharter.The first establishes as essential purposes of the State the general welfare and theimprovementofthequalityoflifeofthepopulation,especiallyinaspectsrelatedtohealth,education,environmentalsanitationandpotablewater,forwhichit enablestheNationandtheterritorialentitiestoincludeintheirplansandbudgetstherequiredallocations,which, inaddition, inwhentheyconstitutepublicsocial expenditure, theywillhavepriorityoveranyotherassignment.

(...) The unitary character that the Constituent gave to the State and the validity in it ofprinciples such as solidarity and community participation, justify the concurrence of theNation and territorial entities in the design and development of programs and projectsaimed at guaranteeing the general welfare and the improvement of the quality of life.Because only in this way will it be possible to advance in the effective realization ofprinciplesalsoofconstitutionalrank,suchas,forexample,decentralizationandterritorialautonomy."[66]

Insummary,theCourthasinterpretedthattheColombianSRLmodelseekstorealizesocial

justice,humandignityandgeneralwell-being through the subjectionofpublicauthorities - inalllevels - to constitutional principles, rights and social duties. In this sense, the concept ofgeneralwell-being is especially important because in its immensity rests the key to the contemporary



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implementationofwhatitmeanstosatisfythemostbasicneedsofcitizens,theimprovementofthequalityoflife,andthenotionoffullcitizenshipinrights.4.18. Precisely, theNobel Prizewinner in economicsAngusDeaton, referring to the origins ofinequality and themodern construction of the concept ofwell-being, as one of themost forcefulways of overcoming poverty indicated that the main objective of the general welfare, in thetwentieth century has consisted in allowing an escape, perhaps the greatest in the history ofmankind, the "escape frompoverty and death" [67].Where it is understood thatwelfare - in itssimplestsense-representsallthegoodthingsthatcanhappentoapersoninhislifeandthatmakehis lifeworthy.Thismeans that the conceptof generalwell-beingmust include, in turn,materialwell-being, understood as quality of life - in terms of goodnutrition, education and safety -, anddecentincome,basedontheguaranteeofastablejob;whereasphysical,psychologicalandspiritualwell-being is representedbyaccess tohealth, culture, theenjoymentof theenvironmentand thelegitimate aspiration to happiness; and in any case, the ability - and also the possibility - toparticipate incivil society throughdemocratic institutionsand theruleof law.Consequently, thiswill be the teleological protection standard that the Chamber will take as a reference and willdevelopinitsargumentationinthisruling.4.19.Thus,themodeloftheSRLdevelopedbytheConstitutionalCourtinthese25yearshasbeencharacterizedbyensuring,ingeneraltermsandaccordingtothepossibilitiesoftheState,abroadcatalogoffundamentalrightsunderthefoundingprinciplesofthesocialjustice,humandignityandgeneralwelfare,threeconceptsthatarecentraltoourconstitutionalisminsofarastheyconstitutethestartingpointtoeradicatewhatjurisprudencehascalledpresentinjustices.4.20. This implementation of the profuse catalog of rights of the Political Charter, whichconstitutes-asalreadywarned-aconstitutionaltoolbox,hasallowedrightstobeexercisedwithsome degree of instrumental efficacy and that any Colombian, regardless of their condition, cancount on a suitable and effective resource to face a highly unequal society, fragmented in itsgovernmental and territorialorganization, andwithnotabledeficiencies in the satisfactionof themostbasicneedsof its citizens. In this sense, it is important tohighlight that it isnot enough torecognize and enunciate the rights so that they can be effective - as Norberto Bobbio hasmaintained-[68],itisalsonecessary,asProfessorMauricioGarcíaVillegashasalsopointedout,"toreducethegapthatexistsbetweennormativeidealsandsocialrealities"[69],sothatfundamentalandhumanrightscanbeguaranteedinpractice(instrumentalefficacy).4.21. Thus, in jurisprudential matters it can be concluded that the main objective of theColombianSRLis,precisely,theguaranteeofminimumconditions-oressentialpointsofdeparture- that allow the development of a dignified life, full in the exercise of rights and in welfareconditions for all Colombians. As already referred to earlier in this section-, represented in theprotection and defense of the principles, obligations and fundamental mandates of the 1991Constitution, it is precisely within this constitutional framework that the case of the ethniccommunitiesofChocó,submittedtotheconsiderationoftheCourtonthisoccasion,representsoneof the greatest challenges for the constitutional judge. A challenge against what has been theadoptionornotofstructuralmeasuresbytheColombianStateintheconstructionofagenuineSRL,whichtheChamberwillexamineindetailinthisruling.



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5. Theconstitutionalrelevanceoftheprotectionofrivers,forests,foodsources,theenvironmentandbiodiversity.Generalcontext.

In a preliminarymanner, it shouldbenoted that in accordancewith theprovisions of the

firstchapterofthis judgment,whichestablishedthegeneraltheoretical-constitutional frameworkonwhichourSRLisbuilt-intermsofitsobligationsandmandates-,thissecondchapterwilldiscussits development, in a concrete way, regarding the constitutional relevance of the protection ofrivers, forests, food sources, the environment andbiodiversity.With this purpose, in this sectionsome considerations will be made on: (i) the natural and cultural wealth of the nation; (ii) theEcologicalConstitutionandbiodiversity; (iii) the conceptandscopeofbiocultural rights; (iv) thespecialprotectionof rivers, forests, food sources, the environment andbiodiversity, inparticularwithregardtothefundamentalrighttowater,theprotectionofnatureandfoodsecurity.Preliminaryconsiderationsaboutthenaturalandculturalwealthofthenation.5.1. Oneofthemainconcernsofthe1991ConstituentinconstructingtheSRLformulationwasfocusedon themost adequate,modern and efficientway toprotect the environment, as awhole[70]. At the same time, the need to guarantee a sustainable model of development, a fact thatresulted in the consecration in the constitutional text of a series of principles, rights and duties,immersed,ofcourse,withinthenotionoftheSRL.Atthesametime,thismodelseekstoachievetheendsmentioned, by allowing humanbeings - the foundation of every constitutional constructionsince theoriginsofmodernconstitutionalism - to liveand interactwithinahealthyenvironmentunthreatenedby theextractiveactivityof the state,whichallowshim todevelophis existence indecent conditions, without the latter being threatened by the extractive activity of the state. Insimplerwords:thedefenseoftheenvironmentisnotonlyaprimaryobjectivewithinthestructureof our SRL, but it also integrates, in an essentialway, the spirit that informs the entire PoliticalConstitution[71].5.2.Inthisorderofideas,inrelationtothenaturalandculturalwealthofthenation,whicharecloselylinked,Article8ofthePoliticalCharterestablishesasafundamentalobligationoftheStateandsocietytoensurethecareofournaturalandculturalresources.Additionally,inthechapteroncollectiverights(articles79and80)andspecificobligations(article95-8),thegeneralparametersthatguide therelationshipbetween thehumanbeingandhis livingenvironmentareestablished:natural, environmental and biodiverse. In this sense, as a consequence of the attributionsconsecratedat theheadof theState, societyand individuals in theabove-mentionedarticles, theobligation to protect the environment is established in order to prevent and control theenvironmental deterioration factors, procuring its conservation, restoration and sustainabledevelopment.

Inthisway,thedispositionandexploitationofnaturalresourcescannotbetranslatedtothedetriment of individual or collective welfare, nor can it lead to damage or deterioration thatthreatens biodiversity and the integrity of the environment, understood as a whole. Therefore,sustainable development, conservation, restoration and environmental compensation, are part oftheconstitutionalguaranteesforthegeneralwelfareandproductiveandeconomicactivitiesofthehumanbeingtobecarriedoutinharmonyandnotwithsacrificeortothedetrimentofnature.Inthisregard,fortheCourt,theenvironmentfromaconstitutionalpointofview:



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"(...) involves aspects related to the management, use, exploitation and conservation ofnatural resources, the balance of ecosystems, the protection of biological and culturaldiversity,sustainabledevelopment,andthequalityoflifeofmanunderstoodasamemberof that natural world. Issues that, among others, have been widely recognized by ourPoliticalConstitution inmanynorms thatestablishclearmechanisms toprotect this rightandexhorttheauthoritiestodesignstrategiesfortheirguaranteeanddevelopment.Infact,theprotectionoftheenvironmenthasacquiredinourConstitutionasocialobjective,whichisalsorelatedtotheefficientprovisionofpublicservices,healthandnaturalresourcesasaguarantee for the survivalofpresent and futuregenerations. Ithasbeenunderstoodas aprioritywithin thepurposes of the State and as a recognition of theduty to improve thequalityoflifeofcitizens"(Article366oftheConstitution)"[72]

Invirtueoftheabove,andbasedonthedifferentprinciples,values,dutiesandobligations

that the Constitution contemplates in terms of protecting the natural and cultural wealth of thenation, the jurisprudence of this Constitutional Court has developed a systemic interpretationbased on the postulates that the Political Charter consecrates in ecological, environmental, andcultural matters. On the one hand, this construction has been called "Ecological, green orenvironmental Constitution", and on the other, the "Cultural Constitution" [73], which will bedevelopedlaterinthesectiondedicatedtotherighttophysical,culturalsurvivalandspiritualityofthe ethnic communities. It is in this context that the constitutional relevanceof theprotectionofrivers, forests, food sources, the environment and biodiversity, as they are part of the nation'snaturalandculturalwealth,makefullsenseintheEcologicalConstitution.EcologicalConstitutionandBiodiversity.5.3. ThePolitical Charter of 1991, in linewith themain international concerns regarding theprotection of the environment and biodiversity, has recognized that the fundamental right to ahealthyenvironmenthasthecharacterofahigherinterest,andinthisway,thePoliticalCharterhasdeveloped it extensively. Through an important catalog of provisions - about 30 in total - thatconsecrateaseriesofprinciples,mandatesandobligations focusedonadoubledimensionaimedat: (i) protecting the environment in an integral manner, and (ii) guaranteeing a model ofsustainabledevelopment,onwhichtheconceptofthe"EcologicalConstitution"hasbeenbuilt[74].

The concept of the Ecological Constitution includes some of the most important legaldevelopmentsfortheprotectionoftheenvironmentthathavetakenplacewithintheframeworkofinternationallawinrecentdecades.MainlysincetheUnitedNationsConferenceontheProtectionof the Environment, the Human Environment in Stockholm (1972). From that moment, theinfluencethat international lawhashadonthenationalconstitutionsinenvironmentalmattersisclear and has been concretized, according to recent estimates, in the express recognition of theright to a healthy environment by 76 nations, and its constitutional consecration in at least 120constitutions that protect a wide range of factors thatmake up nature and biodiversity such aswater,air,land,fauna,flora,ecosystems,soil,subsoilandenergy,amongothers[75].

Thus, in our constitutionalism, which follows the global trends in the matter, theenvironment and biodiversity have progressively acquired valuable socio-legal connotations.



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However, it has not been an easy process. The conceptual evolution of law in recognition of theimportance of "mother earth", and its multiple components in the strategy of sustainabledevelopmenthavebeentheresultofacomplexanddifficultprocessthatstillgeneratescontroversywhen trying to reconcile at the same time three elements: economic growth, social welfare andprotectionof theenvironment intheunderstandingthat thisconjugationallowsthepossibilityofsustainableuseofresourcesinthepresentandinthefuture.In this context, it must be remembered that Colombia has been recognized by the internationalcommunityasa"mega-biodiverse"country,asitconstitutesasourceofinvaluablenaturalwealthon the planet; which merits special protection under universal co-responsibility. Of course, thisconsiderationhasnotbeengratuitous,theInstituteofBiologyoftheUniversityofAntioquiainitsinterventionbeforetheCourt,statesthat:

"Colombia, in its forests, moors, wetlands, dry areas and many other ecosystems, hasthousands of species of plants and animals -evenwithmanymore still in the process ofdiscovery and research-, in addition to an almost unknown variety of microorganisms.Many of these species and some ecosystems present in Colombia are exclusive, that is,endemic, so if they disappear fromour territory theywill disappear from the face of theearth.Thisiswhythecountryhasagreatresponsibilitytoprotecttheseuniqueecosystems,inadditiontohelpingintheconservationofallbiodiversityingeneral.

The conservation of biodiversity is not based solely on the protection of species andecosystems because of their intrinsic value: the survival of human communities isundoubtedlylinkedtotheintegrityoftheirenvironment.Mostofthegoodsweuse(water,food, medicines, fuels, construction materials, etc.) come directly from or need well-functioningecosystems.Inaddition,wereceivemanyotherindirectbenefitsofbiodiversity,suchasregulationofwatercycles,carbon,climateandculturalservices."[76]

5.4. Indeed, taking intoaccount that theenvironmentand itsbiodiversityarepartof thevitalenvironment ofman and that it is essential for their survival and that of future generations, ourPoliticalCharterhasrightlyrecognizedtheimportanceofsaidgoodsand,consequently,ithasbeenconcerned-fromearlyjurisprudence-tosetthebudgetsfromwhichtherelationsoftheStateandsociety with nature must be regulated, starting from specific mandates of conservation andprotection of the environment [77]. These budgets and mandates make up what the Court hascalledtheEcologicalConstitution,adefinitionthat,moreover,isfarfrombeingasimplerhetoricalstatementinsofarasitcomprisesaprecisenormativecontentcomposedofprinciples,fundamentalrightsandobligationsinchargeoftheState.5.5Inthissense,thisCourthaswarnedthatthedefenseofthehealthyenvironmentconstitutesafundamental objective within the current structure of the Colombian SRL. It simultaneouslyrepresentsaconstitutionallegalgoodthathasatripledimension,sinceitisaprinciplethatradiatestheentirelegalordercorrespondingtotheStatetoprotectthenation'snaturalwealth(articles1,2,8and366above);itisafundamentalandcollectiveconstitutionalrightthatcanbedemandedbyallpeoplethroughvariousjudicialactions(Articles86and88)[78];anditisanobligationoftheheadsoftheauthorities,societyandindividuals,asitimpliesqualifieddutiesofprotection(articles8,79,



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95 and 333). In addition, the Constitution provides for "environmental sanitation" as a publicserviceandafundamentalpurposeofstateactivity(Articles49and366)[79].

In this way, the Constitution and constitutional jurisprudence, in harmony withinternationalinstruments,haveoptedforthedefenseoftheenvironmentandbiodiversity,forthebenefitofpresentandfuturegenerations,therebyconsecratingaseriesofprinciplesandmeasuresdirected to theprotectionandpreservationof such legalassets,objectives thatmustbeachievednotonlythroughconcreteactionsoftheState,butwiththeparticipationofindividuals,societyandothersocialandeconomicsectorsofthecountry.Inthissense,theCharterrecognizes,ontheonehand,theprotectionoftheenvironmentasaconstitutionalright,intimatelylinkedwithlife,healthandphysical,spiritualandcultural integrity;andontheother,asaduty, inasmuchas itdemandsfromtheauthoritiesandfromtheprivateactionsdirectedtoitsprotectionandguarantee.5.6.ThemultiplenormativedispositionsthatexistandthepluralisticapproachpromotedbythePolitical Charter itself, make the relationship between the Constitution and the environmentdynamicandinconstantevolution.Inthissense,itispossibletoestablishatleastthreetheoreticalapproaches that explain the superior interest of nature in the Colombian legal system and thespecialprotectiongrantedtoit:(i)inthefirstplace,itbeginsonananthropocentricvision[80]thatconceives thepresenthumanbeingas theonly reasonof there is a legal system,and thenaturalresources as simple objects at the service of the first, (ii) a second biocentric point of view [81]claimsmore global and solidary conceptions of human responsibility, which advocate - in equalmeasure-forthedutiesofmanwithnatureandfuturegenerations;(iii)finally,ecocentricpositionshavebeenformulated[82]thatconceivenatureasatruesubjectofrightsandthatsupportpluralandalternativeworldviewstotheapproachesrecentlyexposed[83].5.7. According to theprevious interpretations,with respect to the anthropocentric approach,beingthemostwidespreadintheWest[84],respondingtoanancientphilosophicalandeconomictradition-whichrangesfromnaturalisttheoristslikeSmithandRicardotoneoliberalpragmatistsas Stiegler and Friedman - that has conceivedman as the only rational, dignified and completebeingontheplanet.Fromthispointofview,theonlythingthatmattersisthesurvivalofthehumanbeing and only to this extent should the environment be protected, admitting the possibility ofcontrolledexploitationofnaturalresourcestopromotestatedevelopment.5.8. Thebiocentric visionderives in first instance froman anthropocentric conception in thesensethatnaturemustbeprotectedonlytoavoidtheproductionofacatastrophethatextinguishesthehumanbeinganddestroystheplanet.Underthisinterpretation,natureisnotsubjecttorights,but simply an object at man's disposal. However, it differs from the purely anthropocentricapproach in that it considers that the environmental patrimony of a country does not belongexclusivelytothepeoplewhoinhabitit,butalsotofuturegenerationsandtohumanityingeneral.So thatwhathappenswith theenvironmentandnaturalresources inChinamayendupaffectingothernations,suchas theUnitedStates,andLatinAmerica, aswellasAfricaandOceania,whichconstitutesaglobalsolidaritythatisbasedontheconceptofsustainabledevelopment[85].5.9.Finally,theecocentricapproachstartsfromabasicpremiseaccordingtowhichthelanddoesnotbelongtomanand,onthecontrary,assumesthatmanispartoftheearth,likeanyotherspecies[86]. According to this interpretation, the human species is just one more event in a long



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evolutionarychainthathaslastedforbillionsofyearsandthereforeisnotinanywaytheownerofother species, biodiversity, or resources, or the fate of the planet. Consequently, this theoryconceives nature as a real subject of rights thatmust be recognized by the States and exercisedundertheprotectionofitslegalrepresentatives,suchas,forexample,[namely]bythecommunitiesthatinhabitnatureorthathaveaspecialrelationshipwithit.

Thisparticularapproach,likethepreviousones,isfullybasedonthePoliticalConstitutionof1991,andinparticular,ontheformulationoftheSRL(Article1above)whichdefinesColombiaasademocratic,participatoryandpluralistRepublic;itisbased,too,ontheconstitutionalmandatetorecognizeandprotecttheethnicandculturaldiversityofthenation(articles7and8).Regardingthe latter approach, the Court has indicated in the recent judgment C-449 of 2015 that theecocentricperspectivecanbefoundinsomedecisionsofthisCourt.Forexample,judgmentC-595of2010notesthattheConstitutionalsodemonstratestheimportancethattheenvironmenthas,toprotect itself and its close relationshipwith thebeings that inhabit the earth. In the same sense,judgmentC-632of2011statedthat:

"Atpresent,natureisnotonlyconceivedastheenvironmentthatsurroundshumanbeings,but also as a subject with its own rights, which, as such, must be protected andguaranteed.In this sense, ecosystem compensation involves a type of restitution appliedexclusivelytonature'.ThisisapositionthathasmainlyfoundjustificationintheancestralknowledgeaccordingtotheprincipleofethnicandculturaldiversityoftheNation(Article7Superior)"[87].(Underlinedandboldnotinoriginaltext)

Inthesamesense,therulingT-080of2015, indicatedthatinthisvein,"theconstitutional

jurisprudencehasservedtheancestralknowledgeandthealternatecurrentsofthought,comingtosupporttheconclusionthat'natureisnotconceivedonlyastheenvironmentandsurroundingsofhuman beings, but also as a subject with its own rights, which, as such, must be protected andguaranteed'.[88]5.10. In this line of thinking, the greatest challenge of contemporary constitutionalism inenvironmental matters is to achieve the safeguarding and effective protection of nature, theculturesandlifeformsassociatedwithit,andbiodiversity[89]notbythesimplematerial,geneticorproductiveutilitythatthesemayrepresentforthehumanbeing,butbecausebeingalivingentitycomposedofothermultiple formsof lifeandculturalrepresentations, theyaresubjectsofrights;thisproducesanewimperativeofcomprehensiveprotectionandrespectonthepartofStatesandsocieties.Insummary,onlyfromanattitudeofdeeprespectandhumilitywithnature,itsmembersand their culture, is it possible to enter into relationshipswith them in fair and equitable terms,leavingasideanyconceptthatislimitedtothesimplyutilitarian,economicorefficiency[90].

Inotherwords:natureandtheenvironmentareacross-cuttingelementoftheColombianconstitutionalorder.Itsimportancelies,ofcourse,inattentiontothehumanbeingsthatinhabititandtheneedtohaveahealthyenvironmenttoliveadignifiedlifeindecentconditions;butalsoinrelationtotheotherlivingorganismswithwhomtheplanetisshared,whichareunderstoodtobeworthyofprotectioninthemselves.Itisaboutbeingawareoftheinterdependencethatconnectsustoalllivingbeingsonearth;thatis,recognizingourselvesasintegralpartsoftheglobalecosystem-- the biosphere --, rather than from normative categories of domination, simple exploitation, or



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utility. This is a position that is particularly relevant in Colombian constitutionalism, given theprincipleofculturalandethnicpluralismthatsupports it,aswellas theknowledge,customsandancestralcustomsbequeathedbyindigenousandtribalpeoples[91].Thus,inthefollowingsection,analternativevisionofthecollectiverightsofethniccommunities inrelationtotheirnaturalandculturalenvironment(thatis,bioculturalrights),willbeexplored.Conceptandscopeofbioculturalrights,towardstheeffectiveprotectionofbiodiversityandbioculture.5.11.Thefirstthingthatmustbepointedoutisthatso-calledbioculturalrights,intheirsimplestdefinition,refertotherightsthatethniccommunitieshavetoadministerandexerciseautonomousguardianshipover their territories -- according to theirown lawsandcustoms -- and thenaturalresourcesthatmakeuptheirhabitat,wheretheirculture,theirtraditionsandtheirwayoflifearedeveloped based on the special relationship they have with the environment and biodiversity.Theserights result fromtherecognitionof thedeepand intrinsic connection thatexistsbetweennature,itsresources,andthecultureoftheethnicandindigenouscommunitiesthatinhabitthem,whichareinterdependentwitheachotherandcannotbeunderstoodinisolation.

The central elements of this approach establish an intrinsic link between nature andculture,andthediversityofthehumanspeciesaspartofnatureandmanifestationofmultiplelifeforms.Fromthisperspective,theconservationofbiodiversitynecessarilyleadstothepreservationand protection of the ways of life and cultures that interact with it. In a country as rich inenvironmental aspects as Colombia, which is considered fifth among the seventeenmost mega-biodiversecountriesintheworld,andwhichhasnaturalforestsandparamosinabout53%ofitsterritory--whichprovideswaterto70%ofthenationalpopulation--andinwhichtherearemorethan54,871animalandplantspecies,341differenttypesofecosystems,and32terrestrialbiomes[92], and including important ancestral cultures. The protection and preservation of culturaldiversityisessentialtotheconservationandsustainableuseofbiologicaldiversityandviceversa.5.12. However, as a legal concept, biocultural rights seek to integrate in one place scatteredprovisions regarding rights tonatural resources and the cultureof ethnic communities,which inourConstitutionappearinarticles7,8,79 ,80,330and55.Inotherwords,bioculturalrightsarenotnewrightsforethniccommunities;instead,theyareaspecialcategorythatunifiestheirrightstonaturalresourcesandculture,understandingthemasintegratedandinterrelated.Inthissense,the IndianauthorSanjayKabirBavikatte,oneof themost importantworld theorists in this field,hashighlightedthat"theconceptofbioculturalrights isold. Ithasbeenwidelyusedto indicateaway of life that develops within a holistic relationship between nature and culture. Bioculturalrights reaffirm the deep link between indigenous, ethnic, tribal and other communities,with theresourcesthatcomprisetheirterritory,includingfloraandfauna"[93].5.13. For its part, the philosophical foundation of biocultural rights is configured in a holisticvision [94], characterized by three approaches: (i) first, combining nature and culture, wherebiodiversity -- understood as a broad catalog of biological resources-- and cultural diversity --understood as the set of traditions, uses and cultural and spiritual customs of the peoples -- areconsidered as inseparable and interdependent elements; (ii) second, analyzing the concreteexperiences over time of ethnic communities, from a perspective that values the past and the



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presentandthatprojectstowardsthefutureinordertoestablishananalysisofthecurrentsystem,orientedexclusivelytoprioritizingtheconceptsofdevelopmentandsustainabledevelopment,withthe aim of helping them to preserve their biocultural diversity for future generations; and , (iii)third, highlighting the singularity and at the same time the universality that represents theexistenceofethnicpeoplesforhumanity[95].5.14.Aswehaveseen,acentralelementwithintheparadigmofbioculturalrightsistheconceptofcommunity -- a term that includes indigenous, ethnic, tribal and traditional communities whoseways of life are predominantly "Based on the territory and those who have strong cultural andspiritualties,withtheirtraditionallandsandresources.Whilecommunitiesarequalifiedbyvariouscategoriesincludingethnicity,sharedresources,commoninterestsandpoliticalstructure,thetermcommunity here is used to denote groups of people whose way of life is determined by theirecosystem"[96].

In this sense, for example, the local, ethnic and indigenous communities that assert theirbioculturalrights,arebasedonthefollowingprecepts:"1.-theconservationandsustainableuseofthe biological diversity of the communities based on a way of life, and biocultural rights mustprotect thiswayof living;2 .-Thewayof life relevant to theconservationandsustainableuseofbiological diversity is linked to land tenure and use, and also, rights to culture, knowledge anddifferentpractices.Biocultural rights establish the linkbetween the communityorwhat is called‘peoplehood’andecosystems"[97].

In effect, these rights imply that communities must maintain their distinctive cultural

heritage, which is essential for the maintenance of the planet's biological diversity and culturaldiversity; theserights "arenotsimplypropertyclaims in the typical senseof theeconomyor themarket, in which they can be an alienable, commensurable and tradable resource; rather (...)biocultural rights are the collective rights of communities that carry out roles of traditionaladministrationaccordingwithnature,asconceivedbyindigenous"[98]ortraditionalontologies.5.15.Inaddition,bioculturalrightshavealsohadahistorical-socialorigin,astheyarose,mainly,as a consequence of the implementation of western models of development and sustainabledevelopment, and their social, cultural and ecological effects on ethnic communities in differentpartsoftheworld.

In this regard, Professor Arturo Escobar, for example, has pointed out that although themainpurposeofthe"globalstrategyforsustainabledevelopment"focusedsinceitslaunchin1987ontheeradicationofpovertyandtheprotectionoftheenvironment,itseffectshavenotbeenwhatwashopedfor.Specifically,heestimatesthat"theconceptofdevelopmentwas-andcontinuestobein great part - a centralist, hierarchical, ethnocentric and technocratic political approach thatunderstands populations and culture as abstract objects and as statistical figures that must beaccommodatedaccordingtotheprogresspriorities.Thismodelofdevelopmenthasbeenconceivednot as a cultural process but, on the contrary, as a universal system of technical interventionswhose purpose is to deliver resources, goods and services to the peoples (judged within thiscriterion)with the greatestneeds.That iswhy it is not surprising thatdevelopmenthasbecomesuchadestructiveforcefortheculturesoftheso-calledThirdWorld,ironically,inthenameofthebestinterestsofthepeople"[99].



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Tothis,headdsthatsustainabledevelopmentasaglobalstrategy"(...)isthelastattemptto

articulatemodernityandcapitalism.Itimpliestheredefinitionofnatureasanenvironment,there-inscriptionoftheEarthascapitalfromtheperspectiveofscience,thereinterpretationofpovertyasan effect of the destruction of the environment; and the development of new models ofadministrationandplanningcontractsinchargeoftheStatesthatserveasarbitersbetweennatureand peoples. (...) This development discourse has been the most effective operator ofrepresentationandidentitypoliciesinalargepartofAsia,AfricaandLatinAmericasincethepost-warperiod"[100].

Further developing this argument, Escobar concludes that in the face of what - in hisopinion - has characterized the failure of the development model, there are other alternatives:"diverseexperiencesworldwidehave shown that theWesterndevelopmentmodel (basedon theconceptionofeconomicgrowth)istheworstoptionforethniccommunities.Toaccessalternativemodels such as post-development, communities need to experimentwith alternative productionstrategies, and simultaneously develop a semiotics of resistance to the modern restructuring ofnatureandsociety"[101].5.16.Ontheotherhand,theoristssuchasBavikatte,BennettandRobinson[102]affirmthattherewerefourspecificcircumstancesthatallowedtheadventofbioculturalrights:(i)thequestioningofthestrictlyverticaldevelopmentparadigm,that is, thatconceivedfromcentersofpowertowardstheperiphery[103];(ii)theadventofresearchworkwithintheframeworkofthe"movementofthecommons" [104]; (iii) the evolution, understanding, development and dimensioning of thirdgeneration rights [105]; and finally, (iv) the development of a specific category of rights forminorities whose purpose has been the protection of the claims of indigenous, black and farmcommunities.[106]5.17. In summary, it can be concluded that the central premise on which the conception ofbioculturalismandbioculturalrights isbasedonarelationshipofprofoundunitybetweennatureandthehumanspecies.Thisrelationshipisexpressedinothercomplementaryelementssuchas:(i)themultiplewaysoflifeexpressedasculturaldiversitythatareintimatelylinkedtothediversityofecosystemsandterritories;(ii)therichnessexpressedinthediversityofcultures,practices,beliefsandlanguagesistheproductofthecoevolutionaryinterrelationofhumancommunitieswiththeirenvironments and constitutes an adaptive response to environmental changes; (iii) therelationships of different ancestral cultures with plants, animals, microorganisms and theenvironment actively contribute to biodiversity; (iv) the spiritual and cultural meanings thatindigenous peoples and local communities give to nature are an integral part of bioculturaldiversity; and (v) the conservation of cultural diversity leads to the conservation of biologicaldiversity, so that the design of policy, legislation and jurisprudence must be focused on theconservationofbioculturalism[107].5.18. Consequently,publicpoliciesfortheconservationofbiodiversitymustadaptandfocusonthepreservationoflife,ofitsvariousmanifestations,butmainlyonthepreservationofconditionsneeded forbiodiversity tocontinuedeploying itsevolutionarypotential inastableand indefinitemanner,astheCourthasindicatedinitsabundantjurisprudence[108].Similarly,theobligationsoftheStateconcerningtheprotectionandconservationofthelifestylesofindigenouspeoples,black



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andfarmcommunities,meansguaranteeingtheconditionsfortheseformsofbeing,perceiving,andapprehendingtheworldtosurvive.

a. Some juridical and jurisprudential foundations for the protection ofbioculturalismandbiodiversity.

InternationalInstruments5.19. Currently, theconceptandscopeofbioculturalrights iswidelyrecognizednotonly intheframework of environmental law but also international law. In fact, a series of internationalinstruments that are integrated into the Colombian legal system as part of the block ofconstitutionality contribute to a constitutional foundation, and the legally recognized intrinsicrelationshipthatexistsbetweenbiologicalandculturaldiversity,whichgivesrisetobioculturalismandbioculturalrights.

The firstof the conventions ratifiedbyColombia in thismatter is ILOConvention169onIndigenousandTribalPeoples(1989)[109].Thisconventionestablishesabioculturalapproachbyrecognizing the special linkage of the ways of life of indigenous and tribal peoples with theterritories and their resources. In particular, article 13 requires States to respect the specialimportanceandspiritualvaluesthat indigenouspeopleshavewiththeir landsandterritories, theagreementcontainsseveralprovisionsthatcovernotonlytheindigenouspeoplesbutalsotheblackcommunities,a fact thathasbeenrecognizedand implementedby thisConstitutionalCourt in itsjurisprudence, as will be seen below. Additionally, this agreement recognizes an integral linkbetween the way of life of indigenous and tribal peoples, their cultural identity and spiritualconceptionwith their territories, and the different forms of life or biodiversity present in thosehabitats.

AsecondinstrumentistheConventiononBiologicalDiversity(1992)[110],ratifiedbyLaw165of1994.Withoutadoubt, this isanagreement thatparexcellencehasaddressedbioculturalrights, not only from a scientific perspective of biological diversity, but also in relation to thepopulations that interact with it. In fact, it develops this latter aspect by recognizing thefundamental role that the ways of life of indigenous and ethnic communities play in theconservation of biodiversity. Likewise, the agreement seeks to consolidate the conservation andsustainableuseof biologicaldiversity, and the fair andequitableparticipationof communities inthebenefitsderivedfromresearchanddevelopmentofbiodiversity[111].

A third instrument is theUnitedNationsDeclarationon theRightsof IndigenousPeoples(2007) which Colombia adopted with some clarifications. In general terms, the declarationrecognizes the right of indigenous peoples to their cultural identity, to be different and to berespectedassuch.Amongitsprovisions,italsorecognizesthatrespectforindigenousknowledge,cultures and traditional practices contributes to sustainable, equitable development and to theproper management of the environment. The recognition made by the declaration on culturalidentityandintegralityunderscorestheimportanceofindigenouspeopleshavingcontrolovertheirlands, territories and resources to maintain and strengthen their institutions, cultures andtraditions.Although thisdeclaration isnotabinding instrument, it isnotonlya referencebutan



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additional criterion of interpretation within our legal system since it comes from the GeneralAssemblyoftheUnitedNations.

Inthesamesense,therecentlyapprovedAmericanDeclarationontheRightsofIndigenousPeoples (2016) (DADPI) recognizes the right of these peoples to self-identification, to self-determination,toautonomy,organizationandself-government, totheprotectionoftheir identity,integrity and cultural heritage, and control over their lands, territories and resources, amongothers.Theserightsstrengthenstheguaranteeoftheircollectiverightsinthehemisphereandtherecognition of other rights, including biocultural rights. In the same sense as the UniversalDeclaration,theDADPI,althoughitisnotabindingtreaty,constitutesavalidreferencepointwithinoursystem.

Finally,theUNESCOConventionfortheSafeguardingofIntangibleCulturalHeritage(2003),ratifiedbyColombiathroughLaw1037of2006,shouldalsobereviewed,accordingtowhichthepartiesmustadoptmeasurestoprotect--andsafeguard--intangibleculturalheritageinareassuchas, forexample,oraltraditionsandexpressions, includinglanguageasavehicleofheritage;socialuses,ritualsandfestiveacts;knowledgeandusesrelatedtonatureandspace;andthetraditionalartisanal techniques of ethnic communities, all closely related to biocultural rights. In short, thisconventiongives rise to importantprotectionand safeguardingof obligations that Stateshave inrelationtointangibleculturalheritage.[112]5.20. In the development and application of some of the international instruments previouslymentioned, such as the CBD, strategies have been implemented in various parts of theworld tobuildbioculturalpractices thatallowprotectingandshaping therightsofethniccommunities fortheconservationoftheirculturaldiversityinrelationtobiologicaldiversity,theterritory,andthenaturalresourcesthatsurroundthem(andof thosenaturalresourcesthatareconsideredpartofthe territory). In this sense, States, populations and local communities that have adopted theconcept of biocultural rights, have achieved a significant change in the protection of theirecosystems, resources, natural species and ancestral cultures, as a result of the establishment oflegalrulescalledBioculturalCommunitiesProtocols.Themainobjectiveistoprovidethenecessarylegal and administrative tools to ethnic communities to defend their rights against third parties(companies, multinationals, etc.), promoting interaction and strategic dialogue between thedifferent actors (state, private or local) that can have an impact on a specific ethnic territory,generally,throughlargedevelopmentprojects.5.21.Theinternationalinstruments,alongwiththecasesandtheregionalandglobalexperienceshere reviewed show the growing recognition of the need to protect the intrinsic andinterdependent relationships of indigenous peoples and ethnic communities with their naturalhabitat, their territories, its resources and with biodiversity. The relationships and particularmeaningsof plants, animals,mountains, rivers andother constituent elements of the territory ineachculturearerecognizedaspartofthedistinctivewaysoflifeofethniccommunities.

Inthisregard, international lawhasestablishedsomeofColombia'sobligationstoprotectthe various formsof relationships that ethnic communities havewith their lands, territories andbiological organisms, and the knowledge associated with their use. And, on the other hand, itevidences the need to develop an approach that brings together in one place the biocultural



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diversityofthenation--thatis,theintegrationofculturaldiversitywithbiologicaldiversity--asthecardinalcriterionofpublicpolicyandnationallegislation.JurisprudenceoftheConstitutionalCourt5.22.ThejurisprudenceofthisCourt,fromitsfirstjudgments,indevelopingthefoundingpillarsofourSRLformulation,hasrecognizedtheimportanceoftheconstitutionalprincipleoftheethnicand cultural diversity of the nation, from different approaches laying the foundation for theprotectionofculturaldiversity.Thecasesandissuesthatthejurisprudencehasconsideredinthisregardhavebeenvariedbut,inall,theimportanceofthisprinciplehasbeeninvariablyrecognized,grantingitapredominantplaceinthedeterminationofmultipleissuesoftheinterestsofpeoplesandethniccommunitiesthatliveinColombia[113].Abriefrecountwillbepresented.5.23.Fromtheoutset,theCourt'sworkfocusedonbuildingthefoundationsofthetheoreticalandconceptualframeworkthatwouldlaterallowestablishingthescopeoftheprincipleofethnicandcultural diversity of the nation in its different dimensions. In this context, a broad series ofdecisions[114]havebeenmade inwhich ithasbeenestablished-ingeneral terms- thatwithinapluralanddemocraticsocietysuchasthedimensionofthe1991Charter, indigenouspeoplesandethniccommunitiesmustberecognizedascollectivesubjectsoffundamentalrights.Thisisbecausethey represent ancestral ethnic and cultural values, aswell as forms of life closely linked to thespecialrelationshipthattheirtraditions,usesandcustomshave--asculturalmanifestations,withtheirterritoriesandnaturalresources.Alongtheselines,judgmentT-188of1993stated:

"The collective property right exercised over indigenous territories is of essentialimportance to the cultures and spiritual values of the aboriginal peoples. The specialrelationshipoftheindigenouscommunitieswiththeterritoriestheyoccupyishighlighted,notonlybecausetheyaretheirmainmeansofsubsistencebutalsobecausetheyconstitutean integral element of the worldview and religiosity of the aboriginal peoples.Thefundamental right tocollectivepropertyofethnicgroups implies, given theconstitutionalprotection of the principle of ethnic and cultural diversity, a right to constitutionalprotectionthatisinthehandsoftheindigenouscommunities."(Boldnotinoriginaltext)

5.24.Similarly,judgmentT-380of1993,reiteratingsomeargumentsofT-428of1992,reaffirmedthat ethnic communities are collective subjects, and in this sense, also holders of fundamentalrights.Onthisoccasion,theCourtspecifiedthat:

"The fundamental rights of indigenous communities should not be confused with thecollectiverightsofotherhumangroups.The indigenouscommunity isacollectivesubjectandnotasimplesummationofindividualsubjectswhosharethesamediffuseorcollectiverights or interests. In the first case, the ownership of fundamental rights is indisputable,whileinthesecond,thoseaffectedmayproceedtodefendtheirrightsorcollectiveintereststhroughtheexerciseofthecorrespondingpopularactions."

5.25. Likewise, in judgment T-257 of 1993, the Court protected the right of some ethniccommunities of the Vaupés, as collective holders of fundamental rights, to be consulted on theconstruction of an airstrip within their territory in order to allow the realization of religious



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proselytizing activities in the region, clarifying that: "a resguardo is not a territorial entity but aformofcollectivepropertyoftheland.ThecollectivepropertythatarisesfromtheresguardoisthedevelopmentofseveralarticlesofILOConvention169,throughwhichindigenouspeopleshavetherighttoparticipateintheuse,administrationandconservationofthenaturalresourcesexistingontheirlands."5.26. Ina judgmentof constitutionalityof the sameyear, theC-027of1993, theCourthad theopportunity to examine another dimension of the principle of ethnic and cultural diversity; thistime, in view of Law 20 of 1974, by which the Concordat between the Catholic Church and theColombianStatewasapproved.Thislawwasdeclaredunenforceablebecauseitwascontrarytotheprincipleofethnicandculturaldiversityofthenation,totheextentthatthenormatissuewasnotonly "integrationist or homogenizing" with respect to a particular religion, but also ignored thedignity and autonomy of themembers of the indigenous and ethnic communities, and thereforetheirdiversityinreligiousandspiritualmatters.5.27.Ashorttimelater,injudgmentT-342of1994,theCourtupheldthefundamentalrighttotheethnicandculturalintegrityanddiversityofseveralnomadicethniccommunitiesofGuaviarewithrespect to aprivate association that sought to continuedeveloping aprocess of assimilation andintegration to the majority society in the same territories of their area of influence. On thatoccasion, theCourtextendedthescopeofprotectionof theasserted fundamentalrightbystatingthat:"Itwouldnotberiskytoaffirmthattherecognitionoftheethnicandculturaldiversityoftheindigenous population is in harmony with the different provisions of the National Constitutionregardingconservation,preservationandrestorationoftheenvironmentandthenaturalresourcesthatmakeitup.Ifweconsiderthatindigenouscommunitiesarealsoanaturalhumanresourcethatis considered an integral part of the environment, especially when the indigenous populationusuallyoccupiesterritorieswithexceptionalecosystems,characteristics,andecologicalvaluesthatmustbeconservedasanintegralpartofthenaturalandculturalheritageoftheNation.Inthisway,the indigenous population and the natural environment constitute a system or universe thatdeservestheintegralprotectionoftheState."5.28.Subsequently,theCourtexaminedinC-519of1994theconstitutionalityofLaw165of1994approving the Convention on Biological Diversity subscribed to by Colombia and by declaring itcomplaint,concludedthatintellectualpropertyinthematterofbiologicaldiversitycannotthreatennorignorethetraditionalknowledgeofethniccommunities.Inthisregard,itwaspointedoutthat"consideringtheenormousecologicalcapitalofourcountry,itisoftheutmostimportancethattheNationalGovernmentgiveitsfullattentionwhendeliberatingininternationalforums,regardingtheconvenienceofestablishinganintellectualpropertyregime.inthefieldofbiologicaldiversity,sincethetraditionalknowledgeofthe indigenouscommunitiesmustenjoyspecialprotection,which, inaddition, is backed by the duty of the State to protect the natural and ecological heritage of theNation(articles8and27CP)".5.29. Inanotherruling, theC-139of1996examinedtheconstitutionalityof the law89of1890thatinsomeofitsarticlesreferredtotheindigenousas"savages"andobjectof"civilization".Inthisjudgment, the Court considered that the integrationist policy of assimilationwith respect to theethnic communities in law 89 of 1890 openly contradicted the ethnic and cultural diversityestablishedinthe1991Constitution,inasmuchas:



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"The terminology used in the text, which when referring to" savages" and "reduction tocivilization", ignoresboth thedignityof themembersof indigenous communities and thefundamental value of ethnic and cultural diversity. A pluralist conception of interculturalrelations, such as that adopted by the 1991 Constitution, rejects the idea of implicitdominationinintegrationisttendencies."

5.30. In judgment SU-510 of 1998, the Court synthesized the principle of ethnic and culturaldiversity indicating that it is a consequence of the democratic, participatory and pluralisticcharacter[ofColombia],andobeystheacceptanceofthemultiplicityoflifeforms,races,languages,traditionsandsystemsofunderstandingtheworlddifferentfromthoseofWesternculture.Inthatsense,theCourtpointedoutthat"fortheCourt,theprincipleofdiversityandpersonalintegrityisnotsimplyarhetoricaldeclaration,butconstitutesaprojection,onalegallevel,ofthedemocratic,participatory and pluralistic character of the Colombian republic and obeys 'the acceptance ofothernesslinkedtotheacceptanceofthemultiplicityoflifeformsandsystemsofunderstandingoftheworlddifferentfromthoseofWesternculture'"[115].5.31. However, in judgmentT-652of1998,whichreiteratedSU-039of1997, theCourthadtheopportunitytoexaminetherelationshipbetweenextractiveanddevelopmentprojectsandthedutyof prior consultationwith ethnic communities. In effect, the Court found that the exploitation ofnatural resources in territories traditionally inhabited by indigenous communities has a strongimpactontheirwayoflifeand,forthisreason,itratifiedtheconstitutionaldoctrineofunificationrelativetotheprotectionthattheStateowestosuchpeoples,andinaveryspecialwayconsideredthatinthosecases,theirrighttobepreviouslyconsultedisfundamental:

"The exploitation of natural resources in indigenous territories makes it necessary toharmonize twoconflicting interests: theneed toplan themanagementanduseofnaturalresources in the aforementioned territories to ensure their sustainable development,conservation, restoration or replacement (Article 80) CP), and that of ensuring theprotection of the ethnic, cultural, social and economic integrity of the indigenouscommunitiesthatoccupythoseterritories,thatis,ofthebasicelementsthatconstitutetheircohesionasasocialgroupandthat,therefore,arethesubstratefortheirsubsistence.Thatistosay,thatanequilibriumorbalancemustbesoughtbetweentheeconomicdevelopmentofthecountrythatdemandstheexploitationofsaidresourcesandthepreservationofsaidintegritythatisaconditionforthesubsistenceoftheindigenoushumangroup."

5.32. Onanotheroccasion,injudgmentT-955of2003,theCourtprotectedtherightsoftheblackcommunitiesofCacarica(Chocó)todiversityandethnicandculturalintegrity,toparticipationandsubsistenceintheactionsofloggingbyDarienCompany,whichdeforestedtheirancestralterritory.The Court interpreted ILO Convention 169 broadly, extending its interpretation to blackcommunities,therebyconsolidatingabioculturalapproachtorecognizethelinksofthewaysoflifeof indigenous peoples, tribal, and ethnic group communities with the territories and the use,conservationandadministrationoftheirnaturalresources[116].5.33.Similarly,theCourthasprogressedintheinterpretationoftheprincipleofculturalintegrity,linking it to theguaranteeofrightsovertheterritory,whichdenotestheestablishmentofaclear



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biocultural approach in its jurisprudence regarding the rights of the ethnic communities. Forexample, in judgment T-433 of 2011, to resolve a tutela filed to protect the integrity, identity,autonomy and collective property of an Embera-Dobida community based in Chocó, the Courtreiterated a series of jurisprudential rules that are to protect the special relationship thatindigenouspeopleshavewith their territories; the recognitionand respectof ethnicandculturaldiversityasaprinciplethatallowsthesubsistenceofethniccommunities, thepreservationof thespiritualvaluethatforallethnicgroupsentailstheirrelationshipwiththelandanditsterritory,anditsrighttohavealegallyrecognizedterritory[117].5.34.Ontheotherhand,theCourthasalsoprotectedtheidentityandculturalintegrityofethniccommunitiesbyspecifyingtheirtheoretical-conceptualscope,forexample,topreventtheimproperuseorabuseofproperanddistinctivenamesofindigenousorethnicidentityinWesternproductswithcommercialpurposes.InjudgmentT-477of2012,thisCourtpointedoutthatculturalidentity"isasetofcharacteristicfeatures(notionofidentity)ofasocietyorasocialgrouprelatedtotheirwayof life, their traditions andbeliefs in the spiritual,material, intellectual and emotional fieldsthatgeneratesinitsmembersasenseofbelongingtothissocialgroup,andthatisaproductoftheirinteractioninagivensocialspace(notionofculture)".5.35. In judgmentC-1051of2012[118],theCourtconsideredthattherulesoftheInternationalConventionfortheProtectionofPlantVarietiesinregulatingmattersrelatedtonaturalresourcesand the collective territory of ancestral peoples may end up affecting Colombian ethniccommunitiesbypreventingthemfromparticipatingindecision-makingaboutthemanagementoftheir uses, customs and agricultural activities, which is contrary to the provisions of theConstitutionintermsofethnicandculturaldiversity.Inabroadersense,thisCourtestablishedthatethnicgroupsrequireterritorytosurviveandtodeveloptheircultureinwhichtheyaresettled.Tothis, it was added that "from this point of view, the use of the natural resources found in suchterritories,throughthedevelopmentofcommonactivitiessuchashunting,fishingandagriculture,isatranscendental issueforthedefinitionoftheparticularanddiverseidentityofthesepeoples',which entails, then, the right of communities to participate and intervene in decisions related tosuchactivities"[119].5.36. Finally, in judgment T-576 of 2014, the Court protected the fundamental right to priorconsultation of several black communities of San Andrés and Providencia, excluded from agovernmentsummonsfornotaccreditingcollectivetitleovertheirterritories.Inthiscase,therightto cultural identity and recognition of the ancestral culture of the black communities as distinctfrom the nationalmajoritywas protected, pointing out in this regard that "what is at issue is toguarantee that the indigenous and tribal groups have the opportunity to pronounce on thoseprojects or decisions that may alter their ways of life, affect their own development process orimpact,inanyway,theircustoms,traditionsandinstitutions”.5.37. In conclusion, it should be noted that both the constitutional jurisprudence and theinstrumentsofinternationallawthathavebeenratifiedbyColombia,aswellasothernon-bindingadditionalinstrumentsontherightsoftheethniccommunitiesoutlinedhere,haveconsolidatedthedevelopmentofacomprehensiveapproachthathashelpedtoprotectboththebiologicaldiversityandtheculturaldiversityofthenation,recognizingthedeepinterrelationsofindigenouspeoples,blackandlocalcommunitieswiththeterritoryandnaturalresources.



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Special protection of rivers, forests, food sources, the environment and biodiversity. Thefundamentalrighttowater,theprotectionofnature,andfoodsecurity

The protection of the environment and biodiversity is a priority and represents a higherinterestnotonlyintheinternationaltreatiessignedbyColombiaandthePoliticalConstitution,butalsointhejurisprudenceoftheCourt--which,inthissense,haspresentedimportantadvancesinthe protection of the rights of the ethnic communities from an integral perspective -- that is,biocultural. Thus, this section will present the constitutional principles of our SRL model thatprotectstwoconstituentelementsoftheenvironmentthat,duetotheirrelevancetothecaseunderexamination,shouldbestudiedindividually:(i)thefundamentalrighttowater(waterresources);and(ii)forestprotectionandfoodsecurity.

a.Thefundamentalrighttowater.Normativeandjurisprudentialevolution.5.38.WaterisofspecialimportanceinthematterunderreviewbytheConstitutionalCourt,sinceitconstitutesthecentralelementforthepreservationofthelifeoftheethniccommunitiesofChocó,fromtwocomplementaryperspectivesasafundamentalright--protectionoftheAtratoRiverandits tributaries -- and as a public service -- guarantee of drinkingwater supply by the ColombianState.

Fromaglobalperspective, it isunderstood thatwateroccupies71%of thesurfaceof theplanetandchemicallyispresentinthethreestatesofmatter(solid,liquidandgas).Thecontinentalwatersthatareinliquidstatesuchasrivers,lakes,lagoons,streams,creeksandgroundwateronlyconstitute1%,thosethatareinsolidstateaspolaricecapsandglaciersoccupy2%,whilethewateroftheoceansisestimatedat97%[120].5.39.SuchistheimportanceofwateronplanetEarththat,withoutitspresence,lifewouldnotbepossibleasweknowit.Infact,allpeoples,culturesandtraditionsfromthemostremoteantiquityin their different cultural, mystical or religious conceptions settled on the shores of largewatersources,mainlyrivers,anddiscoveredinthemafoundingorcreationmyth:Sumerians,Egyptians,Hebrews,Indians,ChineseandevenVikings.ItisenoughtobeginwiththecivilizationsthatsettledinMesopotamia,onthebanksoftheTigrisandEuphratesrivers,whoimaginedtheuniverse-- intheEpic ofGilgamesh, the oldest literarywork of the human species found so far -- as "a closeddomesurroundedbyaseaofprimordialsaltwater"whichwasnothingotherthantheveryoriginofcreation.

FortheEgyptianswhodeveloped,thankstotheNileRiver,"inthebeginningoftimetherewere only immensemasses of turbid waters covered by absolute darkness" that constituted aninfiniteoceanknowntothemastheprimordialoceanNun,whichcontainedalltheelementsofthecosmos.

TheHebrewswroteinthebookofGenesis,theoldestintheBible,thatthemomentspriortocreationoccurredwhen"theearthwaswithoutformandvoid,andthedarknesswasonthefaceofthedeep,andtheSpiritofGodwasmovedonthefaceofthewaters."Likewise, theIndians,who



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dispersedalongtheGangesandIndusrivers,andtheChinesethroughtheYellowRiver(Huang-He),alsosangtheircreationmythsandtheirdeedsinrelationtothem.

For their part, the Vikings -- or Nordic tribes, considered barbarians by the Romans --explaintheoriginoftheworldinatreecalled"Yggdrasil, thegreatashoftheworld"thatspringsfromawellofwaterwhereallthewisdomofthecosmosisconcentrated.Finally,mostfoundationalcosmogonies of our aboriginal tribes explain the origin of the universe through an intimaterelationship between lagoons and rivers, vegetation and animals with a mystical being thatprocreateshumanity.5.40.Now,comingdowntoanationalperspectiveandtothespecificcasesubmittedtotheCourt,it isnecessary to refer tooneof themost important rivers in the country: theAtrato.This river,considered one of themost abundant in the world, begins in the Altos de la Concordia and theFarallones de Citará at an altitude of 3,900 meters above sea level, on the hill of Caramanta,jurisdictionofthemunicipalityofCarmendeAtrato,inthedistrictofChocó.TheAtratoRiver,themainwaterwayoftheChocóduetothegreatflowofitswaters,has150tributaries,someofwhicharenavigable.Theriverhas8ports,themainonebeingQuibdó.Navigablethroughouttheyearin500 kilometers for boats up to 200 tons, it serves as a route for the district’s trade, somemunicipalities of Antioquia, and the port of Cartagena. This river has not only allowed regionalintegrationandfulfillsfunctionsofprovisionoflivelihoodsandtradeforChocó,buthasalsoservedas a reference of cultural identity for the black, mestizo and indigenous communities that havemadeitanditstributariestheirnaturalhabitat.

Withanapproximateareaof40,000km2(24,855mi2), theAtratoRiverBasin is limitedbytheWesternCordillera,theSerraníadelBaudóandtheprominencesoftheIsthmusofSanPablo.Itshydrographicbasinisnotsobiginrelationtothevolumeofwaterthatittransports,butbeinginthe zone of great precipitation in America, nominated the biogeographic Chocó, it has immensevolume. This territory, of extraordinary richness and complexity, is considered one of the placeswiththegreatestbiodiversityontheplanet.Itsfloraandfaunaareimmenseandforthemostparttheyarestillknownandvalued.Itisrichinmineralresourcessuchasgold,platinum,copper,salt,phosphate rock and forest assets. The ethnic communities that inhabit it since ancestral times,mostly black, mestizo and indigenous, have made this basin, as well as the entire Pacific, theirterritory:theplacewherelifeisreproduced,anditscultureisrecreated.5.41. With this introductory framework, theCourtwill reviewsomenational and internationalnormativeandjurisprudentialprecedentsthathavemodeledandreformulatedtheparadigmsthatdeterminethewayinwhichourSRLconceivesnatureand,inparticular,water.

In this context, it is necessary to indicate that although the Colombian legislationcontemplatedfromtheCivilCodeof1887severalprovisionsrelatedtothe"domainofwaters", itwasnotuntiltheissuanceoftheDecreeofLaw2811of1974or"NationalCodeoftherenewableresources,naturalresources,andprotectionoftheenvironment"thattherewas,forthefirsttimeinthe country, environmental-specific legislation. Consequently, the issuance of this decreerepresented, at least, a significant normative advance with respect to the understanding andconsideration of the environment and natural resources from the State.With this objective, theorientationofthelawwasbroadenedinordertobetterregulatetherelationsofsocietywithnature



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in order to take into consideration the implications of social dynamics on biodiversity and theecosystemsthatcompriseit,aswellastheimplicationsoftheenvironmentinsociallife.

Ingeneralterms,theDecreeofLaw2811of1974establishedaseriesofobligationsattheheadof the State in order to regulate,manage, conserve, protect, order, andmanagewater fromthreeperspectives:ascommonheritage,renewablenaturalresource,andgoodforpublicuse.

Later,with theadventof thenewBillofRightsof1991,whichgavewatera fundamentalrole, laws 99 of 1993 were issued, by which the Ministry of Environment and the NationalEnvironmental System (SINA)was created. One of itsmain functions is the special protection ofwatersources(article1),andlaw142of1994establishestheregimeofpublicdomiciliaryservices,andestablishesthatthepublicservicesofaqueduct,sewerage,cleaning,electricpower,distributionof combustible fuel, telephone services (landline and cellular) in the rural sector are essential(articles1and4).Inadditiontootherscatteredregulations,ithasbeenthecustomoftheStatetoincludenewprovisionsregardingwaterprotectionintheorganiclawsofdevelopment,suchasforexample,inLaw1450of2011,bywhichtheNationalDevelopmentPlan2010-2014wasissued,andinLaw1753of2015,bywhichtheNationalDevelopmentPlan2014-2018wasissued.5.42.Incontrasttothenationallevel,theinternationalarenacontainsnumerousinstruments(intheglobalandinter-Americansystemsfortheprotectionofhumanrights)thatestablishtheState'sobligation to protect and conserve water and that constitute an international standard. Forexample,fromtheglobalsystem,inResolutionAG/10967oftheUNGeneralAssembly,Statesandinternational organizations are urged to provide the necessary financial resources, improvecapacities and transfer of technology especially in developing countries and intensify efforts toprovideclean,pure,potable,accessibleandaffordablewaterandsanitationforall.5.43. Similarly, General Comment No. 15 issued by the Committee on Economic, Social andCultural Rights of theUnitedNations (ECOSOC), a body responsible for the interpretation of theInternational Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (PIDESC), is one of the greatestadvancesintherecognitionoftherighttowaterasahumanright[121].Inthis,theCommitteeheldthat access to clean (potable)water is undoubtedly one of the essential guarantees to ensure anadequatestandardofliving,asanindispensableconditiontoavoiddeathbydehydration,toreducethe risk of diseases related to water, and to meet the needs of consumption, cooking, personalhygieneanddomestichygiene.

Additionally,itispointedoutthattherighttowaterisasinequanonrequirementfortheexercise of other rights, while "water is necessary to produce food (right to food); to ensureenvironmentalhygiene(righttohealth);toprocurelife(righttowork)andtoenjoycertainculturalpractices(righttoparticipateinculturallife)".5.44.Thisrighthasalsobeenrecognizedinotherinstrumentsincludingdeclarations,resolutionsorplansofaction,whichareadoptedinInternationalConferencesoftheUnitedNationsorthatareelaborated by organizations that are part of this international organization such as the UnitedNationsDevelopmentProgram(UNDP)orbytheSpecialRapporteurs.



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Thisinternationalcorpusiurisisincludingin,amongothers:(i)theDeclarationofMardelPlata(1977),whichwasthefirstcalltotheStatestocarryoutnationalassessmentsoftheirwaterresourcesanddevelopnationalplansandpoliciesaimedatsatisfyingthedrinkingwaterneedsofthe entirepopulation. It also recognized that all people and townshave the right tohavequalitydrinkingwaterinsufficientquantitytosatisfytheirbasicneeds;(ii)theDublinDeclaration(1992),in which it was reiterated that the right to water is a fundamental right and warned about thethreatposedbythescarcityandabusiveuseof"freshwater"forsustainabledevelopment,fortheprotection of the environment and ecosystems, for industrial development, food security, healthandhumanwell-being;(iii)theDeclarationofRiodeJaneiro(1992),whichwaspreparedinparalleltotheAgenda21ActionPlan,attheUnitedNationsConferenceonEnvironmentandDevelopment,isoneof themain international instruments thatregulate theright towater.Thishighlightedtheimportanceofwaterforlifeandtheneedforitspreservation.Chapter18establishesasageneralobjective to ensure that a sufficient supply of good quality water is maintained for the entirepopulationof theplanet,andat thesame timepreserve thehydrological,biologicalandchemicalfunctions of ecosystems, adapting human activities to the limits of the capacity of nature andcombatingthevectorsofwater-relateddiseases;(iv)theProgramofActionoftheUnitedNationsInternationalConferenceonPopulationandDevelopment(1994),alsomakesaclearreferencetothe right to water in Principle No. 2, which states that: "human beings [...] have the right to anadequate standard of living for themselves and their families, including adequate food, clothing,shelter,water and sanitation"; and, (v) the NewAgenda for Sustainable Development (2015), inwhich universal access to water and sanitation is among one of the 17 Global Objectives. Thereferenceregardingaccess towater(Number6) mandates that theStatesmustunifyeffortsandadoptthenecessarymeasurestoguaranteeuniversalaccesstosafeandaffordabledrinkingwater,provide sanitary facilities, and promote hygiene practices at all levels for everyone by the year2030.5.45. On theotherhand, in the inter-Americansystem,composednormativelyby theAmericanConvention (CADH) and the Protocol of "San Salvador", among other instruments, there is noexpressmentionof theright towater.Arguably,a systematic interpretationof these instrumentswould suggest that this is implicit in Article 4 of the ACHR, because the lack of access towaterprevents theachievementofadecentexistenceorconditionsofwell-being.AndArticle11of theProtocolofSanSalvadorstatesthat,"Everyonehastherighttoliveinahealthyenvironmentandtohavebasicpublicservices"andtheprovisionofdrinkingwaterisoneofthemainessentialpublicservices.Consequently,regionalsystemsfortheprotectionofhumanrights,throughinterpretation,havedevelopedintheirjurisprudenceasetofstandardsrelatedtothisright[122].

Specifically, in the judgments of the Inter-American Court of Human Rights, the right towaterhasnotbeenprotectedonitsown,butinconnectionwiththerighttolife,tohealth,andinrespectofethniccommunities,theirrighttopropertyhasbeenprotected.Inthiscontext,themostrelevant cases refer to threeParaguayan indigenous communities thatweredisplaced from theirancestral territoriesand removed to landswithuncertainnatural resources for their subsistenceandinasituationofcompleteabandonmentbytheState.

Inthefirstcase,thecaseoftheYakyeAxaCommunityagainstParaguayin2005,theInter-AmericanCourt,afterrecognizingthattherighttolife,"includesnotonlytherightofeveryhumanbeingnottobearbitrarilydeprivedoflife,butalsotherighttonotgenerateconditionsthatprevent



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orhinderaccesstoaexistence"notedthattheinabilitytoaccesswateraffectstherightoftheethniccommunitytoadignifiedexistence,aswellasotherrightssuchaseducationandculturalidentity.Inthisregard,thecourtstatedthat:"thespecialeffectsoftherighttohealth,andintimatelylinkedtoit,therighttofoodandaccesstocleanwaterimpactacutelytherighttoadignifiedexistenceandthebasic conditions for theexerciseofotherhuman rights, suchas the right to educationor therighttoculturalidentity.Inthecaseofindigenouspeoples,accesstotheirancestrallandsandtheuseandenjoymentofthenaturalresourcesfoundinthemisdirectlylinkedtoobtainingfoodandaccesstowater"[123].(Boldnotinoriginaltext)

InthecaseoftheSawhoyamaxaCommunityagainstParaguayin2006,theInter-AmericanCourt once again linked access to water with the right to life. In its considerations, the courtindicatedthat:"inthepresentcase,togetherwiththelackofland,thelivesofthemembersoftheSawhoyamaxa IndigenousCommunityare characterizedby the [...] precarious conditionsof theirhomesandenvironment, and the limitationsof access toanduseofhealth servicesanddrinkingwater,aswellasmarginalizationduetoeconomic,geographicalandculturalcauses" [124]. (Boldnotinoriginaltext)

Inthelastcase,thatoftheXákmokKásekCommunityagainstParaguayof2010,theInter-American Court considered that the State had not taken the necessarymeasures to provide theethniccommunitywiththeessentialconditionsforadignifiedlife,sinceithadnotguaranteedtheprovisionofwater,food,healthandeducation,amongotherhumanandfundamentalrights.Italsoassessedthatthelackofaccesstowaterfitforhumanconsumption,togetherwiththelackofaccessto food, health and education, which are considered basic provisions to protect the right to adignified life, analyzed as awhole, led to the violation of the right to life in the aforementionedjudgment[125].

However, this is not the only aspect with respect to which the right to water has beenprotected. The Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (IACHR) has issued a series ofpreparatoryreportsandinvestigationsonthecontaminationofwatersourcesintheterritoriesofethniccommunitiesasaresultofthedevelopmentofextractiveactivities.

In itsreportonthe"SituationofHumanRights inEcuador"(1997), theIACHRreferredtothecaseofapproximately500thousandpeoplefromseveralthousand-year-oldindigenousethnicgroups--Quichuas,Shuar,Huaoranis,Secoyas,Siona,Shiwiar,CofánandAchuar,allofwhomlivedinsectorsofoilandextractivedevelopment--anddeemedtheirlifeandhealthtobeatrisk,giventhat theexploitationactivities in their communitiesornearbyareashad contaminated thewatertheyusedtodrink,cookandbathein,thesoiltheycultivatedtoproducetheirfood,andtheairtheybreathed.

Also, in its reporton "Access to JusticeandSocial Inclusion inBolivia" (2007), the IACHRreferred to the contamination of thewaters of thePilcomayoRiver in the districts of Potosí andTarija. The report indicated that the contamination affected both indigenous peoples and otherethnic and farm communities whose agricultural activities and/or subsistence activities such asfishing, had been seriously diminished given the amount of toxic waste from metals and otherelementsproducedasaresultofextractiveactivities.



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Inbothcases,theIACHRremindedtheStatesthattherighttolifeindignifiedconditionsisincluded in the American Convention, and that people are living in areas bordering rivers andpolluted streams are suffering from grave situations. As a result of the projects of resourceexploitation, itsaid itwastheState’sdutytoadoptall themeasuresavailabletothemtomitigatetheharmsthataretakingplacewithintheframeworkoftheconcessionsgrantedbythem,aswellastoimposesanctionsthatmayariseduetothenon-compliancewiththerespectiveenvironmentaland/orcriminalregulations[126].5.46. Now,wecometotheconstitutionaljurisprudenceinthematter,withconsiderationofthefactthatoneofthecentralproblemsofthepresentcasecomprisesthefundamentalrighttowaterof the ethnic communities of Chocó. The main jurisprudential criteria that have been discussedabove will be briefly reiterated. This main jurisprudential criteria has been established by theConstitutionalCourtinrelationtothisfundamentalrightsincetheT-570of1992andtheT-740of2011 until the C-035 of 2016, following the categorization of access towater established by theCommitteeDESC,thatis,inaccordancewiththeobligationsofavailability,accessibilityandquality.5.47.Infact,inlinewiththeaforementionedprecedents,thejurisprudenceofthisCourthasalsorecognized thatwater isavital resource for theexerciseof fundamental rights forhumanbeingsandfor thepreservationof theenvironment.[127] Inthisway, ithasestablishedthat(i)water inanyofitsstatesisanirreplaceablenaturalresourceforthemaintenanceofhealthandtoensurethelife of human beings [128]; (ii) water is the heritage of the nation, a good for public use and afundamental right [129]; (iii) it is an essential element of the environment, and therefore itspreservation, conservation, use andmanagement are linked to the right of all people to enjoy ahealthyenvironment[130];(iv)therighttopotablewaterforhumanconsumptionisafundamentalright,asitslimitationseriouslydamagesfundamentalguarantees,amongothers,toadignifiedlife,healthandtheenvironment[131].5.48. In the sameway, thisCourthas indicated that the right towaterderives froma seriesofcorrelativedutiesthataretheresponsibilityoftheState,amongwhichthefollowingstandout:(i)guaranteeingtheavailability,accessibilityandqualityoftheresource[132];(ii)issuinglawsaimedattherealizationoffundamentalrightstowaterandtoahealthyenvironmentinallareas-social,economic,political,cultural,etc. -notonly inthecontextofsubjectivecontroversiessubmittedtothe jurisdiction of a court [133]; (iii) exerting extremely rigorous control over the economicactivitiesthatdevelopinsourcesofwater[134].5.49.Thus,theChamberconsidersthatthefundamentalrighttowaterismadeeffectivethroughcompliance with the State's obligations to guarantee the protection and sustenance of watersources,aswellastheavailability,accessibilityandqualityof theresource.Likewise, inorderfortheStatetocomplywiththeseobligations,itisnecessarythatspecialprotectionbeprovidedtotheecosystems thatproducesucha resource, suchasnatural forests,moors,andwetlands, since thelatterareoneofthemainsourcesofwatersupplyinthecountry,especiallyinlargeandmedium-sized cities. The foregoing is of greater relevance when we consider that Colombia has notguaranteed thepermanentandcontinuoussupplyofwater resources forall themunicipalitiesofthecountry[135].



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5.50. Insum, the jurisprudenceoutlinedhere leads to theconclusion thatalthough theright towaterisnotprovidedforintheConstitutionasafundamentalright,theConstitutionalCourtdoesconsideritassuch.Itispartoftheessentialcoreoftherighttolifeindecentconditions,notonlyforwhenitisintendedforhumanconsumption,butasanessentialpartoftheenvironment.Waterisnecessaryforthelifeofthemultipleorganismsandspeciesthat inhabittheplanetand,ofcourse,forthehumancommunitiesthatdeveloparoundit,aswehaveseen. Inthisregard,theChamberreiteratesthattherighttowaterhasadoubledimensionasafundamentalrightandasanessentialpublicservice.Inparticular,thisisofspecialrelevanceforethnicgroupsinsofarasthepreservationof water sources and the supply of water in decent conditions is essential for the survival ofindigenousandtribalcultures,fromabioculturalperspective.b.Theprotectionofforestsandfoodsecurityofethniccommunities.5.51. Regardingtheprotectionofwater, forests,andfoodsecurityandsovereignty,ashasbeenmentioned, from itsearly jurisprudence, theCourthas indicated that theseare intimatelyrelatedand interdependent,which iswhy thepreservationof theenvironment, theprotectionofmarineandterrestrialecosystems,theprotectionoffloraandfauna,theenvironmentaldefenseofanimaland plant species, and the guarantee of food sovereignty are imperative mandates for theauthoritiesandtheinhabitantsoftheentirenationalterritory.Inthissense,asalreadystatedatthebeginning of section 5, these rights are protected by the general clause of the right to a healthyenvironment and by the so-called Ecological Constitution that has had broad jurisprudentialdevelopment. For this reason, first some considerations will be made about the general clauseprotectingtherightsofethniccommunitiestotheirterritoryandtoexistingnaturalresources,andlater, the sovereignty and food security of ethnic communities that has been recently developed,whichwillbeexaminedingreaterdetail.5.52.Ingeneralterms,itwasthisconcernfortheprotectionoftheenvironmentanditsresources,whichledtothe1991Constitutiontoelevatetherighttoahealthyenvironmenttoaconstitutionallevel. The aforementioned environmental protection duty sought to provide the judges of theRepublic with the necessary tools to safeguard the environments that form the necessaryfoundation to guarantee life as we know it, through the preservation and restoration of naturalresourcesthatstillsurvive[136].

Anexampleof such interpretation is in judgmentC-431of2000.Regarding the right toahealthyenvironment,thejudgmentexplainedthat"theenvironmentalissuewas,withoutadoubt,aserious concern for the National Constituent Assembly, because no modern Constitution canwithhold from itsauthority thehandlingofavitalproblem,notonly for thenational community,butforallhumanity;forthisreason,ithasbeenrightlyaffirmedthattheenvironmentisacommonheritageofhumanityandthatitsprotectionensuresthesurvivalofpresentandfuturegenerations"[137].Thus, it isclearthattheConstitutionprovidesacatalogofdutiescontiguoustotherecognitionofrights,whichshouldprogress,sothatintheshortestpossibletimeasubstantialtransformationofrelationswithnature isachieved.This canbeachieved if theunderstanding thatmanhasof theecosystems that surround him from an economic and legal perspective is reconsidered. In thiscontext,theCourthasstatedthefollowing:



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"Fromaneconomicperspective, theproductivesystemcanno longerextractresourcesorproduce waste unlimitedly, subject only to the social interest, the environment and thecultural heritage of the Nation. It should also be limited by the common good and thegeneral policies of the State. On the juridical plane, the Law and the State not onlymustprotect the dignity and the freedom ofman in front of othermen, but alsomust protectagainst the threat that is represented by the exploitation and the exhaustion of naturalresources;forwhichnewvalues,norms,legaltechniquesandprinciplesmustbearticulated,wherebytheprotectionofcollectivevaluesprevailsoverindividualvalues"[138].

5.53. In thisregard, theChambermustpointout thatrecentconstitutional jurisprudence [139]has established that the right to food is a fundamental right recognized by various internationalhumanrightsinstruments.[140]AmongthemainonesistheInternationalPactonEconomic,SocialandCulturalRights(PIDESC)whichestablishesinArticle11.1, thedutyoftheStatestorecognizetherightofallpeople toanadequatequalityof life, includingahealthydietandthe fundamentalrightofeverypersontobeprotectedagainsthunger.

Foritspart,theCommitteeofthePIDESC,asthecompetentbodyfortheinterpretationofsaid instrument, in its General Comment No. 12, established that the right to adequate food isexercised"wheneveryman,womanorchild,whetheraloneorincommonwithothers,hasphysicalandeconomicaccess,atall times,toadequatefoodormeanstoobtainit."ThisGeneralCommentrecognizes that inorder toeradicate theproblemofhungerandmalnutrition, it isnotenough toincreasefoodproduction;itisalsonecessarytoguaranteethatthemostvulnerablepopulationhasavailabilityandaccess to food.Therefore, theCommitteespecified that the right to foodhas fourcomponents:a)availability,b)accessibility,c)stabilityandd)theuseoffood[141].

Ingeneralterms,inrelationtotherighttofoodatthegloballevel,thecommunitiesthataredevotedtothetraditionalsubsistenceeconomies,mostlyindigenous,ethnicandrural,havefaced,ontheonehand,agreatgrowthandtechnificationofthefoodproductionindustry,andontheotherhand, theexplorationandexploitationofnaturalresources for thedevelopmentofmega-projectsthat have endangered their subsistence either by displacement of their territories or bycontaminationofnaturalsources.Consequently,thetwosituationshavecausedadetrimentinthetraditional practices of agriculture and/or aquaculture, causing the isolation of the trade andproduction of traditional food market communities, and with this, an adverse impact on theirtraditionalsubsistenceeconomies.

Thus, theso-calledsustainabledevelopmentmustgohand inhandnotonlywithefficientplanning relating to the exploitation of natural resources to preserve them for the futuregenerations, but it must also have a social, ecological function in accordance with communityinterestsandthepreservationofhistoricalandculturalvaluesofthemostvulnerablepopulations.

It is precisely in the context of the above considerations that the jurisprudence of theConstitutionalCourtregardingtherighttofoodhasbeendeveloped.Asmentionedatthebeginningofthissection,therighttoahealthyenvironment,bioculturalrightsandsustainabledevelopmentare tied to the recognition and special protection of the rights of agricultural communities --whether indigenous, ethnic or farmer -- to work and subsist on the resources provided by the



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environmentwheretheyarelocated,andonwhichtheyguaranteetheirrighttofood.Thepracticesandactivities that they traditionallydeveloparepartof their lifedevelopmentand, insomeway,thatrelationshipbetweenthetrade,thetraditionsandthespaceinwhichtheydevelopandsubsist,constitutesthemascommunitieswiththesameculturalidentity[142].

The Court has examined this issue in some judgments of which a brief recount will bepresented.5.54.InjudgmentC-262of1996,theConstitutionalCourtrevisedLaw243of1995"BymeansofwhichtheInternationalAgreementfortheProtectionofPlantVarietiesisapproved".Inthisruling,theCourtconsideredthatitwasnecessarytoprotectthetraditionalproductionpracticesofethniccommunities,suchasindigenous,blackandfarmcommunities,becauseofthespecialrelationshipthat exists between them and the natural resourceswithwhich they exercise their trade --withparticular attention to the imperative constitutional duty to safeguard and preserve the culturalandbiologicaldiversityoftheNation.

Additionally,theCourtestablished,asanimportantcriterion,thesubsistencerelationshipthatethnicandfarmcommunitieshavewithnaturalresources,andinthatregard,theCourtdrewattention for theneed forprojectsordecisionsonsustainabledevelopment to takeplaceand forattention to be paid to the interests of these communities when their food depends on theresourcestheytraditionallyexploitandproduce.5.55. Another decision that has a special relevance is judgment T-574 of 1996, in which wasrecognizedaaccióndetutelafiledbyanAfro-ColombiancommunityoffishermenfromSalahonda(Nariño). The fishermen alleged the violation of their rights to freedom of trade and themarineecology,duetotheharmfulconsequencesthatweregeneratedbythedumpingofoilinthewaterswheretheydevelopedtheirfishingtrade.ThedumpingofoilwascausedbythelackofmaintenanceofunderwaterhosesownedbythecompanyEcopetrolS.A.Inthiscase,theCourtindicatedthattheState should guarantee the participation of the community in decisions that may affect theenvironment in order toprotect the ecological and social diversity and integrity, and toplan themanagement and use of natural resources, guarantee their sustainable development, and theirconservation,restorationorreplacement.

To thatextent, theCourtconcluded thatsustainabledevelopment isaprocess to improveeconomic and social conditions andmaintain natural resources and diversity and that it shouldstrive to ensure social sustainability which "aims to raise the development of the control thatpeople have over their lives and to maintain the identity of the community” and culturalsustainability,which"requires thatdevelopmentbecompatiblewith thecultureandvaluesof theaffectedpeoples".5.56. Finally, in judgments T-348 of 2012 [143] andT-606 of 2015 [144], the concept of foodsovereignty was protected in vulnerable communities, from the perspective of the ethnic,indigenousandruralcommunitiesthatsubsistoncultivation,productionanddistributionof foodobtained fromnature,and inparticular, that: "foodsovereignty includes,notonly the freewillofStates and peoples to determine their food production processes; it also implies that theseproduction processes guarantee the respect and preservation of artisanal and small-scale



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productioncommunities, inaccordancewiththeirownculturesandthediversityof the farmandfishingmodes".5.57.Ontheotherhand,itshouldbenotedthatbothconstitutionaljurisprudenceandthatoftheInter-AmericanSystemhaveestablished that therightofethniccommunitiesover theirancestralterritoriesgoesbeyonddemarcationandincludestherighttheyhavetotheuseandrespectnaturalresources,suchasforests,animals,rivers, lakesandlagoons.Inthisway,accesstotheirancestrallandsandtheuseandenjoymentoftheresourcesfoundinthemisdirectlylinkedtoobtainingfoodandaccesstocleanwater[145].

Inparticular, theInter-AmericanCourthas foundthatnaturalwatersourcesareoftentheonlyplaceswhereindigenouspeoplescanaccessthiselementandevenobtainmanyoftheirfoods.In effect, this Court recognized in the case of the Saramaka People against Suriname (2007) theimportanceof cleanwater so that indigenousand tribalpeoplescancarryoutessentialactivitiessuchasfishing.Thus,itisthedutyoftheStatestoprotecttheindigenousterritoryfromextractiveactivities that damage their right to property and subsistence. Although this does notmean thatthese activities cannot be carried out, it must be borne inmind that the property of the ethniccommunitiesandtheirresourceswarrantspecialprotection,whichcertainly includestheright towater,theprotectionofforestsandfood.

In this regard, the Inter-American Court has indicated that extractive activities, such aslogging,canseriouslyaffectsourcesofwaterforconsumptionsuchasriversorstreams.Asaresult,Stateshaveanobligationtoensurethattheseactivitiesdonotdamagedrinkingwatersourcessothatmembersofethniccommunitieshaveaccesstowaternecessaryfordrinking,cooking,bathing,washing,irrigating,wateringandfishing.[146].5.58. Asabrief conclusionof this section, it shouldbepointedout thatboth the constitutionaljurisprudenceandtheinstrumentsofinternationallawthathavebeenratifiedbyColombia,aswellas other non-binding additional instruments on the rights of indigenous peoples and ethniccommunities,haveconsolidatedthedevelopmentofacomprehensiveapproachtoprotectionthathas helped to protect both the biological diversity and the cultural diversity of the nation,recognizingthedeepinterrelationsofindigenouspeoplesandblackcommunitieswiththeterritoryandnaturalresources.

Inthissamesense,bioculturaldiversityisbasedinanecocentricperspectivewhichimpliesthat policies, norms and interpretations about biodiversity conservation recognize the link andinterrelationthatexistsbetweencultureandnature.Thepolicies,norms,andinterpretationsimplythe participation of ethnic communities in the definition of public policies and regulatoryframeworks,andguaranteetheconditionsconducivetothegeneration,conservation,andrenewaloftheirknowledgesystems,withintheframeworkofaSRL.

In sum, the importance of the biological and cultural diversity of the nation for the nextgenerationsandthesurvivaloftheplanet,imposesontheStatestheneedtoadoptcomprehensivepublic policies on conservation, preservation and compensation that reflect the interdependencebetween biological and cultural diversity. In this way, biocultural diversity represents the most



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integral and comprehensive approach to ethnic and cultural diversity in the face of effectiveprotection.6.Righttophysical,culturalandspiritualsurvivalofethniccommunities.Territorialandculturalrights.6.1. Beforecontinuingwiththeanalysis, theChamberconsiders itpertinent torefer inabriefhistoricalnotetothewayinwhichtheethniccommunitiessettledintheregionthatisthesubjectofthepresent case. Thehistorical note is pursuant to the report of factsmadeby the communitiesthemselves in the judicial inspection, which was carried out in Quibdó and the Department ofAnthropologyoftheUniversidaddeLosAndes.Subsequently,theChamberwillcontinuewiththeproposedanalysisregardingtheterritorialandculturalrightsoftheethniccommunities.6.2.InthecaseofChocó,thesettlementofruralareas,mainlyduringthenineteenthcentury,wasdispersedalongtheriversthatflowthroughouttheregion.Thesettlementsmaketheriveracentralspaceinalltheeconomic,domesticandsocio-culturalactivitiesofthelocalinhabitants."Eventheriveristhemainfactorofculturalidentityinthisregion"[147].

According to the aforementioned report, the houses have been built on stilts along therivers.Alltransportisbasedonmobilitybythesemeans.Whilefishingisoneofthemostimportantproductivepracticesforlocalfood,itisalsoasourceofincome.Thewomenwashtheclothesandthekitchenutensilsintheriverandfromtheretheycollectthewatertoconsume.Forchildren,itisthemain place for recreation and socialization: "the river becomes the social space of everydayhumaninteractionsinsofarasitconstitutesthesymbolicreferenceofidentityoftheindividualsandof the groups that live on its shores"[148]. Likewise, the river is the most important of thegeographicalreferences.Theoriginofeachperson is indicatedbytheriver fromwhichone lives.Morethanreferringtoatownorvillage,whatismentionedistheriver.Ineffect,thereisacloseandintimaterelationshipbetweentheindividualandtheriver,whichisobservedinexpressionssuchas"hedoesnotliketoleavehisriver”or“whenIreturntomyriver"[149].Inthisconfigurationtheriver represents a notion of home, a strong feeling of belonging full of symbolic, territorial andculturalvalues.6.3. As a complement to the foregoing, it should be added that the Constitutional Court, inrepeatedjurisprudence,hasrecognizedthatindigenous,tribalandAfro-ColombianpeopleshaveaconceptofterritoryandnaturethatisalientothelegalcanonsofWesternculture[150].Forthesecommunities, as we have seen, the territory -- and its resources -- is intimately linked to itsexistence and survival from the religious, political, social, economic and even ludic perspectives.Therefore, it is not an object of dominion but an essential element of the ecosystems andbiodiversitywithwhichtheyinteractonadailybasis(eg,riversandforests).That iswhy, fortheethnic communities, the territorydoesnot fall on a single individual -- as it is understood in theclassical conception of private law-- but above all the human group that inhabits it, so that itacquiresaneminentlycollectivecharacter.

Ontheotherhand,itcannotbeoverlookedthatfortheethniccommunities,theterritories--particularly,thosethathavesettledancestrally--andthenaturalresourcespresentinthem,donothaveavalueineconomicormarketterms.Onthecontrary,theyarecloselylinkedtotheirexistence



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and survival as culturally differentiated groups, from religious, political, social and economicperspectives.Forthisreason,therecognitionoftherightstoproperty,possession,anduseoflandsandterritoriesoccupiedancestrallyandcollectivelyisessentialfortheirpermanenceandsurvival.6.4.Forexample,injudgmentSU-383of2003,theCourtreiteratedtheimportanceofthespecialrelationship that ethnic communities have with their territories. The Court indicated that theterritorial conception of indigenous and tribal peoples does not agree with the vision of spatialordering that operates in the rest of the Colombian nation, "because for the indigenous,territorialityisnotlimitedonlytoanoccupationandappropriationoftheforestanditsresources.Since the history of social relations transcends the empirical level and leads to techniques andstrategiesofenvironmentalmanagement,itcannotbeunderstoodwithoutthesymbolicaspectstowhichtheyarelinked,andwhicharearticulatedinotherdimensionsthatWesternsciencedoesnotrecognize"[151].6.5. Similarly, in the rulingT-955of2003, thisCourt indicated that the conceptof "collectiveterritory", including the natural resources that make it up, is also applicable to the blackcommunities.ThisisbecausetherightofthesecommunitiesovertheircollectiveterritoryisbasedonthePoliticalCharterandILOConvention169,withoutprejudicetothedelimitationoftheirlandsreferredtoinLaw70of1993,"insofarasitisdefinitiveandindispensableforthesecommunitiestobeabletoexercisetheircivilactionstowhichtheconstitutionalrecognitiongivesrise".

Tothis,theCourtaddedthatthecollectivepropertyrightinquestionincludes,"theabilityofblackcommunitiestouse,enjoy,anddisposeoftherenewablenaturalresourcesexistingintheirterritories,withthecriteriaofsustainability.Thatistosaythat,since1967,underthetermsofLaw31, the national black communities, as tribal peoples, were recognized as having the right tocollectiveownershipof the territories theyoccupyancestrally and, therefore, the facultiesofuseandexploitationoftheirlandsandforests.Theexploitationoflandandforests,byministryofthelaworpriorauthorizationof theenvironmentalauthority,canbedoneby theblackcommunitiesunderthetermsoftheNaturalResourcesCode"[152].6.6.Additionally,theInter-AmericanCourtinrelationtothecollectiveconceptoftheownershipoftheterritoriesofethniccommunities,inthecaseoftheMayagna(Sumo)AwasTingniCommunity(2001),determinedthatthecommunalconceptoftheland--includingasaspiritualplace--anditsnatural resources are part of its customary law. The communities’ connectionwith the territory,even if it isnotwritten, integrates theirdaily life,andtheveryright tocommunalpropertyhasacultural dimension. In short, the habitat is an integral part of their culture, transmitted fromgenerationtogeneration[153].6.7. Thus, having described the deep and special relationship between ethnic communities,natural resources, territory and culture,wewillmake some observations aboutwhat ColombianconstitutionalismhascalledtheCulturalConstitution.

Theobligationofprotectionanddefenseof thenation'sculturalheritage isan imperativeforpublic authorities andeven for individuals. In this regard, thisCourthas argued that culturalidentityisthemanifestationofthediversityofcommunitiesandtheexpressionofhumanandsocial



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wealth,which isan instrumentofconstructionandconsolidationoforganizedsocieties,aimedatimprovingtheirrelationships.6.8.Culturewasrecognizedbythe1991Constituentasapillarthatrequiresspecialprotection,promotion and dissemination of the State. The set of constitutional norms that protects culturaldiversityasa fundamentalvalueof theColombiannation isbroad, thusestablishingtheso-calledaxis of the "Cultural Constitution",which, like the ecological part of a systematic, axiological andfinalistinterpretation,comprisesthevariousprovisionstowhichtheCourtreferredinjudgmentC-742of2006[154].

ThecorpusiurisofprovisionsthatintegratetheconceptoftheCulturalConstitutionshowsthat, indeed, the protection of the nation's cultural heritage has special relevance in theConstitution.Insofarasit,thenation’sculturalheritage,constitutesasignorexpressionofhumanculture,ofatime,ofcircumstancesorlifepatternsthatarereflectedintheterritory,butthatexceedits limitsanddimensionsof itstime.Then,thestatesafeguardingofthenation'sculturalheritagemakessensebecause,afteraprocessofformation,transformationandappropriation,itexpressestheidentityofasocialgroupinahistoricalmoment.

Similarly,althoughArticles8and70Superior,enshrinedthedutyoftheStatetoprotecttheculturalwealthoftheNationandpromoteandencourageaccesstothecultureofallcitizens,thereare no precise formulas to reach that goal. Thus, it must be understood that the ConstituentAssemblyleftthelegislatorortheexecutiveinchargeofthatregulation.6.9. Fromthesereferences,wecanseehowthemodelimplementedinthe1991CharterfavorstherecognitionoftheCulturalConstitution--thatincludesideas,beliefs,behaviors,myths,feelings,attitudes,acts,customs,institutions,codes,goods,artisticformsandlanguagesofallthemembersof society; inotherwords, thenation's culturalwealth. In this sense, it is convenient to reiteratewhatwasexpressedbythisCourtinthejudgmentC-639of2009,inwhichitstatedthefollowing:

"The term cultural rights refers to the subclass of human rights in the field of Economic,SocialandCulturalRights,which includes fundamental rightsand freedoms, rightsofbenefitandconstitutionaldeterminationsoftheState'saimsinculturalmatters;whosepretenseisthesearchforone'spersonalandcollectiveidentitythatplacesthepersonintheirexistentialenvironmentinterms of their past (tradition and conservation of their historical and artistic heritage), present(admiration, creation and cultural communication) and future (education and cultural progress,scientificandtechnicalresearch,andtheprotectionandrestorationoftheenvironment)".

In connectionwith this, , it is appropriate toaffirm that the step towardsaSocialRuleofLawaxiomaticallyimpliestherecognitionandimplementationoftheso-calledEconomic,SocialandCulturalRights(ESCR).6.10.Prerogativesthatfindsupportininternationaltools,whichconstituterelevantinterpretivecriteria for the determination of content of the right to culture. Such a tool like the UniversalDeclaration on Cultural Diversity (2001),which recognizes that culture is composed of differentformsthroughtimeandspace,andthatthisculturaldiversityisthecommonheritageofhumanity.Theseculturalrightsarereflectedinandinturnreflectuniversalandinseparablehumanrights.



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Inthisregard,theCourtinjudgmentC-434of2010statedthatGeneralCommentNo.21of

theCommitteeonEconomic,SocialandCulturalRights(CESCR),concerningtherightofallpersonsto take part in cultural life, recognizes that the full promotion and respect of cultural rights isessentialforthemaintenanceofhumandignityandforsocialinteractionbetweenindividualsandcommunities inadiverseandmulticulturalworld.Thisdocumentalsoclarifies that the followingobligations of the State derive from the right to participate in cultural life - Article 15 of theInternationalCovenantonEconomic,SocialandCulturalRights(PIDESC):

"(i)not obstruct participation, (ii) ensure conditions for participation, (iii) facilitate suchparticipation,and(iv)promotecultural life,accessandprotectionofculturalproperty.Tothisitaddsthattherighttoparticipateinculturallifeincludes(a)therighttoparticipateinculturallife,(b)therighttoaccessit,and(c)therighttocontributetoitsdevelopment.Inconclusion,theCommitteeindicatesseveralconditionsnecessaryfortherealizationoftheright in an equitable manner and without discrimination: availability, accessibility,acceptability,adaptabilityandsuitability(cultural)."

Fromtheseprovisionsanddocuments,wecandeducetheconstitutionalrecognitionofthe

right to culture, which imposes on the State, among others, the obligations to respect, protect,promote and guarantee the equal access, participation and contribution of all to culture; all ofwhichistobedoneintheframeworkofrecognitionandrespectforethnicandculturaldiversity.Theseobligationshavealsobeencalledculturalrights.

In this sense, for the Court it is clear that the concept of a Cultural Constitution is asubstantialpartoftheconfigurationoftheSocialRuleofLaw.TheCulturalConstitutionentailsthemandate toprotect theright tocultureasaguarantee thatdeterminesvaluesandreferencesnotonlyforthosewhobelongtothepresent,butasamechanismofconstantdialoguewiththepastandthefuturegenerations,andtheirhistory.6.11. In conclusion, it is important to highlight that in the constitutional protection of cultureincludes all the Colombian ethnic communities, their ways of life, their customs, languages andancestral traditions, aswell as their cultural and territorial rights and thedeep relationship thatthese communities havewith nature. In the case under review, these communities are allegedlybeing threatened by the intensive activities of illegalminingwith toxic chemical substances andheavymachinery in theAtratoRiverBasin, tributaries, and forestsand in the territoriesofblackand indigenouscommunities. If so, thismineralexploitationwouldput in imminentrisknotonlytheirphysicalexistence,theperpetuationandreproductionoftheancestraltraditionsandculture,butalsothehabitatandthenaturalresourcesoftheplacewheretheidentityofthecommunitiesisbuilt,strengthenedanddevelopedactingasethnicgroups.

7. Mining and its effects on water, the environment and human populations:precautionaryprincipleinenvironmentalandhealthmatters.ThecaseoftheethniccommunitiesofChocóthatinhabittheBasinoftheAtratoRiver.

Afterhavingexaminedintheprevioussectiontheconstitutionalrelevanceoftheprotection

of rivers, forests, food sources, the environment and biodiversity in relation to the territory and



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cultureofethniccommunities,thissectionwilladdressminingactivity,first,asastatedevelopmentstrategy (as amining-energy policy) and subsequently, in a concretemannerwith respect to itsexecution in the district of Chocó. Thus, the proposed analysis will focus on (i) the historicalpanoramaofmininginColombia;(ii)mininginChocó;and(iii)theapplicationoftheprecautionaryprincipleinenvironmentalandhealthmatters.HistoricalpanoramaofminingactivityinColombia.Background.7.1.Withintheframeworkofthisanalysis,wheretheChamberhasspecifiedthespecialscopeofprotection that our Constitution grants to the environment, natural resources, and ethniccommunities,itisalsonecessarytoexamine,pursuanttothecaseunderreview,theconstitutionalstandards under which the social, historical, and environmental impact of the execution of theextractivelegalandillegalminingactivitieswillbeanalyzedandevaluated.

Indeed, mining activity - legal and illegal - raises important questions not only at thenationallevelbutalsoattheinternationallevelduetothedeepconstitutionaltensionthatitposesinn general terms, between the right to development of States and respect for the fundamentalrights of communities where such projects are developed. In this regard, and from a globalperspective,ProfessorJulioFierroMoraleshasindicatedthatinthiskindofanalysisthefollowingreflectionshouldbeconsidered:

"Mining in Colombia must be analyzed from the geostrategic perspective, in which theworld can be divided in terms of the globalmarket into two types of countries: a GlobalNorth which includes countries with high growth rates and immediate needs for rawmaterials tobetransformedandused inhighlyspecialized internalmarketsandexportedwithhighaddedvalue.AndaGlobalSouthtowhichpoorcountriesbelong,generallywithhighratesofinequalityinthedistributionofincome,whichsupplyrawmaterialsinmarketspredominantlymanagedbycompaniesbelongingtothefirstgroupofcountries."[155]

7.2.Inthissense,itshouldbenotedthatifthereisaprocessthatisrootedinthedevelopmentalhistoryofColombia,itisthatofmining,whichbeganwiththeestablishmentoftheSpanishminingcoloniesonthemainlandinAmerica.ThefirstofthesewasinthegoldminesofVeraguas(Panama,1507),andthesecond,whichwascalledSantaMaríadelaAntiguadelDariéninthenorthofChocó,in 1510 [156],whichwas followed by the construction of some additional ports to facilitate thetraffic of slaves and gold in Cumaná (1520), Santa Marta (1525) and Coro (1527). From thismoment, the Spaniards began to organize themost diverse expeditions from Europe [157], firstwiththemysticalgoaloffinding"ElDorado",foundedontheimaginarymedievalgoldcitiesofthenorthern Andes, and later, with the purpose of exploiting all possible natural and mineralresources, especially gold and platinum found in the mines, and reducing the indigenouspopulationstoEuropeaninterests,andintroducingslaverythroughtraffickingAfricanpeoplesandcultures.Inthisquest,theyalsofoundemeraldsandsalt,aswellasgolddepositswhich,althoughtheydidnotcorrespondwiththatsourceofinfinitewealththattheSpaniardssolongedfor,werestillsufficienttoestablishanextractiveindustrythatdefinespartofthesocio-culturalconfigurationofourcountrybasedonblacklabor[158].



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In this context,NewGranadawas the largestproducerofgold in theSpanishEmpireandwas the first in theworld until the discovery ofMinas de Gerais (Brazil) at the end of the 16thcentury.Mining production in the colonywas dominated byNew Spain (Mexico) and Peru,withtheir immeasurable silvermines, and byNewGranada and its large production of gold and to alesser extent, silver [159]. Such was the mining importance that our country had, that it wasrecordedalongwithpresentdayEcuadorandPeruinthefirstprintedmapoftheregion,of1584,thatisknownasthePeruviaeAuriferaeRegionisTypus,whichcontinuestobearevealingrecordofColombia'sdeepgold identity--acountryrich innaturalresourcesandminerals,whichfromtheearliest stageof thecolony,alreadyhadmines throughout its territory. In fact, theminesofNewGranada--bothveinandalluvium--werelocatedespeciallyinthereefsoftheCentralandWesternCordilleras,inthebanksoftheriversthatflowtowardsthePacific(theAtratoandSanJuanrivers),Cauca(theCaucariverbasin)andMagdalena(thehighandmiddleregionsoftheMagdalenaRiver)[160].

OftheseNewGranadaterritories,oneinparticularacquiredgreatnotorietyasasourceofgoldandwealth:Chocó.So, itwas inevitablethatstoriesweretold,andmythspasseddownfromgenerationtogenerationthatsangthefabuloustreasuresthatthisterritoryhidinherland,inhertrees,inhermountainsandinherwaters(rivers),whichmadeitextremelyattractiveformultipleinterestsofthetimeandinthecenturiestocome.Sincethen,thisdistricthasbeenlinkedtomining,asifbothwerepartofthesameindissolubleunion.VariousaspectsofthiswillbeexplainedinthesectionbelowdedicatedtomininginChocó.

However, thespectaculardevelopmentofmining inthecolonialerawaspurelyextractiveanddidnotgenerateanyaddedvalueforthecountryoritsterritories.Withinthecolonialeconomicscheme, preciousmetalswere exported directly to Spain. Several chronicles of the time, such asthoseofAntonioManso(1729),fieldmarshalandpresidentoftheAudienciadeBogotá,confirmedthis: "Over these long days, [I have worked to describe ]howmuch wealth and abundance [hascomefrom]thelandwherealmostallitsinhabitantsandneighborsarebeggars(...)And,althoughitseemsacontradictiontohavesaidthatthegoldistakenoutofChocóandthatpeopleareverypoor,there is [no contradiction], because the gold that [has been] taken out of Chocó belongs to theownersofthemines(...)whosendthegoldtobe[styled]attheCasadelaMonedatothenhaveitsenttobecoinedinSpain"[161].

Thus, most of the important mining regions of New Granada were discovered anddevelopedduringthesixteenthcentury.Goldproduction,however,declinedinsomeareasduringthesecondhalfoftheseventeenthcentury.Ontheotherhand,otherminingdistricts,suchasChocó,sawtheirgreatestexploitationinthelatterpartofthecolonialperiod.

Sincecolonialtimes,goldwasthemainfactorofcolonizationinthePacific[andregionsthatdid not have gold] escaped colonial rule. During the colonial period, mining rested on theexploitation of black slave labor and depended on the control of the elites that inhabited theAndean region. This first great cycle of gold ended in the mid-nineteenth century, withindependence and the abolition of slavery. Fromdifferent processes ofmanumission, free blackssettledanddispersedawayfromallminingactivityofthecolonizingsystem.Followingthecoursesoftherivers,thecoastallineandsomeindigenousroads,theblackcommunitybeganoccupyingtheterritory.Thus,theAtratoRiveranditstributarieswerepopulatedgraduallybyAfro-descendants,



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beyondtherealminessettledinthecolony.Fromthenon,"aterritorialappropriationmodelwasdeveloped,characterizedbythedispersedsettlementofparentalgroupsalongtheriversthathasbeen accompanied by a slow nucleation process. In the middle and lower zones, the free onesdedicated themselves to fishing and farming. Parallel to this colonization the natives withdrewtowardsthehighareasoftherivers"[162].ContextofmininginColombia.7.3. Afteralmost400yearsofcontinuousexploitation,miningactivityhasnot lost itsvalue inColombia. Recent figures provided by the National Association of Industrialists (ANDI) and theColombianMiningAssociation(ACM)[163],(whichinturnaresupportedbytheinformationoftheANMandtheDIAN)onthebehaviorofminingactivity,indicatethatitisanimportantsectoroftheColombian economy. They point out that for 2012 the Colombian gross domestic product [frommining] represented 2.3% of the total national GDP, which means that mining produced $10.9billionandconstituted20%ofthetotalexportsofthatyear;for2013,1.9%,for2014,2.1%,thatis,$10.8 billion and constituted 16.8% of exports; for 2015, 2.0% ($8.1 billion),which represented17.1%ofexports;finally,theyestimatethatfor2016itwillbe2.1%.7.4. Consistentwiththearticle,"TheParadoxofMiningandDevelopment"oftheresearchersoftheComptrollerGeneraloftheRepublic,GuillermoRudasandJorgeEspitia,theproductionofbothhydrocarbonsandthemainminingexportproductsinthecountry--coal,goldandnickel--ishighlyconcentrated in 7 of 32 districts. From this regional distribution of the production of the mainminerals and hydrocarbons, the following particular characteristics are highlighted: (i) Oil isconcentratedinCasanare,withasharebetween2006and2012of26%ofnationalproduction,andinMeta,with21%ofthetotalinthesameperiod.Theremaining53%isdistributedin17districts,amongwhich themost important are Santander andHuila, eachwith around ten percent of thetotal production during the period, andwhich does not reach, between the two, overcoming theproductionofMeta;(ii)CoaloriginatesmainlyinthedistrictsofCesarandLaGuajira,with48%and42%, respectively, of the national production during thementioned period. The remaining 10%comes from 9 districts and is mainly used for domestic consumption; (iii) in the period underconsideration,goldwasproducedprimarily inAntioquia.However,startingin2009,Chocóbeganto increase its production in an acceleratedmanner, reaching 39% of national production from2009 until 2012 -- very close to the 42% that continues to be concentrated in Antioquia. Theremaining 19% is distributed in almost the entire country, covering a total of 27 additionalmunicipalities;finally,(iv)allferronickelisproducedonlyinthedistrictofCórdobaandbyasinglecompany,CerromatosoS.A.Thishigh concentrationof theextractionof eachof theminerals andhydrocarbonsinafewdistrictsallowsustohaveadifferentiatedviewoftheroletheyplayineachoftheregionaleconomies[164].7.5. Now, regardinggoldmining,Colombiacontinuesas itdidasacolony,asoneof themainproducersworldwide:itisthesixthinLatinAmericaandranks20thasthelargestworldwidewith65tonsperyear.In2012,exportsreachedUS$2.5billion,makinggoldthethirdlargestColombianexportproductafteroil andcoal, justabovecoffee.Atpresent, it is estimated that some350,000Colombians live fromeconomies linkedorderived from thegold trade in10districts:Antioquia,Chocó,Bolívar,Cauca,Caldas,Córdoba,Nariño,Tolima,ValledelCaucaandSantander[165].



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Intermsofproduction,AntioquiaandChocórepresentmorethan80%ofthenationaltotal(equivalent to about 5% ofmining production), concentrated in areaswith a strong presence ofillegalarmedactors,bothguerrillaandpost-demobilizedarmedgroupscalled"BACRIM".Anotherfactorthatstandsoutisthatimportantethniccommunities--eitherindigenousorAfro-Colombian--liveinthegreatregionsofgoldexplorationandexploitation,andwhilesomeofthesepopulationsare opposed to the exploitation of gold in their territories, others live or subsist thanks to theminingactivity,andthisgeneratesadditionalsocialconflict.

According to figures from theNationalMiningAgency (ACM), of the 10,061mining titlesissued in Colombia, representing 5.4million hectares, 7,533 are from Colombian companies andindividuals,1,028arefrommultinationalcompanies,577fromindigenousreserves,113ofminingassociations, 40 mining unions and 870 of temporary authorizations. In this context, the mostexploitedtypeofmineralisthatusedforconstructionwith53%,followedbypreciousmetalswith39%.

In contrast, according to the last departmentalmining census carried out in 2011 by theACM,oftheMiningProductionUnits(MPUs)-registeredatthenationallevel,63%havenominingtitleand37%haveamining title.ThecaseofChocó isnotorious, [166],where99.2%of the527MPUregisteredhavenotitle,occupyingfirstplaceinillegalminingactivity,whileintherestofthecountry,10districtswithminingoperationsexceed80%ofMPUwithouttitle:Antioquia,Atlántico,Bolívar,Caldas,Cauca,Córdoba,LaGuajira,Magdalena,ValleandRisaralda.LegaldevelopmentofmininginColombia[167].7.6.Thedevelopmentofalegalframeworkforregulatingminingandtoprotecttheenvironmentin Colombia, in terms of establishing a regime of authorizations, controls, and sanctions, has notbeen consistent.. Apart froma few special colonial regulationsonmines (Cuadernosde laNuevaEspaña,1584)andoftheRepublic(CodeofMinesoftheGranColombiain1827andtheDecreeofMinesofSimónBolívarin1829),legislationtoregulatemininginthetwentiethcenturywouldonlybe consolidated in 1988, when a Code of Mines was issued for the first time in the Republic ofColombia. Subsequently,with the issuance of theConstitution of 1991, the Laws99 of 1993, theLaw388of1997andfinallyanewMiningCodewasadoptedinLaw685of2001.This,inadditiontoLaw1382of2010,which reformed theCodeof 2001,butwasdeclaredunenforceableby thisCourt.Thefollowingwillbrieflyreviewsomeofthemainaspectsofthelegislation.

The Mining Code of 1988, Decree 2655 of 1988, established four cardinal points for itsdevelopment: (i) thatall thenon-renewablenatural resourcesof thesoilandsubsoilbelonged totheNation;(ii)thatminingactivitysuchasprospecting,exploration,exploitationandbenefitwouldbe regulated; (iii) that different classes ofmining titles such as concession contracts, explorationlicensesandminingexploitationwouldbeissued;and,(iv)thattheStatewouldbeanentrepreneurthroughthecontributionsystem.Additionally,itdeclaredthepublicutilityandsocialinterestoftheminingindustryinitsbranchesofprospecting,exploration,exploitation,etc.

Inenvironmentalaspects,thisdecreetimidlypickedupsomeconsiderationsoftheNaturalResources Code (1974) regarding ecological protection, landscape, and environmental impact. Inrelationtotheterritorialscope,mentionismadeoftheestablishmentofrestrictedzonesformining



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activities within urban boundaries. Finally, in relation to the ethnic component of the nation,indigenousminingareaswithrightofprioritywereestablished.However,nothingwassaidaboutthe black communities since there was no legal framework that established the right to theterritoryofAfro-Colombiancommunities.

TherevolutionoftherightsthatpromotedtheConstitutionof1991enabledthepassageofLaws99of1993(Ministryoftheenvironment),70of1993(BlackCommunities)and388of1997(Territorial Organization). The new Political Charter promoted the concept of an "EcologicalConstitution",theprotectionofthenation'sculturalandnaturalriches,theprimacyofthegeneralinterest,thesocialandecologicalfunctionofproperty,andtherighttoahealthyenvironment.

Thus, Law 99 of 1993 included the concept of "sustainable development" and alsoestablished a series of general environmental principles. These principles include fundamentalelementsfortheprotectionofcommunitiesthatareaffectedbysocialandenvironmentalconflictsrelated to extractive activities such as the protection of biodiversity and the precautionaryprinciple,amongothers.Italsoincorporatestheneedforenvironmentallicensingforactivitiesthatthreatentoendangertheenvironment.

Law388 of 1997 focuses on the instruments of territorial order in relation to the use ofland,thepreservationofenvironmentalheritageandthepreventionofdisasters;itissupportedinthesocialfunctionofproperty,theconstitutionalprevalenceofthegeneralinterestonthesubjectandinthedefenseofthepublicspace,anddefinestheobligatorynatureoftheterritorialapproachofthemunicipalitiesindevelopmentoftheconstitutionalauthorityofthemunicipalauthoritiestomanage the use of the soil. Three points are essential in territorial management plans: theconservation and protection of the environment, the preservation of cultural heritage, and thelocationandbasicinfrastructures.

Finally,Law685of2001,producedasubstantialchangeinthepoliciesregardingminingbyestablishingsystemthatwouldpromoteandcontrolmining,butwithoutthepossibilityofminingcompanieswithpublicormixedcapital.Inreturn,domesticandforeignindividualspayeconomicconsiderationforthecostofnon-renewablenaturalresourcescalledroyalties,whichareassessedaccordingtothetypeofmaterialasapercentageofthemarketvalue.Likewise,thelawmakesrulesmoreflexibleinordertofacilitateprivateinvestmentandestablishesthepriorityofthosewhofirstapplyfortheminingtitle,undertheprinciple"firstintime,firstinright"[169].

Subsequently,theStateissuedLaw1382of2010,asareformandupdatingofLaw685of2001, incorporating new provisions that aimed, among others, to (i) formalize the activity oftraditionalsmall-scaleminers,(ii)improvethetechnicalandenvironmentalsupervisionofminingoperations;and(iii) restore therightof theState toreservecertainareasor tooffer themto themost suitable operator.However, this Court, in its judgment C-366 of 2011, declared the reformunconstitutional,mainlybecausethepriorconsultationwiththeethniccommunitiesthatcouldbeaffectedwasomitted. Inanycase, theeffectsof therulingweredeferredtotwoyears inordertopreservethevalidityofnormsthatprotectedtheenvironment,andconsequentlytheGovernmentwasorderedtoconsultinthesameterm[170].



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Similarly, the national government, at the level of public policy, that is, the NationalDevelopment Plans (NDP), both in Law 1450 of 2011[171] (PND 2010-2014) and Law 1753 of2015[172] (PND 2014-2018) has established as a priority the construction of a "mininglocomotive"aspartofitsmining-energypolicy;inordertoconsolidatetheminingsectorasadriverofthecountry'ssustainabledevelopment,withsocialandenvironmentalresponsibility.

Finally, the Ministry of Mines and Energy recently issued Resolution 40391 of April 20,2016, "Whereby the national mining policy is adopted."This document unified the institutionalvisionregardingthecurrentminingsituationofthecountryandthechallengestobeovercomeinthe coming decades in order to turn Colombia into a power in the extraction of minerals. TheResolutionroughlyexplains:(i)thechallengesofminingactivityataglobalandnationallevel,(ii)the institutional vision to takeColombia along theminingpath and (iii) the economic and socialbenefitsofthatactivity.Constitutionaljurisprudenceinminingmatters.7.7. At thispoint, it isappropriate for theChambertoreviewtheconstitutional jurisprudencethathasestablishedthegeneralparametersofinterpretationoflegalandillegalminingactivity,andits legislation. All of thismust be considered in relation to the extraction of renewable andnon-renewablenaturalresources, theprotectionoftheenvironment,ofbiodiversity,and,ofcourse,ofthe ethnic communities that inhabit territories thatmay be affected by the development of saidactivities.7.8. Thus, in judgment C-983 of 2010 the Courtmade a complete jurisprudential account inrelationtotheminingpropertyandexploitationinColombia,[identifying]jurisprudentialrulesthatwillbeoutlinedbelowaccordingtotheirrelationshipwiththepresentcase.Inthisregard,theCourthasindicatedthatarticles332,334,360and80ofthePoliticalConstitutionenshrine: (a) the State ownership of the subsoil and non-renewable natural resources, withoutdetriment to the rights acquired in accordance with pre-existing laws; (b) the power of Stateintervention in the exploitation of natural resources and land use, as well as the planning,management and use of natural resources; (c) the duty of the State to conserve non-renewablenatural resources, and the right over the economic resources or royalties derived from itsexploitation, as well as the power to grant special rights of use over those resources, throughconcessions [173]; (d) theconceptof theStateas theownerofnon-renewablenatural resources,whichincludesallpublicauthorities,allColombiansandallterritorialentities[174];(e)thebroadfreedominthelegislaturetodetermine,pursuanttotheCharter,theconditionsfortheexploitationofnon-renewablenaturalresources,aswellastherightsofterritorialentitiesoverthem[175].7.9. Withrespect to theexploitationofnon-renewablenaturalresources, thisCourthasmadebroad and repeated statements regarding the environmental impact of this exploitation, theprotectionoftheenvironmentandbiodiversity,theareasexcludedfromminingandrestrictedfrommining,andtheconstitutionalprotectionofethniccommunities.Onthislatterissue,constitutionaljurisprudence has spoken in relation to (i) the natural resources existing in its territories, inaccordancewith articles 7, 70 and 330 above, (ii) the right of these communities to ensure thepreservationofnaturalresources; (iii) theminingareasof theethniccommunities [176]; (iv) the



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right of participation of these communities in decisions regarding the exploitation of naturalresources in ethnic territories, through prior consultation mechanisms, in accordance with ILOConvention169of1989adoptedbytheGeneralConferenceofthatorganization,andapprovedbyColombia through Law 21 of 1991; and (v) the importance of the recognition and protection oftraditionalorartisanalmining,aswellastheprocessesoflegalizationofit.7.10.Inlightofthefactthatthecaseunderexaminationisrelatedtothedevelopmentofminingactivities (legal and illegal) on a large scale in territories of ethnic communities in Chocó, theChamber considers it necessary to recall the rules that link the exploitation of natural mineralresourcesinterritoriesofethniccommunities,andtheprotectionofthedifferentiatedidentitythathasbeengrantedtothem.7.11. OneofthemostimportantrulingsinthismatterisjudgmentSU-039of1997,inwhichtheCourtdecidedonthereviewofthedecisionoftutelathatcouldpromotetheOmbudsman'sOffice,infavor of the members of the indigenous community U'wa. On that occasion, an oil companyrequested the corresponding state authorities to issue an environmental license to carry outexploration work in a large area of territory, part of which was inhabited by members of theaforementionedcommunity.Theenvironmentallicensewasissuedwithoutfirsthavingverifiedtheeffectiveparticipationoftheindigenouscommunity.Intheresult,thelicensewasnullifiedinorderthattheconsultationprocedurecouldbecarriedout,subjecttotherulesthatapplytothem.

On that occasion, the Court determined that, according to the Constitution, miningexploitation activities carried out in areas where traditional communities are located should bepursuant to prior consultation in order to guarantee compliancewith the participationmandateforeseenbothinarticle330oftheCharterandinILOConvention169.Itisunderstoodthat(i)thereis a specific constitutional clause that requires the Government to encourage such participation;and, in any case, (ii) oil exploitation in the territories of the communities is a matter thatundoubtedlydirectlyaffectsthem,whichjustifiesthepreviousconsultation..

TheCourtalsodeterminedthatthisdutytoguaranteetheparticipationofthedifferentiatedcommunities was based on the need, evidenced in the Constitution, to balance the economicexploitationofminingresources,theprotectionoftheenvironment,theachievementofsustainabledevelopment and the ethnic and cultural identity of the aforementioned communities. Thisbalancing is only possible if the position and interests of the affected indigenous and Afro-descendantpeoplesare integrated intothedebateonthecorrespondingpublicpolicy.Otherwise,the state activity would ignore their constitutional right to recognition as a minority object ofspecialprotectionoftheState.7.12. In a similar sense, the jurisprudential rules previously expressed were reiterated injudgmentT-769/09.Inthiscase,theMinistryofMinesandEnergyhadsignedaminingconcessioncontractinfavorofanexplorationandexploitationcompany.Thiswasdoneinordertodeveloptheproject called Mandé Norte, which was located partially in the territory of the indigenousreservation of the Embera community of Uradá Jiguamiandó (Chocó). The activists, belonging tothat ethnic group, filed an acción de tutela against different ministries, arguing that the miningexploitation project had not been subject to consultation with representative authorities of theindigenouscommunity.



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In this case, the Court concluded that (i) since it was an advancedmining project in the

territory of the indigenous community, it had to submit to the prior consultation procedure; (ii)thatthisconsultationshouldcomplywiththeconditionsdescribedbyconstitutionaljurisprudence,including the representativeness of the communities; and (iii) that these requirements had notbeenmet inthespecificcaseandthusthat theconcessioncontractwouldbesuspendeduntil theconsultationwasverified,withthefulfillmentoftherequirementsnoted[177].7.13. Throughout its jurisprudence, the Court has also identified how legal and illegalminingactivitiescanbeconfiguredasfactorsof"transversalrisk"[cross-cutting]forindigenousandAfro-descendant communities. This is especially true when it comes to work carried out under anindustrial concept thatona large scale,by theirowncharacteristics, affect importantportionsofthe territory. This can even lead to especially serious situations in terms of protection andguaranteeoffundamentalrights,suchasinternalforceddisplacement[178].7.14.Additionally,inthejudgmentC-366of2011--reiteratedinC-331of2012--severaldecisionswereadoptedbybothbodiesofjusticeoftheinter-Americansystem,aswellasinotherdocumentsoftheglobalsystem,whichinsistonthelinkbetweentheprotectionofthedifferentiatedidentityand exploitation of existing natural resources in the territories of the ethnic communities. Forexample, the Special Rapporteur of the United Nations on the situation of human rights andfundamental freedoms of indigenous people, has pointed out how development projects in theterritories,which are carriedoutwithout consultationwith the traditional communities affected,haveadirectimpactontheenjoymentandguaranteeoftheirhumanrights[179].

Inthissense,theparticipationoftraditionalcommunitiesintheprojectsthataffectthemisexplained, in the same way, by the potential harmful effects of large-scale projects (legal andillegal),includingmining,totheinterestsofthetraditionalcommunities.Theseeffects,inturn,mustbe looked at not only from the perspective of the specific commitment with ethnic peoples'territories,butalsowithrespecttoanydevelopmentactivitythatdirectlyaffectstheirinterests.7.15. However,inrecentyearstheCourthascontinuedtodevelopasetofprinciplesrelevanttotheunderstandingofthemultipleproblemsassociatedwithmining,inparticular,relatedto(i)theparticipation of territorial entities, citizens and ethnic communities in the context of legal andillegalminingexploitationthatmayaffectthem;and(ii)thedefinitionofstrategicminingreserveareas,whicharethelaststrategyoftheColombianStatetoexploititsnaturalresources.

For example, in judgments C-123 of 2014[180] and C-035 of 2016[181], this Courtexamined standards that referred in general terms to an eventual tension between the stateownershipof thesubsoil, theregulationof theexcludedminingzones,andtheattributionsof theterritorialentitiestoregulatetheuseofthegroundfrom,thestandpointofterritorialgovernance.

Inbothjudgments,theCourtraisedtheneedtoestablishconsultationspacesbetweenthelocal level (municipalities) and the central level (national government) tomake these decisions.Given that the management of the subsoil necessarily has an impact on the possibility ofestablishing plans and programs on land use, principles of concurrency, coordination andsubsidiarityshoulddefinetherelationshipbetweenterritorialentitiesandthenation.



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Subsequently, in judgment T-766 of 2015, the Court annulled two resolutions that

establishedthedelimitationoftheso-called"strategicminingareas"on20millionhectaresofthenational territory; in regionswith a notable presence of ethnic communities, for violation of thefundamentalrighttopriorconsultation.

In a similar way, in judgment C-221 of 2016, the Court held unconstitutional thewithholding of previous geological information, generated in the definition of strategic miningareas. This is because the Legislature did not constitutionally justify the restriction on thefundamentalrighttoaccesstoinformation.

InjudgmentC-273of2016,theCourtdeclaredunenforceablethereservationoforganiclawarticle37oftheminingcodeaccordingtowhichnoterritorialentitycouldexclude,temporarilyorpermanently, areas of its territory for carrying outmining activities. This prohibition, the Courtheld,canonlybegiveninanorganiclawandnotanordinarylawsuchastheminingcode.

Finally, in judgment C-298 of 2016, among other decisions, the Constitutional Courtdeclared unenforceable Article 20 of the National Development Plan 2014-2018. Article 20stipulatedthepossibilityofestablishingreserveareasforminingexploitationforanindefinitetime.The Court held that such provision violated the principle of sustainable development and had adisproportionateimpactonthefundamentalrighttoahealthyenvironment.ThegoldmininginChocó.Pastandpresent.7.16. Beforeproceedingtoexaminethedevelopmentofwhathasbeengoldmining inChocó inrecent decades, theChamber considers it necessary to present some geographical, historical andsocioeconomic background that will allow a better understanding of the context of the matterunderreview.

Ineffect,mininginChocó,asanticipatedatthebeginningofthissection,datesbacktopre-Hispanic timeswhen the aboriginal tribeswho settled there found that streams and interfluvialrapidsfromthePacific lowlandsproducedlargequantitiesofgold;thankstothis, theydevelopedimportantskillsasgoldsmiths.AlreadyatthetimeofSpanishdominationand,inparticular,attheend of the 18th century, Chocó produced more gold than all the other mining districts of NewGranada[182],andconsequently,itbecamethemainproducerofthecontinentalviceroyalties.

Sincetheestablishmentofthecolonyonthemainland,theSpaniards--whoknewthepre-Hispanic legendof"ElDorado"--soondiscoveredthatoneof themostnotablesourcesofgold inLatinAmerica has been in thewarm, humid rainforests of the lowlands of the Pacific, andmorespecificallyinthebasinsoftheSanJuanandAtratorivers.Inthisregard,ProfessorRobertC.West,whostudiedtheregioninthe1950s,explainswhythisareaissorichingold:

"Thenorthernregionoftheplains-Chocó-consistsofastructuraldepressionbetweentheWesternCordilleraandthecoastalmountainrangeofBaudó.ThisdepressionisdrainedbytheAtratoRiver in thenorthand in thesouthby theSan JuanRiver.Themost important



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tributariesofthetworiversarerapidstreamsthatdrainthewesternslopeoftheWesternCordillera.Thesetributariesfromtheeast, togetherwithother interfluvialareas,makeupthemain gold zone of Chocó. In the southernpart, the Pacific plains form a coastal plainformedbyalluvialdepositsleftbythecurrentsthatdescendfromthewesternslopeoftheWesternCordillera.(...)TheupperandmiddlecoursesofalmostallthecurrentsthatdrainthewesternsideoftheWesternCordilleraareauriferous.Evenmoreimportantinthisroleofgoldbearersaretheoldgravelpitsthatformtheinterfluvesofmodernrivers.

(...)Theportionofgold-richsands,longburied,liesnearthebottomsofriver,whosepatterndoesnotbearanyrelationtothecurrentdrainage(...)InChocoonlytheeasterntributariesandtheuppercoursesoftheSanJuanandtheAtratoareauriferous"[183].

With regard to the processes of Spanish exploration during the colonial period, some

chroniclesoftheperiodpresentabriefchronologyofthedevelopmentofgoldmininginChocó:

"Chocówas the first area of the Pacific Coast exploited by the Spanish. As early as 1536,PascualdeAndagoya,oneofthelandownersofPizarro,establishedaportinBuenaventura,fromwhichapathledthroughthedenserainforesttothenewlyfoundedcityofCaliintheValle del Cauca. Vague reports about gold in the San Juan-Atrato basin prompted severalSpaniardstorequestrealpermissiontoexplorethelowlands,but littlewasdoneuntilthe1550s. In 1557 an expedition departed from Caramanta in themiddle Cauca area and itpenetrated the Atrato, but hostile Indians and hunger forced them to retreat withoutpositiveresults.Tenyearsofpunitiveexpeditionssent fromCali returnedwithreportsofrich deposits of gold in some of the eastern tributaries of the San Juan River. Finally, in1573,anexpeditionledbyMelchorVelásquezleftAnserma,crossedtheWesternCordillerathroughtheCairoPassandfoundedthecityofToroattheheadwatersoftheIngaráRiver,atributaryofTamaná. Located in the coldhighlands in an areaof high indigenousdensity,thispopulationbecamethecenterfromwhichtherichesofChocówereinitiallyexploited"[184].

The inheritance of this first colonial and republican period has been the historical

conformationoftheDistrictofChocó--asanareaofextractionofnaturalresources[185]--,intheformoflargeeconomicandsocialurbancenters:forexample,inthecolony,alltheproductionwasdirectedtoSpainand,intheRepublic,tothecentralState.7.17. Ontheotherhand, fromasocio-economicperspective,socialexclusion inChocóhasdeephistoricalrootsduetothefactthatafterindependence,noinclusivepoliticalinstitutionswerebuilt;instead, theadministrative institutionshadveryfewcontrols,whichhasfavoredcorruptionsincecolonial times. This contrastswith the figures for extraction ofmineral resources in the district[186]: according to theMining InformationSystem,Chocó ranked first inplatinumproduction inColombia,with98%ofnationalproductionandisthesecondgoldandsilversupplierinthecountrywith24,438kg(53,876.5lbs.),correspondingto37%ofnationalproduction.Thus,mininghasbeenhighlightedasoneofthemainenginesofeconomicgrowthintheDistrictofChocó.Forexample,in2011,itreceived$7,939,600inroyalties.



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Similarly,accordingtofiguresfromtheNationalPlanningDepartment,theDistrictofChocóhas received the following in approximate resources for the General Royalty System: (i) 2012:$178,281 million; (ii) 2013: $342,469; (iii) 2014: $401,050; (iv) 2015: $391,081 and (v) 2016:$280,050.7.18.Paradoxically,itischaracteristicthatthemaincitiesoftheleadingdistrictintheproductionofgolddonothavearobustinstitutionalinfrastructurefortheprovisionofadministrativeservices,nor of essential public services. [187] Specifically, the District of Chocó has population ratesaccordingtowhich48.7%liveinextremepovertyand78.5%liveinpoverty.[188]AccordingtotheIndex of Unsatisfied Basic Needs (NBI) [189] which measures whether the basic needs of thepopulationarecoveredaccordingtominimumcriteriainthedifferentregionsofthecountry,Chocóranks highest in the country, with 82.8% of the population, including 79% of the inhabitants ofChocó who have at least one NBI. Thus, they have the lowest indicator of quality of life in thecountrywith 58% (the national average is 79%). Life expectancy is 58.3 years compared to thenationalaverageof70.3years.7.19.Inthiscontext,theprecariouslivingconditionsoftheChocoanosarebasedonlowcoverageof administrative services (institutional presence) and essential public services (aqueduct,sewerage and sanitation)whichhave a direct impact on thehealth conditions of thepopulation;which only covers 22.5% and 15.9% respectively, compared to the central country where bothcoveragesexceed80%.Inthissense,thevastmajorityofthepopulationoftheregiondoesnothaveaccesstopotablewaterinconditionsofqualityandsupplytomeetthemostbasicneeds.Inrelationtothesanitationservice,thedistrict’scoverageis32%,whiletheruralcoveragereachesonly6%.Foritspart,65%ofhouseholdshaveelectricityand19.1%havetelephoneservice[190].7.20. Incontrast to thesituationof theChocoanopopulation, the interventionpresentedbythe"Terrae"Group[191]offersimportantdataandcontextonthecurrentsituationofgoldmininginChocó.Intheirreporttheypointoutthat"theAtratoriverbasinhasaround3,993,225hectares,ofwhich490,771are titled formininggoldandothermetalsand15,250 for constructionmaterialsandlimestone,foratotalof506,021hectarestitled.Thiscorrespondstoapproximately13%ofthetotalareaofthebasin,whichhighlightstheminingpressuretowhichthisareaisbeingsubjected."To the above, it adds that some of the main mining actors, taking into account the number ofhectarestitledare:

"AnglogoldAshantiwith120,791ha (55 titles),ExploracionesChocówith156,303ha (50titles), Sociedad Exploraciones Northern Colombia SASwith 28,117 ha (12 titles), MónicaMaríaUribePérezwith19,135ha(6titles),LaMurielMiningCorporationwith16,028ha(9titles).AllenGroupwith15,546ha(8titles),AngloAmericanColombiaExplorationS.A.with12,533ha(7titles)andProyectoCocoHondoS.A.Swith9,010ha(6titles).Amongthese8actors, theytotal377,554hectares,whichcorrespondsto75%ofthetotalareatitled".

To this, the same report adds that for 2015, 372 applications for goldmining have beenmadetotheminingauthority,whichrepresentanareaof645,937hectares.7.21. Similarly, it states thatwithin the Atrato River Basin, there is the Pacific Forest Reservecreated by Law 02 of 1959; the protective forest reserves of El Darién, Río León, ZonaMusinga



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Caratua and Páramo de Urrao; the national parks Los Katíos, Las Orquídeas and Utría; and thePáramoFrontino-Urrao.ConsideringtheminingassessmentofJuly2015,itsays:"377,662hectaresofthePacificForestReservearetitledforminingwhile312,604hectaresarerequested.Inthecaseof the National Protective Forest Reserves, there are 621 hectares that are titled, and 17,037hectaresappliedfor.Finally,therearetitledformining227hectaresonNationalNaturalParksand539 hectares on the paramos of Frotino-Urrao. In total, there are 708,690 hectares of protectedareasthatareaffectedorunderminingpressure,whichisapproximately62%oftitlesandminingapplicationsthatarefoundwithintheAtratoRiverBasin."

Itisintheseconditionswherelegalandillegalmininghavebeendevelopedbyvariouscivil,economicinterestsandmorerecentlybyarmedactorsfornearly400yearsinChocó.Butalthoughitisatraditionallyminingdistrictrichinnaturalresources,paradoxically,ithasthemostdramaticpovertyratesinthecountry.TheminingclassesthattakeplaceinChocó.Inputsandsubstancesfortheiruse.7.22.Theformsandtypologiesofgoldmining(legalandillegal)thattakesplaceintheChocóarevery varied, both alluvium [192] rio, and vein [193] in the land, but essentially comprise fourcategories of execution: (i) artisanal or ancestral mining; (ii) semi-mechanized mining; (iii)mechanizedminingand(iv)industrializedminingormega-mining.Ingeneral,thefirstthreeclassesare conductedwithoutmining titles or environmental licenses, the fourth category is developedcomplyingwiththelegalrequirements.

Inthefirstplace,itisunderstoodbyartisanal,ancestralorbare-mining,inthemostgeneralsense,consistsintheexploitationofmineraldepositsonasmallscale.Manualmethodsareused-transmitted from generation to generation- or with the help of very simple equipment, usuallymade by the sameminers, for the extraction ofmetals. This is the kind ofmining - subsistencemining-carriedoutbyethniccommunitiesandfarmersforcenturies[194].

Second,semi-mechanizedminingisconsideredakindof"modernizationortechnicalform"ofartisanalmining,whichincludesadaptationsofsmallequipmentsuchasmotorpumps,hydraulicelevators and small suction dredges that improve working conditions and performance in theremovalofalluvialmaterial.Thistypeofminingallowsworkerstoperformtheirtasksinashortertimeandwithgreaterefficiency[195].

Third,mechanizedmining iscarriedoutwithbackhoes,dredges,bulldozers,high-capacitymotorpumps,hoses,dumptrucksandchemicalsubstancessuchasmercuryandcyanide.Thiskindofminingbegantobecarriedoutintheeighties.Firstbyforeignactorsandthenbyarmedgroupsoutside the law, who are today operating in the region subject to the facts of the present case,displacing the traditional miners and imposing new ways of mining illegally, in mass andindiscriminately[196].

Finally, industrialized mining or mega-mining is a large-scale industry and scope that isdevelopedbasedonstudiesofengineeringandecology,largehumanandtechnicalresources,whichinthecaseofopen-pitminingmakesitnecessarytoremovetonsofland,therebyconsuminglargeamountsofwaterandelectricity,andalteringcompletelyandirreversiblythecharacteristicsofthe



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areawhereitisimplemented.Theclassicexampleofthisformofexploitationiscoalmining,whichinColombiatakesplaceintheopenpitminesof"ElCerrejón"inLaGuajira.Ingeneral,itisthelargemultinationalminingcompaniesthathavetheresourcestocarryoutthistypeofexploitationinalegalmanner.AccordingtodataprovidedbytheNationalMiningAgency,thistypeoforganizationhasthemostminingtitlesavailableinChocó[197].7.23. Inthissection,theChamberwillconcentrate,inparticular,onexaminingthewayinwhichthe so-called mechanized mining is conducted. Which, according to what was proposed by thepetitioners, is the one that causes the most damage to the environment and to the ethniccommunitiesof theAtratoRiverBasindueto itsrealization ina frameworkofcomplete illegalityandwiththeuseoftoxicchemicalsubstancessuchasmercury,cyanide,amongothers.7.24. Accordingtotheinformationprovidedtothefileandwhatwasindicatedbytheplaintiffs,illegal (mechanized)mining enteredChocó in the 1980s. It first appearedwith the suctionmini-dredges at the beginning of the eighties and with them "semi-mechanized" mining; Then thebackhoesarrived,givingrisetomechanizedmining.

In the same sense, several of the community leaders of the Atrato River, argue that theprocessacceleratedintheninetiesandthatitoccurredinthisway:"historicallytheminingmodelwith dredges and dragons, that is to say,mechanized,was brought by VíctorMosquera in 1997(Chocoano,minerofBajoCauca),theyearinwhichthiskindofexploitationbegan.Heexplainsthatbefore mechanized mining, the river was crystalline, healthy, with clear waters, and that thepopulations were dedicated to fishing, agriculture and artisanal mining and these activitiesemanated subsistence and cultural life. He adds that Mr. Mosquera and his foreign partnersdiscovered theminingpotential of theQuitoRiver and thereafterbeganamassive illegalminingprocess and the dredgers populated the river in search of gold. Remember that the exploitationstartedintheCantonofSanPablo.Todaythemajorityofmechanizedorsuctionminingiscarriedout in the Quito River and the San Pablo Canton, displacing all agricultural and fishingactivities."[198]

Theplaintiffsalsoaddthatthiskindofminingoperatesinalltypesofexploitation:formalorlegal,illegal,traditional,small-scalemining,informalordefacto.Dependingontheareaandtheminer,mechanizedminingusesmercury,whichisthesubstanceaccusedofcausingserioussocialand environmental impacts in Chocó. Illegal (mechanized) mining has little by little displacedartisanal mining as the communities worked ancestrally from the colony. The inhabitants areincreasinglydependentontheminerspresentintheterritory,andaboveall,thepermissionoftheirowners to work in the large holes caused by the backhoes, which are very unsafe workingconditionsandthatarelimitedtoadayaweekwhentheyarelucky.Thesizeofthebusinessissogreatthattherearevarioussourcesthatstatethat"inthedistrictofChocótherearecurrentlysome800dredgesinoperation."

The exercise of mechanized mining has produced significant cultural changes in thecommunities andmany of them have lost their customs and their forms of coexistence that aresometimescharacterizedbyconflictsbetweenneighborsovertheusufructorownershipofland.Asin the case of families that want to rent their land to foreign miners without consulting their



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neighbors,andsometimeseveninvadingnearbylands,althoughintrafamilialconflictslinkedtothistypeofminingarealsogenerated.[199]

Almostnoneoftheactorsthatexercisesthiskindofmininghasobtainedthecorrespondingmining titles or has the necessary environmental licenses. In fact, much of the mining activityoccursinforestreserveareas-asindicatedabove-wherepreciselytheseactivitiesareprohibited[200].7.25.AccordingtotheOmbudsman,amongthemainimpactsgeneratedbythistypeofminingare:

"i) The destruction of water sources: due to the action of dredging and due to theapproximateaveragecontributionof3,100tons/yearofsedimentpertailing.Thenavigablechannelofthesameisreducedandthewaterandfoodsupplyisputatrisk,aswellasfluvialcommunication.Additionally,asobservedby theOmbudsman'soffice, stonemountains inthe middle of a river can be found, which is affecting the speed of the river and theoxygenationofthewater.

ii) The rivers in which mining is developed constitute a risk to human health and theenvironment.Mininghaschangedtheriver’scoloration,duetosedimentation,thepresenceofsolidmaterialssuspendedinwater,suchasfats,oils, fuelresiduesandmercury,astheresultofthegoldminingprocesses.Eachminecontributesapproximately36kilos/year(79lbs) of mercury. Additionally, mining in the bodies of water generates the formation ofgullies, in which mosquitoes are nested, causing public health problems. As well as themigrationanddestructionofspeciesoffish,avifaunaandterrestrialfauna.

iii)Lossofbiodiversityandgeneticerosionthroughinterventionanddestructionoffragileecosystems.Atthesametime,thisactivityaccompaniedbydeforestationandthestrippingofland,causestherapiddegradationoftheecosystem,thereductionofforestpopulations,theextinctionofendemicspeciesandthedisplacementofpopulations, therebynegativelyimpactingfoodsecurityofthecommunitiessettledinthebasinsoftherivers."(Boldnotinoriginaltext)

7.26. Some general considerations will be discussed below regarding the toxic chemicalsubstancesusedingoldmininginChocó.Mercuryisapollutingtoxicsubstance,whichisthemostdenselyusedinmechanizedgoldmining.

Mercury(Hg,80)[201]isachemicalelementthathasthedistinctionofbeingtheonlymetalin the earth that is liquid at laboratory or ambient temperature. Among other aspects, it ischaracterizedbybeingbright, silver-white, odorless, insoluble andmuchheavier thanwater andhighly toxic. Although it has different uses, it is usedmainly inmining activities to separate andextractgoldfromtherocksinwhichitisfound,thankstothefactthatitisveryeasilyalloyedwithgoldandsilver.Ingeneralterms,itsuseinminingconsistsofaddingmercurytothematerialwherethe gold is found, forming an amalgam that, after being heated, facilitates the separation of thedifferentminerals,resultingintheevaporationofthemercuryduringtheprocess[202].



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7.27. One of the most contaminating techniques for the use of mercury in mining is called"amalgamation of all the mineral", which consists of adding mercury to the mineral during thecrushing,millingandwashing.Usuallyonly10%ofthemercuryaddedtoabarreliscombinedwiththegold to formtheamalgam.Theremaining90%is leftoverand isdiscarded inwatersources.Anotherquiteharmfulprocess is the "amalgamburn", aprocess inwhich the amalgam isplaceddirectlyonthefire,intheopen,whichcausesmercuryvaporization,andwhicharehighlytaxicandharmfultopeople.AccordingtoareportofUNEP(2007)-UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgram-this practice produces atmospheric emissions of mercury of around 300 metric tons per yearworldwide[203].7.28.Theeffectsofmercuryarenotonlyreducedtotheeventsdescribedabove.Accordingtothearticle,"TheuseofmercuryinartisanalgoldmininginColombia",byProfessorsClaudiaRojasandCarolinaMontes of the Universidad Externado de Colombia, this practice affects theminers, theenvironment(animalandplantspecies)andhumanpopulations.Forexample,mineworkersare,inprinciple, the most exposed, especially when inhaling the mercury vapor released during theburningofamalgams.Theprocessisasfollows:whentheamalgamationisdonemanually,partofthe mercury is absorbed directly through the skin. Mercury vapor is usually deposited on foodpreparation surfaces in homes, on clothing, or on the ground and falls to water bodies in therespectiveareaswhereitissedimented.StudiesconductedwiththeWorldHealthOrganization,indifferentpartsoftheworld,indicatehighlevelsofmercuryinminers;insomecases,reachinglevels50 timeshigher than themaximumacceptable limitof exposure setbyWHO [204].According tothesestudies,a largenumberofminerssuffer involuntary tremors,whichrepresents -withoutadoubt-aclassicsymptomofnervoussystemdamageinducedbymercury[205].7.29.Theconsequencesfortheuseofmercuryaresoseriousthatseveralinternationalreportsinthematter,compiledbythesamearticlecommentedabove,warnthatthelong-termconsequencesaresoseriousfortheenvironmentandthepopulationlivingintheenvironmentoftheminesanddeposits, downstream or in the direction of thewind. The abusive use ofmercury aswell as itscombinationwith cyanide, causes extensive environmental degradation due to contamination ofecosystems. This combined use exacerbatesmethylation ofmercury: "Oncemethylated,mercurycanmoverapidlythroughthefoodchain,causingdownstreamimpactsonfishandwildfaunaandflora,withconsequenteffectsonlifeofthousandsofpeople,boththosewhoparticipatedirectlyinminingactivitiesand thosewho livenearbyorconsumeproducts fromtheseareaselsewhere. Ingeneral, tailings containingmercuryaredischarged intoornearbodiesofwater and, as a result,soil, rivers, streams, ponds and lakes are contaminated for long periods of time. These negativeeffectsmaypersistforseveraldecades,evenafterthecessationofminingactivities."[206]

Tothis,theyaddthatinhumanhealth,exposuretomercurycausesharmfuleffectsmainlyin the central nervous system and in the renal, cardiovascular, cutaneous and respiratory levels.Womenof childbearingageandchildrenare themostvulnerable.Togiveanexample, "theWHOhas calculated that the incidence rate of mild mental retardation amounts to 17.4 per 1,000childrenbornamongthepopulationofsubsistencefishermenlivingneargoldminingactivities intheAmazon."[207]

Globally, the highest levels ofmercury consumption are recorded in China (between 200and250tonsfreed),followedbyIndonesia(between100and150tonsfreed),andbetween10and



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30tonsinBrazil,Bolivia,Colombia,Ecuador,Ghana,Peru,thePhilippines,Venezuela,TanzaniaandZimbabwe.Withinthiscontext,itisconsideredthatColombiaisthecountrywiththemostmercurycontaminationinAmerica.AccordingtostudiesbytheorganizationMercuryWatch,itisestimatedthatColombiaemits180tonsofmercuryperyearderivedfromtheextractionofgold.[208]

InthissenseProfessorsRojasandMontes,havepointedoutthat"variousfactorsaggravatethe problem in Colombia, andmake the illegal exploitation of gold throughmercury become analternativeforvulnerablecommunities,includingAfro-descendantsandindigenouspeople.Amongsuch factors are the large areasof thenational territory thathavedifficult access, suchas jungleareas,manyofwhichhavebeenunder thecontrolof insurgentgroupsoroutlaws; theprevailingpoverty inmanyregionsof the territoryandthescarcepresenceof theState; thehighandrisingpriceofgold;andthe lackofregulation for theacquisition,storage, transportation,purchase-saleandcommercializationofmercury,amongothers."7.30.Precisely,regardingthedangerouseffectsofmercuryintheminingactivity,ProfessorJesusOlivero,toxicologyresearcherattheUniversityofCartagena,inthejudicialinspectionconductedbytheConstitutionalCourtinJanuary2016inChocó,statedthefollowing:

"In the first place, the professor explains thatmercury is themost toxic non-radioactiveelementknowninnature,andthatthisispreciselythesubstancethatisusedinminingtoextractgold.Hepointsoutthatmercury,whenmixedwithwater(inriversandinswamps),becomesamuchmoretoxicchemicalspeciescalled"methylmercury",whichendsupbeinglodgedinthefleshoffish,andinthiswaycomesintodirectcontactwithhumanpopulationsthatendupconsumingchemicalsthatarepouredintorivers(asaconsequenceofmining)hundredsofkilometersaway.HecitesasanexampleacaseintheAmazon,particularlyinthe Caquetá River, where directmining activity isminimal and exceptional, and even somercuryconcentrations in infantshavebeen found inmagnitudesof17partspermillion.TheestimatedaverageperpersonbytheWHOtohaveahealthfreeofrisksassociatedwithexposure tomercury should not exceed the level of 1 part permillion. ProfessorOliveroargues that theproblemofmining ismuchmoreserious thanestimated,especially to theextent that this activity, evenwhen carriedouthundredsof kilometers away fromwherethe exploitation occurs - either in open-pit mines, or in rivers, ends up affectingcommunitiesthroughouttheregion.

In the specific case, it states that regardlessofwhere themercury contaminationprocessoccurs,theentireAtratoRiverBasin,aswellastheCaribbeanbasin,willbeaffectedbythisprocesssincemercury,whichhasgreatmobility-travelsinitscurrents.Itaffirmsthatitisacross-borderproblem,notonlyofQuibdóoroftheAtratoRiverorofChocó;itisaproblemthatwillcontinueintheAtlanticOcean(inthenorthofChocó)oronthesideoftheSanJuanRiver(inthesouthofChocó),inthePacificOcean"[209].

7.31. For thereasonsmentionedabove, internationalconsensushasbeendevelopedtoachievetheeliminationofmercuryfromanyactivitythatmayaffecttheenvironmentandhumanhealth.Tothatend,aseriesofinternationaltreatieshavebeenissuedtoregulatetradeintoxicchemicalsandpesticides or unwanted hazardous wastes such as: (i) the Geneva Convention on "Long-rangeTransboundaryAirPollution"of1979anditsAarhusProtocolof1998;(ii)theBaselConventionof



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1989;(iii)theConventionontheProtectionoftheMarineEnvironmentoftheNortheastAtlanticof1992; (iv) theRotterdamConventionof1998; (v) theHelsinkiConventionof2000; (vi) the2006DubaiGuidelines;andfinally(vii)theMinamataConventionof2013.

Regardingthelatter,theMinamataConventiononmercuryof2013wassignedbyColombiathat same year and its purpose, according to Article 1, is "to protect human health and theenvironment from the anthropogenic releases of mercury and compounds of mercury ". Thisparticularprovisionhighlightsthat,unlikeotherinternationalconventionsrelatedtochemicals,theMinamata Convention revolves around the need to protect human health. Additionally, itcontemplatesthepossibilitythatincaseaStateneedssupportfortheprocessofeliminationofitsmercuryindustry,theoptionofrequestingtechnicalassistanceandfinancialassistanceisprovided(Articles13and14).7.32.Inthenationallegislation,thecurrentMiningCode,Law685of2001doesnotcontemplateanymeasuretocontroltheuseofmercuryinmining.InresponsetothisandduetothesigningoftheMinamataAgreementbyColombia,Law1658of2013waspassed,whichestablishedaseriesofprovisionsforthecommercializationanduseofmercuryinthedifferentindustrialactivitiesofthecountry,andestablishedseveralrequirementsforitsreductionandprogressiveelimination[210].AlthoughthisinstrumenthasimportanttoolstocontroltheuseofmercuryinColombia,mostofitsprovisionsarenotdirectlyapplicableandrequireregulation,ataskthatisstillpending[211].Principle of precaution in environmental and health matters. Guiding principles ofenvironmentallaw.7.33. AfterexaminingthewayminingisdevelopedinColombia,theapplicablelegalregimeandtherelevantjurisprudence,theChamberconsidersitnecessarytospecifytheguidingprinciplesofenvironmentallawtowhichtheminingactivitymustsubmitinordertoachieveeffectiveprotectionoftheminingindustry,theenvironment,andtheethniccommunitieswheretheactivityiscarriedout.

As it has been noted, the constitutional and international norms outlined above extractfundamentalprinciples toadvance theprotectionandassuranceof theenvironment,biodiversityandtheethniccommunitiesassociatedwiththem,whichinthiscontemporaryworldaretheresultoftheobligatoryapplicationduetotheuse,contamination,andtheenvironmentaldamagethatisgenerated.TheCourtwillcometoconceptualizethemunderacompatibleapproachwiththenewrealitiesandtheimperativeneedtostriveforanincreasinglyrigorousandprogressivedefenseofnatureand itsenvironment, in the faceof thedamages thatareconstantlycausedto it. It isclearthatsuchprinciplesmustguidetheuseoftheatmosphere,water,forests,theenvironment,naturalresources and soil, aiming at an adequate, rational and responsible exercise of our biodiversity[212].

The situation explained about the use, pollution and environmental damage, involves forhumanity a seriousprocess of reflection and challenges for the States in order to strengthen thefundamental principles that support it in the achievement of a healthy ecological environment.Environmental law is based on a dynamic and evolutionary concept, since it is in a permanentprocessofupdatinganddemocraticdeliberation,respondingtoscientificadvancesandseekingto



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be part of a framework order that is just and equitable [213]. Among the principles that governenvironmentalpolicy,theCourtwillthenbringtomindthosethatdirectlyaffectthescopeofthisdecision.PrincipleofPrevention.7.34.Intheinternationalorderithasbeenunderstoodthatthisprincipleseeksthattheactionsofthe States are aimed at avoiding or minimizing environmental damage, as an objective in itself,regardlessof therepercussions thatmaybecaused in the territoriesofothernations. It requiresthereforeactionsandmeasures-regulatory,administrativeorotherwise-thatareundertakenatanearlystage,beforethedamageoccursorbecomesaggravated.

It constitutes a postulate ofmaximum importance for environmental law, as it turns theemphasisofallpublicpolicyandthelegalframeworktowardsamodelthatpreparesandorganizesthenecessarytaskstopreventdamagefromoccurring,ratherthanahealingmodel,pendingonthesanction and the repair. This approachhas been supported by various international instrumentssuch as the 1972 Stockholm Declaration[214], the 1982 World Charter for Nature and the RioDeclarationof1992,whichrequiresStatestoenact"effectivelawsontheenvironment"[215].

This principle has been developed by other international instruments concentrated inparticularareassuchastheextinctionoffloraandfaunaspecies[216],thepollutionofoceansbyhydrocarbons[217],radioactivewaste[218],hazardouswasteandothersubstances[219],lossoffish [220]andotherorganisms [221],damage tohealthand theenvironment,whichcomes fromchemicalsubstances.[222]

The practical effectiveness of preventive action requires a harmonization with theprecautionaryprinciple,which,aswillbeseenbelow, relaxes thescientific rigorrequired for theState to make a determination. Thus, the principle of prevention is applied in cases where it ispossibletoknowtheconsequencesthatthedevelopmentofacertainproject,workoractivitywillhaveontheenvironment.Thiswaythecompetentauthoritycanmakedecisionsbeforetheriskordamageoccurs, in order to reduce their impact or avoid them,while theprecautionaryprincipleoperatesintheabsenceofabsolutescientificcertainty[223].PrincipleofPrecaution.7.35.Intheinternationalarena,principleNo.15oftheRiodeJaneiroDeclarationofJune1992,onEnvironmentandDevelopment,referstotheprecautionaryprincipleasfollows:

"Principle 15. In order to protect the environment, States should widely apply theprecautionaryapproachaccordingtotheircapabilities.Whenthereisadangerofseriousorirreversibledamage,thelackofabsolutescientificcertaintyshouldnotbeusedasareasontopostponetheadoptionofcost-effectivemeasurestopreventenvironmentaldegradation."

Thisidea,inturn,wasexpresslyincludedinthefirstarticleofLaw99of1993,whichholds

thattheprocessofeconomicandsocialdevelopmentofthecountrywillbeguidedbytheglobal/international principles as well as sustainable development contained in the Rio de JaneiroDeclaration. In fact, this lawconfersgreat importanceontheprecautionaryprinciple,statingthat



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the formulationof environmentalpolicies,while considering the resultsof the scientific researchprocess,must prevail in an orientation aimed at precaution and avoiding the degradation of theenvironment[224].

Its constituent elements have been addressed by constitutional jurisprudence in thefollowingterms:

"Forthispurpose,itmustbeverifiedthatthefollowingelementsaremet:1.Thatthereisadangerofharm;2.Thatitbeseriousandirreversible;3.Thatthereisaprincipleofscientificcertainty,evenifitisnotabsolute;4.Thatthedecisionthattheauthorityadoptsisaimedatpreventing the degradation of the environment. 5. That the act in which the decision isadoptedismotivated.

That is, the administrative act by which the environmental authority adopts decisions,without absolute scientific certainty, in use of the precautionary principle, must beexceptional and motivated. And, like any administrative act, it can be sued before theJudicialPowerContentiousAdministrativeJurisdiction.ThismeansthatthedecisionoftheauthorityisframedwithintheRuleofLaw,inwhichtherecanbenoarbitraryorcapriciousdecisions,andthat,intheeventthatthishappens,thecitizenhasathisdisposalallthetoolsthat his own State grants upon him. In this sense there is no violation of due process,guaranteedinarticle29oftheConstitution"[225].

7.36.Theprecautionaryprinciplestandsasalegaltoolofgreatimportance,asitrespondstothetechnical and scientific uncertainty that often hangs over environmental issues; due to theincommensurabilityofsomecontaminatingfactors,thelackofadequatemeasurementsystemsorby the fading of the damageover time [226].However, basedon the fact that certain effects areirreversible,thisprinciplepointsoutacourseofactionthat"notonlydealswiththeconsequencesof acts in its exercise, butmainly requires an activepositionof anticipation,with anobjectiveofforecastingthefutureenvironmentalsituationinordertooptimizethenaturalenvironment"[227].

In the international order, the application of the precautionary principle continues togenerateconflictingpositions.Withincertainsectors,itisconsideredaneffectivetooltoachieveatimely legal action that addresses crucial ecological challenges such as climate change and thereductionof the ozone layer.While opponents of themeasuremistrust thepotential to generateexcessiveregulationsthatwouldenduplimitinghumanactivity.Therestillisnoconsensusintheinternational community regarding its understanding and scope. The central point of thediscrepancyistoestablishwhatlevelofscientificevidenceshouldberequiredtoexecuteaproject.Inthissense,evenamoreextensiveinterpretationhasbeenproposed,wherebytheburdenofproofis transferredon thepotentially contaminatingagent (be it aState, a companyora citizen),whomust demonstrate that their activity or residues that occur will not significantly affect theenvironment[228].

In a similar sense, for example, Professor Cass Sunstein, has reflected on the seriousproblemsrelatedtotheconceptofirreversibilityofenvironmentaldamageandthemeasuresthathave been designed and implemented internationally to try to avoid it, as in the case of theprecautionary principle. In this regard, he pointed out that "many environmental problems have



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importantelementsofirreversibility.If,forexample,aspeciesdisappears,itwillmostlikelybelostforever. The same concept applies and is true for pristine areas. Geneticallymodified organismscould also produce irreversible ecological damage; transgenic seeds could impose irreversiblelossesduetoincreasedresistancetopests.Recently,theproblemofclimatechangehasarousedthemost serious concernsabout the conceptof irreversibility. Somegreenhousegases remain in theatmosphereforcenturies,andforthatsimplereasonclimatechangethreatenstobeirreversible",totheforegoing,headdsthat:"globalconcernabouttheproblemofclimatechangehaslednationstoconsidertheadoptionofaninternationalprinciplethatallowscombatingthiskindofdanger:theprecautionaryprinciplethatalludesspecificallytoavoidirreparabledamage"[229].

Atthelocallevel,bothconstitutionalandadministrativejurisprudencehaveembracedthisprincipleasacrucialprovisionofenvironmentallaw.Itsimpactissuchthatitimpliesachangeinclassical legal logic. In contrast to the true and verifiable theory of damage, adopted from theRomantradition,precautionoperatesontheriskofdevelopment,theriskofdelay,andproducesaninversionoftheburdenofproof[230].Withgoodreason,theCourthasassertedthatthispostulatematerializes"toalargeextent"thedutiesofprotectionwithnature[231].7.37.Inconstitutionaljurisprudencethereareseveralexamplesofitsapplication.InthejudgmentT-397 of 2014 the complaint of residents of an apartment in the city of Bogotá was analyzed,including several adults and aminor of 20months of age. All ofwhomdenounced the excessivenoise and health hazards that they consider originated in a "monopole antenna"installed by atelecommunicationscompanyonemeterawayfromtheproperty.

In this scenario, the Court satisfied the jurisprudential requirements to apply theprecautionary principle, not only for the protection of the environment but specifically for thechild's health [232]. In view of the above, the Court ordered the dismantling of the antenna.Likewise,theMinistryofInformationandCommunicationsTechnologieswasorderedtoregulate,within the framework of its functions and in accordance with the precautionary principle, theprudentdistancebetweenmobiletelephonetowersandhomes,educational institutions,hospitalsandgeriatrichomes.7.38. Ontheotherhand,judgmentT-154of2013addressedtheclaimofaruralworker.Theruralworker indicated that the"Los Cerros"farm in which he resided with his family, located in thevillageofLaLoma,wasapproximately300meters indistanceof thecoalmine "Pribbenow".Thecoal mine is property of the company Drummond Ltda., which exploited "indiscriminately andwithoutanyenvironmentalcontrol",sinceminingwascarriedout24hoursaday.Theminecaused,accordingtohistestimony,(i)"unbearable"noise,bytheoperationofthemachines;(ii)"dustandparticulate matter" dispersed into the air, produced by the operation; (iii) health conditions,especially "cough, irritated eyes and discomfort in their ears" and, in some cases, fever anddifficulty breathing. The Court invoked the precautionary principle to grant the protection andpointedoutthat,evenincaseofevidentiaryinsufficiency,"referencehasalreadybeenmadetotheprecautionaryprinciple,of transnationaland internalempire,which leads to the lackofscientificcertaintycannotbeadducedasareasontopostponetheadoptionofeffectivemeasurestopreventenvironmentaldegradationandthegenerationofhealthrisks"[233].



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As a result, the defendant company was ordered to install state-of-the-art technicalmachinerywithin amaximum period of threemonths, aswell as dampers, washers, covers andrecuperatorsofcoalanditsparticles,tocounteractnoiseanddispersionofresidualdust.

Additionally, in judgments T-1077 of 2012 and T-672 of 2014, itwas reiterated that theprecautionaryprinciple canbeused toprotect the right tohealth.The aforementioneddecisionsshowthatbothColombianlegislationandconstitutionaljurisprudencerecognizethepossibilityofapplyingtheprecautionaryprincipletoprotectthehealthofpeople.7.39.Insummary,fortheCourt,thereisnodoubtthattheparadigmshifthasbeenoperatingwiththe passing time, and has implied a re-dimensioning of the guiding principles of environmentalprotection, as its strengthening andmore rigorous application under the superior criterion of indubioproambienteorindubiopronatura,consistingofthefactthatinthefaceoftensionbetweenprinciplesandconflictingrights,theauthoritymustfavortheinterpretationthatismostconsistentwiththeguaranteeandenjoymentofahealthyenvironment,withrespecttotheonethatsuspends,limits,orrestrictsit[234].7.40.Inthefaceoftheenvironmentaldeteriorationfacingtheplanet,ofwhichthehumanbeingispart, largely due to the development of extractive industries such as mining, it is necessary tocontinue implementing measures that seek to preserve nature, under regulations and publicpolicies that are seriousandmore stringent for their guaranteeandprotection; encouraging realcommitmentandtheparticipationofall-includingthecommunities-inordertomovetowardsaworldthatrespectsothers.Therefore,agreaterawareness,effectivenessanddrasticityinthepolicyofdefendingtheenvironmentisimposedinthefaceofthepotentialthreatsposedbyextractiveanddevelopmentprojectsingeneral.

Itis,then,toestablishlegalinstrumentsthatrecognizeprogressivityinrights,safeguardthepluralist principle and offer greater justice and equity. Setting aside a concession of simplebenevolenceforonecollectiverecognitionofourspeciesthatwesharetheplanetwithotherlivingbeings at a level of interdependence. Justice with nature must be applied beyond the humanscenario, sincesociety is capableofworryingaboutanddealingwith thenearand thedistant,ofquestioning ourselves about environmental deterioration -beyond the benefits that are procuredfor us- and of recognizing a value to the naturalworld. The ConstitutiveTreaty of the EuropeanCommunity (Article 174), has advanced in the establishment of other principles that govern theEuropeanenvironmentalpolicy,fromthoseprinciplestheonethatstandsoutisthe,"correctioninthe sourceof theattacks to theenvironment",whose scope isgiven in thatenvironmentalpolicymustfightagainstthedamagetonatureavoidingitsemergence.

7.41. InthiswayandafterreviewingsomeofthemaincharacteristicsoftheColombianmining-energypolicyandtheconstitutionalprovisionsthatguaranteetheprotectionof theenvironment,as a superior interest, for theCourt it is clear thatmining is an activity that has thepotential toaffecttheenvironmentandthesustainabilityofnaturalresources.WhichiswhytheStatemusttakestrictmeasurestoregulateandcontrolitslegalexercise-fromthelocaltothenationallevel.Whilethe 1991 Political Charter, which has been called by the Court's jurisprudence an EcologicalConstitution, protects the best interest of the environment and its enjoyment by humancommunities. This judgment has even greater relevance regarding the so-called illegal mining,



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which without greater state control, as a consequence of a mining-energy policy that has beenshown tobe ineffective, hasdeveloped in the country andmustbe treatedas apriority and in acomprehensivemanner.8. Effects of judgments proffered by the Constitutional Court in review. Effectsintercommunis.8.1. Asageneralrule,theeffectsoftheordersissuedbytheConstitutionalCourtinitsworkofreviewof judicial decisions related to theacciónde tutelaare inter partes, that is, that theyonlyaffectparticularsituationsofthoseinvolvedinthereviewprocess.

However, in the terms defined by the jurisprudence of this Court, the Court, with strictadherence to the Constitution, can also determine or modulate the effects of its decisions. Bydeciding on a concrete casewhich effect best protects the fundamental constitutional rights andguaranteesitsfulleffectiveness.

Using this power, this Court has issued numerous judgments of tutela to which it hasendowedeffects thathaveamuchgreaterscopethanthe interpartes.When itwarns inacertainmatterthattoexclusivelyprotecttherightsinvokedbytheonewhopromotestheaction,withoutconsidering theeffects thatsuchadecisionwouldhaveon thosewho, incommoncircumstances,did not resort to said mechanism, could imply ignorance of other fundamental guarantees. Forthesepurposestheyhavebeencalledintercommunis(betweencommons).

Inthisregard,injudgmentSU-1023of2001,itwaspointedoutthatthereareveryspecialcircumstancesinwhichtheaccióndetutelaisnotlimitedtobeingasubsidiaryjudicialmechanismtoavoidtheviolationorthreatoffundamentalrightsonlybytheplaintiffs.Thisassumptionoccurswhentheprotectionoffundamentalrightsofthepetitionersviolatesthefundamentalrightsofnon-custodians.Sincethetutelacannotcontradictitsnatureandraisond'êtreandtransformitselfintoamechanism for the violation of rights, it also has sufficient binding force to protect equallyfundamentalrightsofthosewhohavenotcomedirectlytothisjudicialenvironment,andaslongasthat the defendant is found in common conditions with those who used the tutela when theprotectionorderwasgivenbythejudge,thathasadirectandimmediateimpactontheviolationoffundamentalrightsofthosewhoarenotcustodians.

Inotherwords,thereareexceptionaleventsinwhichthelimitsoftheviolationmustbesetinconsiderationofboth the fundamental rightof theplaintiffand the fundamental rightof thosewhodonothavethetutela.Aslongasthereisevidenceoftheneedtopreventtheprotectionofthefundamental rights of the plaintiff is paradoxically carried out to the detriment of equallyfundamental rights of third parties who are in common conditions to that of an authority or aparticularplaintiff.

Fromthispointofview,theeffectsintercommuniscanbedefinedasthoseeffectsofatutelaruling that exceptionally extends to specific situations of people who, even when they did notpromoteconstitutionalprotection,arealsoaffectedbythedehechoodederechothatmotivatedit.Asaresult,theactionofasingleauthorityorindividualisjustifiedintheneedtogiveallmembers



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ofthesamecommunityequalanduniformtreatmentthatensurestheeffectiveenjoymentoftheirfundamentalrights.9.Analysisoftheconcretecase.Introduction.9.1. In thecasesubmittedto theCourt, theplaintiffs filedawritofaccióndetutelatostoptheintensive and large-scale use of various methods of illegal mining and logging, including heavymachinery -dredgesandbackhoes-andhighly toxicsubstances -likemercury- in theAtratoRiver(Chocó), its basins, swamps, wetlands and tributaries.Which, in this court’s opinion, have beenintensifyingforseveralyearsandwhicharehavingharmfulandirreversibleconsequencesontheenvironment, affecting with it the fundamental rights of ethnic communities and the naturalbalanceoftheterritoriestheyinhabit.

Tothis,theyaddthatthemechanizedminingexploitation-whichhasbeendevelopingonalargescaleillegallysincetheendoftheninetiesbydifferentactors-mainlyaffectstheupperandmiddle basin of the Atrato River and even its mouth in the gulf of Urabá, as well as its maintributaries,inparticular,theQuitoRiver,theAndáguedaRiver(Cocomopocaterritory),theBebaráRiver and the Bebaramá River (Cocomacia territory); concretely, through the use of heavymachinery suchas suctiondredgers -also calledby the local "dragons" -, hydraulic elevators andbackhoes,whichinturndestroytheriverbedandperformindiscriminatedumpingofmercuryandother substances and supplies required (such as cyanide, gasoline and fats, etc.) for thedevelopment of these activities in the Atrato and its tributaries, in addition to the dispersion ofvaporsthatmercurytreatmentthrowsintheminingentanglements.

Inthissense,theplaintiffsconsiderthatstate-runentities(bothatthelocallevelandatthenational level)areresponsible for theviolationof their fundamentalrights to life,humandignity,health,water,andsecurity. food,thehealthyenvironment, thecultureandtheterritorydueto itsomission to not take effective actions to stop the development of such illegal mining activities,whichhavegeneratedtheconfigurationofaserioushumanitarianandenvironmentalcrisisintheregion.Methodologyofresolutionofthecase.9.2.DuetothecomplexityofthematterthatissubmittedtoreviewbytheConstitutionalCourtduetothevarietyofproblemsthatallegedlyaffectthefundamentalrightsoftheplaintiffs,theChamberwill:(i)resolvethelegalissuesraised;and(ii)itwillissueaseriesofordersandurgentmeasuresthat will enable it to deal effectively with the crisis caused by the illegal mining of the ethniccommunitiesofChocó.Resolutionofthelegalproblemraised.9.3. Inapreliminarymanner,theCourtconsidersthatinordertoresolvethelegalproblem,itmust: (i)outline somereference reports thatdescribe thegrave situationof illegalmining in theDepartment of Chocó; (ii) present the effects observed in the judicial inspection carried out in



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Chocó in January 2016; (iii) raise a series of conclusions on the legal matters submitted for itsconsideration, and finally, (iv) make some considerations about public policy regarding illegalmining.9.4. By way of illustration, the Chamber must begin by pointing out that the serioushumanitarian, socio-cultural and environmental situation in which the Department of Chocó isimmersed, is historic. The origins of the humanitarian crisis in the region are old, deep andstructural.SomeofthefactorsthathavebeenidentifiedintheliteraturethathasstudiedthesubjectindetailsuggestthatpovertyinChocóistheresultof:(i)acoloniallegacyofweakornon-existentpolitical-administrative institutions; (ii) difficult geographic and climatic conditions that increasethecostsofproductionand"isolate"thedistrictfromtherestofthecountryand,atthesametime,favor the settlement of illegal armed groups; (iii) an extractive economic structure focusedexclusively on the exploitation of natural resources, in particular, themining of gold, silver andplatinum;and(iv)theisolationofthedistrictfromnationaleconomicactivity.[235]9.5 To this historical situation of poverty, marginalization, institutional isolation and theaccumulationofalargenumberofunsatisfiedbasicneeds-inaregionofthecountrythathasbeenhistoricallyaffectedbyviolence,displacementandinternalarmedconflict-hasbeenaddedinthelast decades the incursion of new illegal armed groups and the exponential increase of illegalmining, which, in the words of the Ombudsman's Office, "has generated an unprecedentedhumanitariancrisis inChocóthatdemandsthe jointactionof theentireState, its institutionalismandterritorialentitiesatalllevelstogiveattentionandfinalsolutiontotheseriouscrisisthatthisDepartmentisexperiencing."[236]9.6. Basedonmultiplecomplaintsaboutthesituationdescribedabove,andincompliancewithitsconstitutionalfunctions,theOmbudsman'sOfficehasdocumentedextensivelythedevelopmentofillegalminingandtheviolationoffundamentalrightsthatitproducesinthecountry,especiallyin the Department of the Chocó. In 2010, it published the report "La minería de hecho enColombia", in which the Ombudsman reported alarming increases in this activity in riversidemunicipalitiesof theAtrato, suchasCarmendelAtrato,Bagadó,Condoto, Itsmina,SipíandTadó;andalsowarnedabout themassivearrivalof foreignerswith largemachinerydestined for illegalextractive activities, therefore what is recommended is greater presence of ministerial levels toaddresstheproblem.

In this regard, the referred report pointed out the following: "It is pertinent to note thatbothinthisMiningDistrictandintheotherminingareasoftheColombianPacific,sincethemid-1980suntil today,asignificantgroupof foreignactorshascomeaggressively, inanun-consultedmannerandwithoutinstitutionalcontrolofthecompetentauthorities.Theyhavedevelopedminingextractive activities in an indiscriminate and irrational manner, which has caused a massivealterationanddegradationof the collective territoriesof theblack communitiesof thePacific; inthiswaythereareacuteandcomplexmining-environmentalimpactsofvariouskindsinthemacroregion."9.7.Inthesameyear,theOmbudsmanpresentedtheriskreportNo.015of2010issuedforthesub-regionoftheAtratointheDepartmentofChocó(EarlyWarningSystem-SAT)thathighlighted



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illegal mining projects and illicit crops began to consolidate in 2010 as an important factor ofdisputebetweenillegalarmedactorspresentinChocó[237].9.8. Subsequently, in December 2012, theOmbudsman presented its follow-up report to thepublication"Mineria de hecho en Colombia". In this document the Ombudsman deepened thecharacterizationofthesocialconflictsgeneratedbylegalandillegalmininginareaswhereartisanalmininghasbeena sourceof historical sustenance. Inparticular, theOmbudsmanhighlighted theincreaseinconflictswithethnicgroupsduetotheconcessionofminingtitlestoforeignerswithoutcarrying out prior consultation processes. Additionally, the recommendationsmade in the 2010publication were reiterated, emphasizing that "in territories where ethnic communities exist(indigenous or Afro-Colombian peoples), which have traditionally carried out artisanal miningactivities,mining titles are awarded to foreigners,without carryingout the respectiveprocessofprior consultation or guarantee the right of priority in favor of the ethnic communitiescontemplatedintheCodeofMines."9.9.Finally,in2014throughtwonewpublications[238]theOmbudsman'sOfficeexpresseditsconclusionsontheseriouscrisis facingtheDepartmentofChocó.First,"HumanitarianCrisis inElChocó: Diagnosis, Evaluation and Actions of the Ombudsman's Office", the entity reported theexistenceofpressurefromillegalarmedgroupstocivilandethnicauthoritiestoaccesstheprofitsleftbytheminingandloggingresourceinChocó,aswellastheentranceofurbanmilitiastoprotectillegal miners’ encampments. In the same way, it characterized the effect to the territorialautonomyoftheindigenoustownsbythepressureofminingprojectsinareashistoricallyinhabitedbyethnicgroups.HealsowarnedoftheeconomicdependencethatexistsaroundthegoldmarketintheDepartment,andtheconcernthatthevastmajorityofminingprojectsoperatedwithoutminingtitle and/or an environmental license, in other words, illegally. In addition, the environmentalimpactsdeepenedbyminingincludelackofaccesstodrinkingwater,destructionofwatersources,sedimentationanddiversionofrivers,lossofbiodiversity,amongothers[239].9.10.Thesecondpublication,inparticular,drawstheattentionoftheCourt:itistheOmbudsmanResolution064(September2014),whichdetailedthemainproblemsencounteredinguaranteeinga wide range of fundamental rights and conditions of life, and provides a series of urgentrecommendations for national government to take concrete measures that, until now, have notbeeneffectivelyaddressedaccordingto the follow-upreport - JointDirectorate005-preparedbytheOmbudsman'sOfficeandtheAttorneyGeneral'sOffice[240].

In the aforementioned resolution, a global diagnosis was made of the situation of theDepartmentDistrictand10generalrecommendationswerepresentedwithspecificcommandsforaffectedissuesandrightsforeachoftheStateentitiesinvolved.Theconclusionsofthisdocument,in turn, include the main guidelines of a complete previous report of the same entity entitled,"Humanitarian crisis in Chocó: diagnosis, assessment and actions of the Ombudsman's Office"[241].9.11. Theworseningof theproblemsdescribed,due to theoverflowof illegalmining in recentyears,hasmeant that thevigilanceand controlbodies,without exception,have repeatedly calledthenationalgovernment'sattention to thecritical situation thataffects theDepartmentofChocó,especially with respect to mining that takes place illegally. From the series of investigations on



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miningand theenvironmentpublishedby theComptrollerGeneralof theRepublic (2013) [242],through the general reports on the situation of mining in the country and in Chocó presentedannually by the Attorney General's Office [243], up to the reports and resolutions of theOmbudsman'sOffice,especiallyNo.064of2014,whichdeclaredastateofhumanitarianandsocialemergencyinChocó,whichhavebeenmostlyreviewedinthisjudgment.By virtue of the phenomenon of illegal mining. The State entities have had the possibility ofknowingthedimensionoftheeffectsonfundamentalrightsthatoccursinthisregionofthecountrywheretheplaintiffslive.9.12. However,thesituationofillegalmininginChocóissoalarmingthatrecently,internationalorganizationssuchastheUnitedNationsOfficeonDrugsandCrime-UNODC-haveissuedspecificreports on the exploitation of gold in Chocó confirming the serious situation that the region isexperiencing,duetoillegalmining[244].Thisreportstatesthat"thereisconcernamongcitizensingeneralabouttherecentboomintheexploitationofalluvialgoldinColombianterritory,whichisnotframedbytheregulationsinforceforthedevelopmentofthisactivityandwhichinmanycasesinvolvesthecreationofaproductivechainthatfinancesandstrengthensorganizedcrime."[245]

Consideringthegeneralpanoramapresentedbythereportsofseveralentitiesdinthelastsix years (2010-2016), the Court will review the damages observed in the judicial inspectioncarriedoutinJanuary2016insomesectorsofthebasinoftheAtratoRiver(Chocó)andseveralofitstributariesandsurroundingterritories.9.13. TheChambermustbeginbynoting thatboth theplaintiff communities andvarious stateentities, the Diocese of Quibdó, Codechocó, Corpourabá, the Ombudsman's Office, the AttorneyGeneral's Office, the Office of the Comptroller General of the Republic, the experts of theUniversities of Cartagena and Chocó, international organizations such as the UN and non-governmentalorganizationssuchasDejusticiaandWWFColombia,amongothers,confirmedinsitutheintensiveuseofheavymachineryandtoxicsubstancessuchasmercuryintheprocessofgoldextraction in the Atrato River in the tour that the judicial inspection made of the river and itstributaries [246]. The Ombudsman's Office (folios 1871-1989) and the Attorney General's Office(folios1988-2007)statedthisintheirrespectivereportsaccompanyingthejudicialinspection.

Then theChamberwill refer to themain reporteddamageswithin the judicial inspectioncarriedout inQuibdó (Chocó)and the tour that tookplace in several territories surrounding theAtrato river basin and some of its tributaries. Some sections of themain interventionsmade byinstitutes,universitiesandexpertswillalsoberelatedtotheCourtintheprocessofreviewingthefileforreference.

9.14. Intermsofhealtheffects, thePlaintiffs[247]statedthatasaconsequenceoftheuseofmercuryinillegalminingactivities,"themostseriousdamagetocommunities- intermsofhealth and environmental degradation of rivers and forests - occur in the areas surrounding theAtratoRiveranditstributaries, intheterritoriesofRíoQuito,Soledad,VillaConto,SanIsidroandPaimadó, among others; damages that they estimate occurred in about 84% of the collectiveterritoryofthecommunities.Theyexplainthat,accordingtostudiesfromthePacificEnvironmentalResearch Institute -IIAP-, there have been reports of spontaneous abortions, vaginal, skin and



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fungal diseases caused by the presence of mercury, methylmercury and cyanide in the riverwaters."

In the sameway, they indicated that "as a consequence of the presence of mercury andother toxic chemical substances in thewaters of theAtratoRiver there is a proliferation of newvaginalandcutaneousdiseases.For thesecommunities, the river is thecenterof their socialandculturallife:itistherewheretheyidentifythemselvesasapeople,wheretheywashtheirclothes,bath,play,swim,fishandshareculturalandrecreationalactivities."

Theyindicatedthat"thelevelofmercuryfoundbytheIIAPinthepopulationsisalarmingand refers to a study thatwas carriedouton160people in thebasinof theAtratoRiverand itstributaries(QuitoRiver).Accordingtowhich,thelevelofmercuryfoundinthebloodis60pointspermillion, when theminimumworld average, what is considered acceptable, is 0.5 points permillion,andinColombiaitis1.0perperson."

Theyalsoreportedthat,"recentstudiesconductedbyWWFColombiaandtheUniversityofCartagena (Toxicology Group) on 80 inhabitants of Quibdó to determine the presence of heavymetalsinthepopulation,foundthatintwocasesthepercentageofmercuryinthebloodisof116pointspermillion.Totheaboveitaddsthatit isnecessarytopracticethesametypeofstudiesintheblack communities that inhabit thebasinsof theBebaráandBebaramáRivers (inCocomaciaterritory)andintheNeguáRiver,allofwhicharetributariesoftheAtrato."However,theyconcludethat in the face of this serious problem, "it is necessary to carry out epidemiological and eco-toxicological studies toclearlydetermineabaseline thatallowsunderstanding theseriousnessoftheproblemandtheassociatedeffectsofmercury,whichhavenotyetbeenrealized."

In the same sense, Professor Jesus Olivero of the University of Cartagena [248],internationalspecialistintoxicologyandwhohasconductednumerousinvestigationsinthematterofcontaminationbymercuryandothertoxicsubstances,indicatedinthejudicialinspectioncarriedout inQuibdóthefollowingconsiderationsonthesituationoftheethniccommunitiesaffectedbyillegalmining.

Ingeneral terms, theprofessorexplained theeffectsproducedbymercurywhen itentersliving beings: "he points out that there are many reports that document it. It affirms that theorganisms suffer important side-effects; oneof them is related to the loss of biodiversity; and inhumans,mercuryhasharmfuleffectsindifferentareas,themostseriousofwhichistheteratogeniceffect,which causesmalformations in children.Hepointsout that although there isnodefinitiveevidence, there is evidence that something is happening in the Atrato River in relation to thecontaminationofitswaterswithmercury(methylmercury)andcyanide."Inthisregard,hecitedtheexample of Minamata (Japan), a population whose bay was contaminated with methylmercurymore than 60 years ago, causingmalformations and brain damage in children,which forced theJapaneseGovernmenttocreateahospitalonlyforthesecasesthatstillexistsandtreatspatients.

In the specific case of the Atrato River, "the professor states that in a recent studyconducted with WWF Colombia, random samples were taken from 80 people, inhabitants ofQuibdó,andthatthisanalysisshowedthatonaveragethesepeoplehaveamercurylevelof13partspermillion.Thisalarminglevelcomesfromtheconsumptionoffishcontaminatedwithmercury.It



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clarifiesthattheminingactivitynotcarriedoutinQuibdó,butratherseveralkilometersaway,itsharmfuleffectsarepresentintheinhabitantsoftheentireregion,whosemainsourceoffoodisthefishfromtheriver."[249]

AtthispointherecommendsthattheCourtnotwaitanylongerbutactnow,giventhattheharmful effects ofmercury are already known and that there are international instruments thatrestrict itsuse inminingactivities suchas theMinamataConvention. In that sense,he suggestedthat:"althoughtheuseofmercurymustbeprohibitedinminingactivities,thesubstanceisnottheonlyproblem.Heexplainsthatinthedevelopmentofmining,whichdestroysforests,onecanfindothersubstancesasharmfulandastoxicasmercuryandareheavymetals:thorium,uranium,lead,cadmium. It draws attention to the urgency of conducting serious studies of toxicology andepidemiology throughout the region to determine the presence of these substances and tounderstandtheextentoftheproblemandhowtorespondeffectivelytoit."[250]

Finally,hereiteratedthatthelackofresourcesandlocal,regionalandnationalinstitutionalcapacity cannot be an excuse to allow "impunity" against the environment and that the controlsordered by the law are not carried out. In this regard, he said that,"the problem generated bymining is so serious that treatment differences should not be established between whether theminingisdonelegallyorillegally,becausebothdonothaveeffectivecontrolsbytheauthoritiesandstillcontaminatetheenvironmentregardlessofhavingtitleandenvironmentallicense,notonlyinChocóbutthroughoutthecountry.Itaffirmsthatwemustmakedecisionsnow,andnotwait5or10years to act, becausewe are not facing just any area of the country.We are in one of themostbiodiverseregionsoftheworldthatisundergreatthreatasaresultofminingandofanextractivemodel that in exchange for royalties, destroys the environment anddoes not reinvest socially. Itwarns about the presence ofHIV in the encampments ofminers - suggests that the study of theMinistryofHealthisrequested-andabouthowminingistransformingthetraditionalwaysoflifeofethniccommunities."

In a complementary sense, theAlexanderVonHumboldtResearch Institute forBiologicalResources[251],conceptualizedthefollowingontheimplicationsoftheuseofmercuryinthelife,nature and human populations of illegal mining processes that take place in Chocó: "Thecontaminationofcyanideandmercuryisadeterminingfactoronthelossofbiodiversityandonthehealth of aquatic ecosystems. Cyanide has a very intense but local effect on the species of acommunityofaquaticorganisms.Mercuryhasamorewidespreadeffectonriversandcommunitiesof associatedorganisms.Mercury remainsdeposited in the sedimentsof the rivers, andhavingaresidualcharacter,itpassesfromoneorganismtoanother,itaccumulatesandbecomesfixedinthetrophicchain.Inthissense,itendsupbeingaccumulatedbyfishandplantsthatareconsumedbyhumansandhavedirecteffectsonhumanhealth."

Duringthejudicialinspection,theOmbudsman'sOffice[252]documenteddifferentkindsofhumanhealtheffectsasaconsequenceofmercuryexposure,notingthat,"intheupperAtratoRiverandtheAndáguedaRiver(municipalitiesofLloróandBagadó)diseasessuchasmalariaanddenguehaveincreasedconsiderablyduetotheimpoverishmentofwatergeneratedbyillegalmining,whichattracts transmitting mosquitoes. Urinary tract infections and diarrhea are common (...). Inaddition,outbreaksofdermatologicalinfectionsapparentlycausedbydirectcontactwithmercuryhaveledtotheabandonmentoftraditionalpracticessuchasbathingintheriver,whichthreatens



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the relationship of ethnic communities with the Atrato River. These diseases particularly affectpregnantwomen and children, forwhich it is necessary to diagnosewith scientific studies if thevariouscasesoffetalmalformationareadirectconsequenceofthemercurypresentinthewaterofriversandfish.”

Inacomplementarysense,theAttorneyGeneral'sOffice[253]notedthatwithinthejudicialinspection, it was able to evidence and record numerous complaints from ethnic communitiesregardingdiseasesrelatedtomercurycontaminationthatisusedinillegalminingactivitiesintheAtratoRiverBasin.Inthisregardtheypointoutintheiraccompanyingreporttotheinspection,thatthemostcommondiseasesare"seriousvaginalinfections,skinallergies,memoryloss,tremorsandneurologicalaffections."

Finally,oneofthemajorconcernsthattheCourtencounteredinitsvisittoChocóisrelatedto the lack of studies that can confirm or disprove the presence of mercury or other toxicsubstances inethniccommunitiesdueto fishconsumptionorduetocircumstancesrelatedtotheenvironmentalpollution that canguideanappropriate andeffective institutional response in thematter.[254]9.15.Intermsofeffectsontheenvironment(rivers,swampsandforests),representativesoftheplaintiff ethnic communities argued that the harmful effects of mercury used in illegal miningactivities,whichisspecifiedasfollows:"(i)bydirectcontactwiththeskin;(ii)bycontaminationofthe atmosphere when the substance is burned (by generating steam and then acid rainprecipitation); (iii) contamination of water sources when mercury is poured into riversaccumulates inwater,plantsand fish,whichare thebasisof thewayof lifeand foodpracticesofethnic communities. It is added that the ethnic communities that inhabit thebanks of theAtratoRiver (high, medium and low zones) suffer directly from the effects of mercury and cyanidepollution,asalltheirhygienic,nutritional,socialandculturalactivitiesarecarriedoutintheriver,intheabsenceofbasicinfrastructureofaqueductandbasicsanitation."[255]

In this regard, it is added that "thecontaminationbychemical substancesalsoaffects theforestsandaddedtothistheforestryexploitationthathasbeencarriedoutforyearsinthezone-inparticularintheregionoftheBajoAtrato-withouteffectivestatecontrol."[256]

To this it is also added that, "this environmental degradation not only responds to aproblem of collective rights but also to a systematic violation of fundamental rights such as adignified life, health, freedom of movement, territory, and autonomy. It warns of a profoundtransformationofthetraditionalwaysoflifeofthecommunities(agriculture,fishing,hunting)duetomining."[257]

Regarding the main effects of illegal mining activities in the Atrato River Basin andneighboring territories, the Institute of Natural Sciences of the National University [258], in itsinterventionbeforetheCourt,confirmedthekindsofdamagesthatoccurasaconsequenceofthedevelopment of such activities in aquatic [259] and terrestrial [260] ecosystems. It is concludedthatasa consequenceof theactivitiesofdredginganddeforestation, alterations couldbe caused"such as clogging and/or diversion of watercourses, desiccation of swamps, losses in theconnectivityofaquaticecosystemswithseriouseffectsforthebiodiversityoftheregion."Aswellas,



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"loss of vegetal cover, alterations of the landscape and loss of habitat"; more than"soilcontaminationandinadequatedisposalofchemicalsubstances."

Additionally, the Alexander VonHumboldt Biological Resources Research Institute [261],considered that the illegalmining that takes place in the Atrato River Basin not only affects theenvironment by producing large removals of vegetation layer (native trees, endemic species,jungle),aswellas thesedimentationof the fluvialbed,but itendsabruptlyalteringthecourseoftherivers.Therebythreateningwithitthevaluablebiodiversityoftheregion,whichasitwasseeninthebackgroundandinthefoundation5.3ofthisprovidence,itisoneofthemostimportantontheplanet.

TheOmbudsman said that due to the great devastationof theChocoan forests causedbyillegalminingactivity,theentityhasmadeseveraltourstotheregion,whichhavebeenreferredtoinreportsandpublications.Someofthemalreadypreviouslydescribed(sections9.6to9.12)alsoindicatedinthejudicialinspectionthatthemostseriousdamagetotheenvironmentintheAtratoRiver is caused by, "the load of chemical pollutants that are used for the processing of gold,mercury,cyanide,fatsandoilsandfuelsthatproducehighdegreesofturbidityandmaterialthatisinsuspension."[262]

Additionally,initsinterventioninthejudicialinspectionprocedureinQuibdó(Chocó),theOmbudsman's Office concluded by ratifying and reiterating its observations on violations of theright to health and the environment due to degradation of the ecosystems and contamination ofwatersources,whichheasserted,"isalreadyaveryworryingenvironmentaldamage."[263]

Finally,theOmbudsman'sOfficereferredinitsaccompanyingreporttotheinspectionthat,"theillegalminingactivitythattakesplaceinthebasinoftheAtratoRiverandtheSanJuanRiverinChocó, is alarmingly destroying forests, rivers, ecosystems, affecting the natural dynamics of theregionandputtingatriskthebiogeographicChocó,oneofthemostbiodiverseregionsintheworld.The use of dredges, large and small, and backhoeswithin the same river channels, aswell as inperipheral areas of thebasinshas affected thehydraulic dynamics of theAtrato,Andágueda andQuitoriversandtheirtributaries,hasdestroyedtheriverbed,generatedthedisappearanceofmostoftheaquaticandterrestrialfauna,hasalteredthenaturaldynamicsandcausedanenvironmentalchaosinthewholeregion."[264]

TheAttorneyGeneral's office, in the same sense, pointedout that illegalmining,which iscarriedoutwithdredgesandtoxicchemicalsubstances,isacceleratingwithoutprecedent,"therateofhabitatdestruction ina limitedgeographical area,whichdoesnotofferapromising future forwildlife. Significant investments are required to carry out conservationwork, declare newparksand protected reserves. Finally, it is important to undertake basic biological studies that allowmaintainingthefloraandfaunathataredisappearingfasterthantheabilitytoknowthem."[265]

Finally, the Humboldt Institute made some estimates about what it considers to be theprocess to follow toachieve the recoveryof theAtratoRiver, its speciesandaquaticecosystems.TheInstituteconcludedthat,"therecoveryoftheAtratoRiverBasinanditstributariescouldtakedecades."[266]Italsosaidthatthetimesfortherecoveryofabodyofwateranditsnativeforest,"depends on the level of affectation of it and of course the scope ofwhatwe call rehabilitation,



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under mining scenarios we must take into account that degradation it reaches strategiccomponentsofecosystemswherenotonlybiota(livingorganisms),butcomponentssuchaswaterandsoilareaffectedorlostaltogether."[267]

To this, the Institute added that in some cases it has been identified that many forestsystemsintropicalzones"initiaterecoveryprocessesafter30years.Thishasbeendonetorestorethe typical species of the area and has worked on the remediation of the soil, which is usuallystrongly affectedbyheavymetals. If a complete recovery of the system is expected, the times ofrecoverycaneventriple."Inthespecificcaseofcontaminationbytoxicsubstancessuchasmercury,theInstituteconcludedthat"someauthorsestimateapermanencegreaterthan70yearsiftherearenoactivitiestoremediatesaidmetal.However,studiesonrecoverytimesfortheaffectedregionarestillscarceandshouldbeconsideredthemaximumprecautionagainstanyminingactivity.Tothisend,studiesofecologyresearchappliedtotherestorationofaquaticecosystemsintherestorationof tropicalrainforestsandresearch inpost-miningscenariosmustbe followed, theyareemptyofscientificresearchthatmustbecoveredurgently."(Underlinedandboldnotinoriginaltext)9.16. Withrespecttotheviolationsofthefundamentalrighttofoodsecurity,thecoordinatoroftheChocoanoWomen'sNetwork[268]indicatedinthejudicialinspectioncarriedoutbytheCourtinQuibdó, that traditionallyall farmingwas conductedby thepopulations throughtheriverandthatthissituationbegantochange,"withthearrivalofthearmedconflict-initsdifferentactors-totheethnicterritoriesandwiththebeginningofthedisputesfortheterritorialcontrolthathasbeenaggravatedwith the development of illegalmining and logging."It concluded that these activitiesaretheoriginofthedisplacementandfoodcrisisthattheregionisexperiencing.

TheVicarGeneraloftheDioceseofQuibdó-whoalsoparticipatedinthejudicialinspection- affirmed that in 2006 FISCH, the Dioceses of the Pacific and 10 other ethnic organizations,“advanced an investigation on the food sovereignty of the ethnic communities of the region andfoundthatillegalminingandloggingareseriouslyaffectingancestralpracticesandtraditionalwaysoflife.”[269].Forexample,hepointedoutthatasaconsequenceofcarryingouttheseactivities"thecultivation of chontaduro and bananilla has disappeared",in the territories of the Atrato RiverBasin.

Additionally, the representative of the plaintiff communities referred in the judicialinspection to a study [270] carried out by theHumboldt Institute,WWFColombia, the JaverianaUniversity and the Colombian Association of Ichthyology (fish specialists), in the so-calledbiogeographical Chocó, which also includes Chocó to Cauca and Nariño (Pacific coastal area),"whereitwasdemonstratedthat15endemicspecieshavedisappearedfromthebasinsandthattheriverwith the greatest loss of species is theAtratoRiver."It is added that" of these 15 species 6inhabittheQuitoriverandcannotbeconsumedduetohighlevelsofmercurycontamination,whichisveryseriousbecausethesefishareanimportantsourcefoodforthecommunitiesoftheregion."It is concluded that the consequences in terms of food security and subsistence are worrisomebecause,"thereisnomorefisheriesorcommerce".[271]

Ontheotherhand,duringthe inspectionof theAtratoRiverandseveralof its tributaries,includingtheQuitoRiver,a leaderof theCommunityCouncilof"LaSoledad"(Chocó),denouncedthattheircommunity(oneofthefirsttobeseenatthestartofthetripfromQuibdó),"isoneofthe



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mostaffectedbyillegalmining,becausethisactivity-andthepollutionproducedbyit-hasendedtraditional,fisheries,causingseriousproblemsoffoodsecurity."[272]

Another leaderoftheCommunityCouncilof"Paimadó,RíoQuito"(Chocó),addedthatthecommunitiesof "LaSoledad", "Guayabalito"and"Barranca" traditionally livedon fishing,but thatthe pollution of the illegal mining activity (chemical substances, waste, oils) and municipalities(garbage),hasceasedtheseactivities.Tothisitisaddedthat,"theareathatwascrossedmanyyearsagowasanareaoffishingandagriculture:theleadersremembertheriverbeingfullofcanoesandfish."[273] Finally, the leader pointed out that, in the absence of employment and productiveactivities,thewaysoflifeofthecommunitiesarechangingandprostitutionhastakenforceintheregionasasubsistenceactivity.

Tothis,anothercommunityleaderaddedthat,"traditionalspeciesoffishsuchas 'Dentón'no longer rise to the river because of pollution and that this has generated displacement in thecommunities."[274] It is argued that as a consequence of the development of illegal miningactivitiestodayonlyabandonedtrapsareobserved.

Finally, the coordinator of theUNOffice for Ethnic Affairs,who accompanied the judicialinspectionandthetouroftheAtratoRiveranditstributaries,reiteratedthepointmadebyseveralcommunityleadersregardingthedisappearanceofthefishandthetraditionalsubsistencemodelofcommunities because ofmining. The coordinator added that the contamination conditions of theriverhavecontributedtothelowrateoffishreproductionand,withtime,toitsdisappearance.9.17. About the damages to the rights, to the culture, and the territory, one of the communityleaders of Paimadó (Chocó) affirmed, during the visit to that region that, "it is very sad towalktoday along the Quito river -which is drying up- from Atrato to Paimadó or Manacruz becauseillegalmininghasnotonlychangedthecourseoftheriverbuthasalsoendedupwithtraditionalformsofsubsistencebasedonagricultureandthecropsofyam,yuccaandplantain.Theancestraltrees such as borojó, chontaduro, the 'bread tree', the 'pato' and the banana tree are no longeravailableandcannotbetransportedduetothewayinwhichmininghasdestroyedtheriver."

Inacomplementarysense,theOmbudsman'sOfficeindicatedthattheillegalminingactivityin the Atrato River Basin and its tributaries has caused the decrease of agricultural work, as atraditional formof subsistence, "to thepoint that all the food consumed is taken frompopulatedcenterslikeQuibdóandBeté".TheOfficeaddedthatthissituationhasalsoaffectedthesocialandecological function of the collective territory, "because its use for the traditional practice ofagriculturewassuspended."Thisishowthefoodsthatwereancestrallycultivatedforconsumptionsuchaschontaduro,borojó,cacao,banana,amongothers,theirbasicfoods,arenolongercultivatedin the areasmost impactedby illegalmining, also because these activities generate infertility onearth.

Likewise, the Ombudsman in his report pointed out that the food impacts are intimatelylinkedtothecultureandterritoryoftheaffectedethniccommunities.Inthisregard,hestatedthat,"the environmental impact on rivers that illegal mining has generated has transformed culturalpracticesaroundwatersources.Anexampleoftheeffectsonthesocialfunctionoftheterritoryandthereforeon cultural integrity is related to the fact that communities cannot carryout theirown



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activities on the river bank. Taking into account that the river serves as a traditional space fordialogueandthetransmissionofone'sownknowledgethroughoraltradition,nowtheuseofthisspace has lost its sense of a meeting place, directly impacting the cultural integrity of thesecommunities."

Similarly, the Humboldt Institute, from a biological and anthropological perspective,presentedaseriesofreflectionsontheneedtoassessnotonlytheenvironmentalimpactsofwaterand land pollution but also how these circumstances end up affecting, including socio-cultural,territorial, cultural, economic andpolitical rights (in termsof authority andpower)of the ethniccommunitiesthatinhabittheAtratoRiverBasin[275].

Consideringtheforegoing,andinaccordancewiththeevidenceoftheCourtinthejudicialinspection carried out in Choco in January 2016 [276], development of illegal mining activitiescontribute toaseriousviolationof fundamentalrights in theethniccommunities that inhabit thebasinoftheAtratoRiver,itstributariesandsurroundingterritories.

Indeed,theCourtwasabletoverifythatalongtheroutethroughtheQuitoRiver(tributaryoftheAtrato),whichincludedthesectorsofQuibdó,Soledad,Guayabalito,LomadeBarranca,SanIsidro,BocasdePaimadó, LomasPuebloNuevo, riverPató,Villa Conto andPaimadó, the activitydeployed by the mining machines (dredgers, dragons and backhoes) is seriously affecting theenvironmentandtheneighboringcommunities[277].

Inparticular,thisCourtobservedthedeviationandseriousdeteriorationoftheriverbedbysandbanks,artificialarmsandentrances.Inthemthepermanentpresenceofdredgesanddragonswasconfirmed.Likewise,thedestructionofthevegetationlayer,destructionofbanks,diversionofchannels, blockageof tributaries, removal of soil (sandand rocks), aswell as the constructionofartificial islands with backhoes (sandbanks), that after the exploitation were abandoned.Additionally,noevidencewasfoundofthedevelopmentoffishingorfarmingactivities[278],inthemiddleofwhatitseems,asthelocalscallit,"theminingdesert".

In summary, the declarations, reports and quoted concepts confirm that the pollutingactivitiesproducedby illegalminingmayhavedirect impactson thehealthof thepeopleand, inaddition, another kind of indirect impacts on humanwell-being, such as the reduction of forestproducts that affects food and medicinal balance, and can produce changes in the traditionalpractices,usesandcustomsoftheethniccommunitiesassociatedwithbiodiversity.9.18. Responsesfromthedefendantentities.Withrespecttothespecificcase,theCourthasbeenabletoverifyinthejudicialinspectioncarriedoutinChocoinJanuary2016[279],thatoneofthemostseriouselementsofthedescribedcrisishas,asanessentialcomponent,agreatdifficultywiththe state entities. This difficulty ranges from the local to the national level, to articulate policies,plansandprogramsaimedateffectively tackling the complex challenge impliedby illegalminingactivitythatinmostcasesisinthehandsofillegalarmedgroups.

Thus,thevastmajorityofresponsesthatdifferentpublicentitiesmadetotheCourthaveacommon denominator, and that is to show a notable lack of information, coordination andarticulationoffunctions,jurisdictionsandcompetencesbetweenthesame,somethingthatinother



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cases the Court has metaphorically called "institutional marasmus"[280]. Another aspect to beexamined and one of great concern to the Chamber is that a significant number of institutionalresponses insisted that thesituationof illegalmining in theAtratoRiverBasin isnotunder theirpowerorresponsibility.

Thus,forexample,thePresidencyoftheRepublic[281]limiteditselftosayingthat,"bylegaldefinition,itcannotbeadefendantwithintheaccióndetutela,becausewithinitsfunctionsthereisnorelationtothesubjectmatteroftheaction,whatistranslatedinalackoflegitimation."Likewise,it indicated, "that it lacks information that allows it to answer the questions of the Court andrequeststhatitbedissociatedordeclaredinadmissiblefromthetutelaagainsttheentity."

TheMinistryof the Interior (folios72-79/522-527), theMinistryofEnvironment (folios1007-1012),theMinistryofMinesandEnergy(folios289-348/2027-2037),theNationalAgencyofMining (folios104-179), theMinistryofHealth (folios2008-2036), theMinistryofAgriculture(folios 28-33 of the main Notebook), the Ministry of Housing (folios 501-521), the Ministry ofEducation(folios349to359),theMinistryofDefense(folios389-400/1014-1263),theMinistryof Finance and theUIAF (folios2498-2557), theNational PlanningDepartment -DNP- (folios 80-103),theDepartmentforSocialProsperity-DPS-(folios1264-1265),theGovernmentofAntioquia(folios 360-388), theNational Agency of Environmental Licenses -ANLA- (folios 1266-1278), theNational InstituteofHealth -INS-(folios180-207), theRegionalAutonomousCorporationfor theSustainable Development of Chocó -Codechocó- (folios 2095-2131), to the Corporation for theSustainableDevelopmentoflUrabá-Corpourabá-(folios224-230),mostofthempresentedlistsofindependentandeventualactionsthataccountforthelackofarticulationandcoordinationofsomestateentities to comprehensivelyaddress themultipleneeds thatdemand toaddress the seriousthreatthatitrepresentsillegalminingactivityfortheprotestingethniccommunities[282].

Inparticular,itisnotedthattheDistrictofChocóandthedefendantmunicipalities(whichinclude3ofAntioquia)[283]didnotrespondtoanyoftheinformationrequestsmadebytheCourt,whichraisedconcernstotheOmbudsman'sOfficeandtheAttorneyGeneral'sOfficeintheir"JointDirective005"of2015.

Specifically, regarding theMiningBureau "MesaMinera", the only space designed for thestatearticulation inresponsetothe illegalminingcrisis,actors,especialistsandcontrolagenciesthatparticipatedinthejudicialinspectionthattheCourtcarriedoutinQuibdó,saidthatithasnotachieved its objective. For example, theCenter for Studies "TierraDigna", legal representativeofthe plaintiff ethnic communities, said that, "theMining Bureau,made up of regional authorities,whosepurposeistoaddresstheproblemthatiscausingmining,hasnotworkednorhasitprovidedconcretesolutionstotheserioushumanitarianandenvironmentalcrisis."[284]

To this, it is added that, "(...) the national government has made logistical and financialefforts in the last 3 years to achieve a space of inter-institutional articulation, which they havecalledthe‘Mining-EnvironmentalBureau,withtheparticipationofcommunities,localentitiesandoftheminingguild.Similarly, itpointsoutthattheMinistryofHealthorderedanepidemiologicalstudytodeterminetheextentofthehealtheffectsinChocó,butafteroneyearithasnotyetbeendone.Insummary,itexpressesthattheactionsplannedandderivedfromtheMiningarenotbeingfulfilled."[285]



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For his part, the representative of the Inter-ethnic Forum Solidarity Chocó -FISCH-,

denounced in the same diligence, "a long inactivity of the Mining Bureau in its three years ofexistence."And reiterated that, "themeasures to be takenmust guarantee the restoration of thetraditional ways of life, health, protection of the environment, food sovereignty and territorialrecovery, from an ethnic perspective that strengthens and empowers ethnic authority to face allthesechallenges."[286]

Inthesamesense,theVicarGeneraloftheDioceseofQuibdóexpressedhisconcernabout,"theresignationoftheleadersofthecommunitiestocontinueattendingtheMiningBureauthathasgeneratedthreatsagainstitsmembers."[287]

In a broader sense, the Judicial and Agrarian Procurator of Quibdó, estimated that, "theStatemuststructurallyreorient itspolicyagainstChocóandwithrespect tomining.HeaddsthattheStatehasleftalonethedistrictandtheinstitutionsinchargeofthefightagainstillegalminingthatisdevelopedmostlybyillegalarmedgroups;itaffirmsthattheyaretheoneswho'control'theminingbusinessand'replacetheStateinitsfunctions'."[288]

Tothis,headdedthat,"themayorsdonothavethetoolstoeffectivelycontrolmining,thatthereisnoStatepresenceintheregionandthatthereisagreatproblemofunsatisfiedbasicneeds.He also points out that most of the mining concessions in Chocó are delivered without studies,withoutadequateinformationandwithoutcomplyingwithlegalrequirementsorcarryingoutpriorconsultationwiththecommunities."[289]

Finally,heconcludedbynoting that, "theminingauthoritysystematically refuses tocarryout prior consultation processes in the region with ethnic communities. As a result, there is norecordthatclarifieswhereminingcanbedoneandwhereitcannotbedone.Itsuggestsdesigning,from the State and from the central level, a serious, structural and long-term policy onmining."[290]

Additionally,theOmbudsman'sOfficereiteratedwhattheRegionalProsecutorsaid,"inthesense that the institutional inability of the authorities to control illegal mining and its seriousconsequencesonthepopulationandtheenvironmentisevident.Itclarifiesthattheproblemisnotlimitedtoillegalminingbuttothestateminingmodelthatdoesnotcontrolandhasnorecordofthedevelopmentof theactivityand if it respects thecurrentenvironmentalandminingregulations."[291]

Finally, Codechocó, the environmental authority of the region reaffirmed what wasexpressed both by the Attorney General's Office and the Ombudsman's Office, statingthat,"Codechocódoesnotignoretheseriousenvironmentalproblemsthatariseinthedepartmentas a result of mining activities and forest exploitation. It affirms that it shares the views of theAttorney General's Office and the Ombudsman's Office in the sense that the magnitude of thesituation is so great and so serious that Codechocó - which reports to the Ministry of theEnvironment - cannot do much to address this problem, due to its institutional deficienciescharacterizedbyinsufficientresourcesandlogisticcapacity.Itindicatesthatdespitetheforegoing,



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theypermanentlyrequestaccompanimentfromthePublicForceandtheProsecutor'sOfficeinitsoperations."[292]

In a complementary manner, both the Ombudsman's Office (folios 423-500 and 1871-1989),theAttorneyGeneral'sOffice(folios286-288and1988-2007),theOfficeoftheComptrollerGeneraloftheRepublic(folios255-285)andtheGeneralProsecutorOffice(folios2603-2697)haveissuednumerouswarningsabouttheserioussituationfacedbytheDepartmentofChocó,aswellasthe ethnic communities that inhabit the Atrato River Basin and the threat to their fundamentalrightsasa resultof the intensivedevelopmentof illegalminingactivities;without thatuntilnowlocal and national authorities have taken sufficient measures to address or solve the problemreported.9.19.Oncethemainimpactsreportedbytheplaintiffcommunitiesinvolvedandtheresponsesofthedefendantentitiesaredescribed,theChamberthenpresentsabriefphotographicaccountofthejudicial inspectioncarriedout inQuibdó (Chocó), in January2016,whichgivesanaccountof theserioussituationoftheAtratoRiverBasin,itstributariesandsurroundingterritories. [IMAGE]Folio2110oftheBookofevidenceNo.5.Inthegraphyoucanseeanencampmentorillegalminingcampwiththepresenceofdredgersandbackhoes.January29,2016. [IMAGE]Folio2114of theBookof evidenceNo. 5.Dredgeor "dragon" - as the local communities call it -carryingoutsandremovalactivities inthebedoftheQuitoRiver(affluentoftheAtrato). January29,2016.

[IMAGE]Folio2116oftheEvidenceBookNo.5.Activitiesofdredging,processingandillegalextractionofgoldintheQuitoRiver.January29,2016. [IMAGE]Folio2118oftheBookofevidenceNo.5."Dragon"carryingoutsandremovalactivitiesinthebedoftheQuitoRiver(affluentoftheAtrato).January29,2016. [IMAGE]Folio 2124 of the Book of evidence No. 5. Image of virgin forest, free of mining and forestexploitation.January29,2016. [IMAGE]Folio2126oftheEvidenceBookNo.5.Imageofthetransformationthat



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theminingactivitiesproduceintheChocoanjungle.January29,2016. [IMAGE]Folio2129oftheBookofevidenceNo.5.DestructionofthebedoftheQuitoRiver(affluentoftheAtrato).January29,2016. [IMAGE]Folio2129oftheBookofevidenceNo.5.FloodingofnativeforestcausedbydredgesintheAtratoRiver. You can also seemountains or "islands" of sand in the river that are the result of illegalmining.January29,2016.Folio 2130 of the Evidence Book No. 5. Overview of the effects of illegal mining with heavymachineryandtoxicchemicalsintheAtratoRiver.January29of2016.January29of2016. [IMAGE]Folio2131oftheBookofevidenceNo.5.DestructionoftheAtratoriverbed.January29,2016.Conclusion. The defendant state authorities are responsible for the violation of the fundamentalrightstolife,tohealth,towater,tofoodsecurity,tothehealthyenvironment,tothecultureandtothe territoryof theplaintiffethniccommunities for theiromissiontonot takeeffectiveactions tostop the development of illegal mining activities. Such activities which have generated theconfigurationofaserioushumanitarianandenvironmentalcrisisintheAtratoRiverBasin(Chocó),itstributariesandsurroundingterritories.a.-RegardingthedumpingofmercuryandothertoxicchemicalsubstancesnecessaryforcarryingoutillegalminingactivitiesintheAtratoRiver,itstributariesandsurroundingterritories.9.20.Violationofthefundamentalrightstolife,healthandthehealthyenvironmentofthePlaintiffethnic communities.The Court must begin by pointing out that from the different reports,responses, concepts and interventions included in the review process [293], it has found thatChoco'smaineconomicactivityiscurrentlyillegalmining.Andthatthismechanizedexploitation,inspiteof theState's efforts to combat it, is carriedout in an intensiveand indiscriminatemanner,with the use of dredgers, dragons, backhoes and toxic chemical substances such asmercury andcyanide to obtain the separation of the ore from gold of impurities [294]. Thereby generating asignificantenvironmentalpollutionthataffects,asawhole,therightstolife,humandignity,health,water, food security, the health of the environment, to the culture and territory of the ethniccommunitiesthatinhabitthebasinoftheAtratoRiver.

In this way, both the Chamber and the plaintiff communities, various State entities, theDioceseofQuibdó,Codechocó,Corpourabá, theOmbudsman'sOffice, theAttorneyGeneral of theNation, theGeneralComptrollerof theRepublic, theexpertsof theUniversitiesofCartagenaandChocó, international organizations such as the UN and non-governmental organizations such asDejusticia andWWF Colombia, among others, were able to confirm in situ the intensive use ofheavymachineryandtoxicsubstancessuchasmercuryinthegoldextractionprocessintheAtratoRiver in linewith the judicial inspection thatwasmadeof the river and its tributaries[295].The



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Ombudsman's Office (folios 1871-1989) and the Attorney General's Office (folios 1988-2007)stated this in their respective reports accompanying the judicial inspection, as has already beenoutlined.9.21. However, according to the evidence of the Court in the judicial inspection carried out inChocó in January2016[296], it isnecessary that in thecaseof thedevelopmentof illegalminingactivities, they contribute to a serious violation of fundamental rights in the ethnic communitiesthatinhabitthebasinoftheAtratoRiver,itstributariesandsurroundingterritories.

Indeed,theCourtwasabletoverifythatalongtheroutethroughtheQuitoRiver(tributaryoftheAtrato),whichincludedthesectorsofQuibdó,Soledad,Guayabalito,LomadeBarranca,SanIsidro,BocasdePaimadó, LomasPuebloNuevo, riverPató,Villa Conto andPaimadó, the activitydeployedbythemachinesused inmining(dredgers,dragonsandbackhoes) isseriouslyaffectingtheenvironmentandtheneighboringcommunities[297].

Inparticular,thisCourtwasabletoobservethedeviationandseriousdeteriorationoftheriverbed by sandbars, artificial arms and entrances. In them the permanent presence of dredgesand dragons was confirmed. In the same way, the destruction of the vegetal layer and of theriverbanks,deviationofchannels,blockageoftributaries,removalofearth(sandandrocks),aswellas the construction of artificial islands with backhoes (sandbars) were left abandoned after theexploitation.Additionally,noevidencewasfoundofthedevelopmentoffishingorfarmingactivities[298],inthemidstofwhatitseems,asthelocalscallit,"theminingdesert".

In relation to the above,what has been observed in the images reviewed in section 9.19[299]istheconspicuouscontrastbetweenavirginjungleregionandthezonesdedicatedtoillegalmining,bothonlandandwater,withgreatimpactontheforests,andasintheAtratoRiveranditstributaries, with great impact on water sources. The impact of illegal mining on the river is sostrongthattodayitispracticallyimpossibletodeterminetheoriginalchannelthatriveroncehad,itsarmsanditstributaries.Alongwithwhatcanbeseenaconsiderablegrowthofdeforestedareas,giventhatillegalminingtakesplacebothinrivers-alluvialmining-andinland-open-airmining-,exploitationsthattogetherproduceseriousdeforestationprocesses[300].9.22. Likewise, thedestructionof the environment and the threat tobiodiversity in the regionsubject to the facts of this actionwas corroborated not only by the Chamber but also by all theaccompanyingentities[301],asreferredinsections9.14to9.17.FortheCourt, there isnodoubtthat illegal mining is seriously affecting the fundamental rights to life, health and a healthyenvironmentoftheethniccommunitiesthatinhabittheAtratoRiverBasinanditstributaries.AndthatthisviolationhasimpactsdirectandindirectontheChocoanoethniccommunities,ashasbeendocumentedinnumerousreportsoftheOmbudsman'sOffice,theAttorneyGeneral'sOfficeandtheGeneral Comptroller of the Republic, among others, which were already mentioned in thisjudgment.9.23. An importantreasontoaffirmtheabove is that theactivitiesof illegalmining,apart fromusing heavy machinery -which completely transforms and destroys everything in its path-, alsoindiscriminatelyuseshighlytoxicchemicalsubstancessuchasmercury.Which,aswehaveseeninthereportsreviewedthroughoutthisresolution(chapter7,section7.26to7.31,andsection9.14),



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havethepotentialtoaffectthelifeandhealthofhumanpopulations,aswellastheenvironmentanditsbiodiversity.

Inthisregard,theChambershouldreiteratethat,asdiscussedinchapter5,sections5.1to5.58, theprotection of rivers, forests, food sources andbiodiversity (healthy environment) has adirectandinterdependentrelationshipwiththeguaranteeoftherightstolifeandhealth,(aswellas culture and territory), within what has been called biocultural rights. Precisely, the centralelementsofthisapproachestablishanintrinsiclinkbetweennatureandculture,andthediversityof the human species as part of nature and manifestation of multiple forms of life. From thisperspective,theconservationofbiodiversitynecessarilyleadstothepreservationandprotectionofthewaysoflifeandculturesthatinteractwithit.

Consequently,publicpoliciesontheconservationofbiodiversitymustadaptand focusonthepreservationoflife,itsvariousmanifestations,butmainlyinthepreservationoftheconditionsfor that biodiversity to continue deploying its evolutionary potential in a stable and indefinitemanner, as theCourthas indicated in abundant jurisprudence [302]. Similarly, theobligationsofthe State to protect and conserve the lifestyles of indigenous peoples, black and farmer, meanguaranteeingtheirconditionsofbeing,perceivingandapprehendingtheworld.9.24. In open contrast to the above, the public entities investigated on the actions taken toconfrontthiscomplexsituationthatthreatenstherightstolife,healthandahealthyenvironmentoftheplaintiffethniccommunities,suchastheMinistryofHealth,theNationalInstituteofHealth,theMinistryofEnvironmentandCodechocó indicated that theyare in theprocessofdesigningplansandstudiesthatallowtheelaborationofjointresearchandactionprojectstorespondtothecrisis.[303]However,althoughtheCourtvalues these intentionsaspositive, todate ithasnotheardofanytoxicologyorepidemiologicalresearchintheregion.9.25. In considerationof theaforementioned, for theCourt it isnecessary to conclude that theillegalminingactivity,havingthepotentialtocauseharmtohealthandtotheenvironment,ashasbeen seen in the case of the ethnic communities that inhabit the basin of the Atrato River, it issubject to the application of the precautionary principle. This applieswhen - although there is aprinciple of technical certainty - there is scientific uncertainty regarding the harmful effects of ameasureoractivity.Inthatcase,thesolutionthatavoidsthedamagemustbepreferredandnottheonethatcanallowit.Thisprincipleisnotonlydesignedtoprotecttherighttotheenvironmentbutalso the right tohealthwhen there is a threat of violation. In thisway, aswas seen in chapter7(section7.33to7.41)ofthepresentruling,whenduetothedevelopmentofillegalminingactivities,incasethereisreasonabledoubtastowhethertheyaffectthenaturalenvironmentorhealthofthepeople,asithasbeenevidencedinthemattersubexamine,measuresmustbetakenthatanticipateandavoidanydamage,andincasethatitiscaused,thecorrespondingcompensationmeasures.

In this order of ideas, given the evidence of the potential harmful effects that the use ofmercuryandothertoxicsubstancesintheillegalminingactivitythattakesplaceintheAtratoRiverBasin,which can endangernot only the communities but to the environment as awhole, even ifthereisnoscientificcertainty,theChamberconsidersthatinthiscasetherequirementsaremettoapplytheprecautionaryprincipleinenvironmentalmattersandtoprotecttherighttohealthofthepeople [304]. As indicated in the respective section, the precautionary principle implies in very



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simpleterms,thatincaseofscientificdoubt,itdoesnotabstainand,onthecontrary,protectstherighttoahealthyenvironmentandhealthinconnectionwithlife.

Specifically, theapplicationof theprecautionaryprinciple in thepresentcasewillhaveasobjectives,(i)toprohibittheuseoftoxicsubstancessuchasmercuryinminingactivities,whetherlegalor illegal;and(ii)declare that theAtratoRiver is subject to rights that imply itsprotection,conservation,maintenanceand,inthespecificcase,restoration,aswillbeseenlaterinsection9.32.9.26. By way of conclusion and with respect to this particular point, the Court finds that theDefendantentitieshaveviolatedtherightstolife,healthandahealthyenvironmentofthePlaintiffcommunities by allowing the indiscriminate dumping of mercury and other toxic chemicalsubstances necessary for the realization of illegal mining activities in the Atrato River, itstributariesandsurroundingterritoriesbynottakingconcreteandarticulatedmeasurestoavoidit,having full knowledge of the situation, that is, by omission in the fulfillment of its legal andconstitutional duties. As a result, the responsible entities will be ordered to adopt a series ofemergencymeasurestodealwiththisseriousviolationofthefundamentalrightstolife,healthandahealthyenvironment,whichwillbeindicatedintherelativesectiontotheorders.b.-AboutthepollutionoftheAtratoRiver,itstributaries,forestsandfoodsourcesproducedbythedevelopmentofillegalminingactivitiesintheregion.9.27.Violationoftherighttowaterasawatersource.Atthispoint,itiscleartotheCourtthat,asproven by the evidence in the case file and in the judicial inspection - which were outlined insections 9.14 to 9.17 -, the illegal mining that takes place in the Atrato River Basin and itstributaries challenges any idea of rational use of water and forest resources, and constitutes anopenviolationof the fundamental right towater (asa consequenceof its serious contamination)thatthreatensnotonlyethniccommunities,theDepartmentofChocóortheenvironment,butalsooneofthemostimportantwaterandbiodiversitysourcesintheworld,andthus,presentandfuturegenerations[305].

Inthisway,fortheChamberitispertinenttoreiteratethat,aswasseeninsections5.41to5.50 of the present order, in accordance with various International Treaties [306], the PoliticalCharter (Ecological Constitution), the Inter-American jurisprudence [307] and that of this Court[308],accesstosafewater,thepreservationofnaturalsourcesandwaterresourcesconstitutesoneoftheessentialguaranteestoensureanadequatestandardofliving,asanindispensableconditiontoavoiddeathbydehydration, to reduce riskofdiseases related towater (contaminated)and tomeet the needs of consumption, cooking, personal hygiene and domestic hygiene. This alsoguarantees preservation of the hydrological, biological and chemical functions of ecosystems,adaptationofhumanactivitiestothelimitsofnature'scapacityandtocombatthevectorsofwater-relateddiseases.

Additionally,itcannotbeoverlookedthattherighttowaterisasinequanonrequirementfortheexerciseofotherrights,while"waterisnecessarytoproducefood(righttofood);toensureenvironmentalhygiene(righttohealth);toprocurelife(righttowork)andtoenjoycertainculturalpractices (right to participate in cultural life)."Therefore, pollution -especiallywithmercury andcyanide[309]-andcarryingoutillegalminingactivitiesintheAtratoRiverBasinanditstributaries



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notonlyviolatestherighttowaterandothercomponentsoftherighttoahealthyenvironment(ashasalreadybeenstated),butalsoviolates theessentialstandardsofavailability,accessibilityandwaterqualityestablished inGeneralCommentNo.15,becausethis typeofmining isharmful, theproductionoffood(trees,cropsandfish),thehealthconditions,thetraditionalwaysoflifeandtheculturalpracticesofthePlaintiffethniccommunities.

Precisely, the biggest challenge of contemporary constitutionalism on environmentalmatters,istoachievethesafeguardandeffectiveprotectionofnature,associatedcultures,waysoflife, andbiodiversity,not just for the simplematerial, geneticorproductiveutility that these canrepresenttohumans,butbecausebeingalivingentitycomposedofothermultipleformsoflifeandculturalrepresentations,aresubjectsof individualrights,whichmakesthemanewimperativeofintegralprotectionandrespectonthepartofStatesandsocieties.Inshort,onlyfromanattitudeofdeep respect and humility with nature, its members and its culture, it is possible to enter intorelationshipswiththeminfairandequitableterms,leavingasideanyconceptthatislimitedtothesimplyutilitarian,economic,orefficient[310].

In effect, nature and the environment are a transversal element of the Colombianconstitutionalorder.Itsimportancelies,ofcourse,inattentiontothehumanbeingsthatinhabititandtheneedtohaveahealthyenvironmenttoliveadignifiedlifeandinwellbeingconditions,butalsoinrelationtotheotherlivingorganismswithwhomtheplanetisshared,understoodasstocksworthyofprotectioninthemselves.Itisaboutbeingawareoftheinterdependencethatconnectsustoalllivingbeingsonearth;thatis,recognizingourselvesasintegralpartsoftheglobalecosystem-biosphere-, rather than fromnormativecategoriesofdomination, simpleexploitationorutility.Aposition that takes on special relevance in Colombian constitutionalism, taking into account theprinciple of cultural and ethnic pluralism that supports it, as well as the knowledge, uses, andancestralcustomsbequeathedbyindigenousandtribalpeoples.[311]

Precisely,inrelationtothenaturalandculturalwealthofthenation,Article8ofthePoliticalCharterestablishesasafundamentalobligationoftheStateandofsocietytowatchoverthecareofournaturalandculturalriches.Additionally,inthechapteroncollectiverights(Articles79and80)andspecificobligations(Article95-8),thegeneralparametersthatguidetherelationshipbetweenthe human being and his living environment are established: natural, environmental andbiodiverse.Inthissense,asaconsequenceoftheattributionsconsecratedattheheadoftheState,societyandindividualsintheabove-mentionedarticles,theobligationtoprotecttheenvironmentisestablishedinordertopreventandcontroltheenvironmentaldeteriorationfactors,procuringitsconservation, restoration and sustainable development. In simpler words: the defense of theenvironmentisnotonlyaprimeobjectivewithinthestructureofourSRLbutitalsointegrates,inanessentialway,thespiritthatinformstheentirePoliticalConstitution.[312]9.28. In this context, it is necessary for the Chamber to advance in the interpretation of theapplicable lawand inthe formsofprotectionof fundamentalrightsandtheirsubjects,duetothegreatdegreeofdegradationandthreatinwhichitfoundtheAtratoRiverBasin.Fortunately,attheinternational level (as seen from section 5.11) a new legal approach called biocultural rights isbeingdeveloped,whosecentralpremiseistherelationshipofprofoundunityandinterdependencebetweennatureandhumanspecies,andthathasasaconsequenceanewsocio-legalunderstandinginwhichnatureshouldbetakenseriouslyandwithfullrights.Thatis,asasubjectofrights.



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9.29.Inthisorderofideas,theissuethatisconsideredinthisorderbytheCourt-ontheseriouseffects produced by the intensive development of activities of illegal mining exploitation withdamage tomultiple fundamental rights in theAtratoRiverBasin (Chocó) -,hasclearlyevidencedthathumanpopulationsarethosethatareinterdependentofthenaturalworld-andnottheotherway around - and that theymust assume the consequences of their actions and omissionswithnature. It is about understanding this new socio-political reality with the aim of achieving arespectfultransformationwiththenaturalworld,asithashappenedbeforewithcivilandpoliticalrights(firstgeneration);theeconomic,socialandcultural(secondgeneration),andenvironmentalrights (thirdgeneration).Now is the time tobegin taking the first steps toeffectivelyprotect theplanet and its resources before it is too late, or the damage is irreversible, not only for futuregenerationsbutforthehumanspecies.9.30.Inthisway,respectfornaturemuststartfromthereflectiononthemeaningofexistence,theevolutionary process, the universe and the cosmos. That is, a system of thought based on aconceptionof thehumanbeingasan integralpart,andnotasasimpledominator,wouldallowaprocessofself-regulationof thehumanspeciesandtheir impactontheenvironment,recognizingtheir role within the circle of life and evolution from an ecocentric perspective. It is from thisconsideration, for example, that respect for animal rights has been cemented. In thisway, it is amatterofestablishingalegalinstrumentthatoffersgreaterjusticetonatureanditsrelationswithhumanbeings,basedonthecollectiverecognitionofourspecies,assuggestedbybioculturalrights.

In this same sense, biocultural diversity as an approach, based, as has been seen, in anecocentric perspective, implies that policies, norms and interpretations about biodiversityconservationrecognizethelinkandinterrelationthatexistsbetweencultureandnature.Itextendsthe participation of ethnic communities in the definition of public policies and regulatoryframeworks,andguaranteestheconditionsconducivetothegeneration,conservationandrenewaloftheirknowledgesystems,withintheframeworkofaSRL.

TheimportanceofthebiologicalandculturaldiversityofthenationforthenextgenerationsandthesurvivalofournaturalandculturalwealthposestotheColombianStatetheneedtoadoptcomprehensivepublicpoliciesonconservation,preservationandcompensation that consider theinterdependence between biological and cultural diversity. In this way, biocultural diversityrepresents themost integral and comprehensive approach to ethnic and cultural diversity in thefaceofeffectiveprotection.9.31. In otherwords, justice fornaturemust be appliedbeyond thehuman scenario andmustallownaturetobesubjecttorights.Underthisunderstanding,theChamberconsidersitnecessarytotakeastepforwardinthejurisprudencetowardstheconstitutionalprotectionofoneofourmostimportantsourcesofbiodiversity:theAtratoRiver.Thisinterpretationfindsfulljustificationinthebest interestsoftheenvironmentthathasbeenwidelydevelopedbyconstitutional jurisprudenceand that ismadeup of numerous constitutional clauses that constitutewhat has been called the"EcologicalConstitution"or"GreenConstitution".ThissetofprovisionsmakesitpossibletoaffirmthetranscendenceofthehealthyenvironmentandtheinterdependentlinkwithhumanbeingsandtheState.[313]



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Fromtheabove,aseriesofobligationsofprotectionandguaranteeoftheenvironmentarederived from the State, who is first in responsibility for its protection, maintenance andconservation, which must materialize through responsible environmental public policies(sustainable governance), issuance of CONPES documents, legislation and National DevelopmentPlans, among others; without prejudice to the duty of protection and care that also assists civilsocietyandthecommunitiesthemselvestotakecareofnaturalresourcesandbiodiversity.Inthissense, theChamberconsiders itpertinent tocallattention to theethniccommunities that inhabittheAtratoRiverBasinsothattheyprotect,withintheexerciseoftheircustoms,usesandtraditions,theenvironmentofwhichtheyareitsfirstguardiansandresponsibleforit.

However,theactionstakenbythecompetentstateentities,bothatthelocallevelandatthenational level, have mostly been welfare and isolated. Without much coordination in terms ofguaranteeing the care, maintenance or recovery of the Atrato River Basin and its tributaries, asevidenced by the lack of response to these concerns by the Government of Chocó, or in therecognitionoflackofpersonnelandadministrativecapacityofCodechocó;aswasconfirmedbytheRegionalOfficeofChocó,theOmbudsmanandtheComptrollerGeneralinjudicialinspectionintheareaofoccurrenceof theevents inwhichtheCourtwasabletoobserve,asalreadymentionedinsections 9.14 to 9.17, that all these assertions are true and that the Atrato River Basin is underseriousthreatduetotheperformanceofillegalminingactivities.

However,accordingtowhathasbeenseenuptonow,particularlyinchapter5,sections5.3and 5.19 to 5.37, the national regulation on biodiversity and the use of genetic resources isinappropriate and registers important gaps that affect the effective protection of fundamentalrights of ethnic communities. Thesedeficiencies have their origin in a problemof understandingbiodiversity on the part of the Government and of the entities in charge of the planning anddevelopmentoftheColombianState.Theprevailingvisionisaneconomicone,wherebiodiversity,genetic material and associated traditional knowledge are seen as susceptible to appropriation,industrialuseandsourceofeconomicgains.Inthisway,policiesandlegislationhaveemphasizedaccess for economic use and exploitation to the detriment of the protection of the rights of theenvironmentandofthecommunities.

In this sense, and in response to such an approach to themanagement of biological andcultural diversity by the State, it is necessary to adopt holistic approaches to conservation thatconsidertheprofoundrelationshipbetweenbiologicalandculturaldiversity.9.32. To that extent, considering the scope of protection of international treaties signed byColombiainthefieldofenvironmentalprotection,theEcologicalConstitutionandbioculturalrights[314](sections5.11to5.18),whichpreachthejointandinterdependentprotectionbehumanwithnatureanditsresources,isthattheCourtwilldeclarethattheAtratoRiverissubjecttorightsthatimply its protection, conservation, maintenance and, in the specific case, restoration. For theeffective fulfillmentof thisdeclaration, theCourtwillarrange for theColombianState toexerciselegal guardianship and representation of the rights of the river in conjunction with the ethniccommunitiesthatinhabittheAtratoRiverBasininChocó;inthisway,theAtratoRiveranditsbasin-henceforth-willberepresentedbyamemberoftheplaintiffcommunitiesandadelegateoftheColombianState.[315]Additionally,andwiththepurposeofensuringtheprotection,recoveryanddue conservationof the river, bothpartiesmustdesign and set up a commissionofAtratoRiver



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guardswhoseintegrationandmemberswillbedevelopedinthesectionoforderstoprofferinthisruling.

As a complement to the above, it is necessary to remember that the central premise onwhich the conceptionofbioculturality andbiocultural rights isbased, is the relationofprofoundunity between nature and human species.This relationship is expressed in other complementaryelementssuchas:(i)themultiplewaysoflifeexpressedasculturaldiversityareinextricablylinkedtothediversityofecosystemsandterritories;(ii)therichnessexpressedinthediversityofcultures,practices, beliefs and languages is the product of the coevolutionary interrelation of humancommunities with their environments and constitutes an adaptive response to environmentalchanges;(iii)therelationshipsofdifferentancestralcultureswithplants,animals,microorganismsandtheenvironmentactivelycontributetobiodiversity;(iv)thespiritualandculturalmeaningsofindigenouspeoplesandlocalcommunitiesaboutnatureareanintegralpartofbioculturaldiversity;and (v) the preservation of cultural diversity leads to the conservation of biological diversity, sothat the design of policy, legislation and jurisprudence should be focused on the conservation ofbioculturality [316]. These elements, from now on, should be considered as parameters for theprotectionoftherightsoftheenvironmentandnature,fromabioculturalperspective.9.33.Violationoftherighttofoodsecurity.Inacomplementarysense,theChamberconsidersthatillegalminingactivities,as theypolluteandseriously threatenwatersourcesand forests,directlyviolate the availability, access and sustainability of food and the traditional forms of foodproductionof ethnic communities of theBasin of theAtratoRiver (sections9.14 to 9.17);whichimpliesanaffectationofallthecomponentsoftherighttofoodandthedifferentstagesofthefoodprocess. At this point it is necessary to remember that illegal mining activities have completelydisplacedthetraditional formsof foodproductionofethniccommunities-whichtodayrepresentonlyanisolatedactivity-andinstead,haveimposedamodeloflifeanddevelopmentthatitisnotcompatible with the ancestral practices and that is seriously affecting the social fabric and thecustomsofthesame.

Inquired about this situation, and regarding the guarantee of basic conditions of foodsecurity,theMinistriesofEnvironment,AgricultureandtheDepartmentofSocialProsperity(DPS)indicated that theyhave implementedsomeagriculturalprograms,butnone together,when theycoulddo it around theFoodandNutritionPolicy, and to theNationalPlanofFoodandNutritionSecurity[317].9.34. Thus, the Court finds that the entities sued are responsible for the violation of thefundamental rights to water and food security of the ethnic communities involved and for thepollution of the Atrato River and its tributaries caused by the development of illegal miningactivities in the region, and for its omission to provide an appropriate and effective institutionalresponse to address and solve the problem reported. Consequently, a series ofmeasureswill beordered to face this serious violation of the fundamental rights to water and food security andsovereignty,whichwillbeindicatedinthesectionoforders.c.- About the violation of the fundamental rights to the territory and to the culture of theactiveethniccommunities.



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9.35.TheChambermustpointoutthatithasfoundthatintheregionunderthistutela,theBasinof theAtratoRiverand its tributaries, theriseof illegalminingofgoldandotherpreciousmetalshasopenedupalarmingly-asafinancierofthearmedconflict-whichisgeneratingworryingsocio-environmentalconflictsthatmaterializeinanindiscriminatestruggleforthecontrolofterritoriesand natural resources. Thus, has the consequence of forced displacement, the degradation ofecosystems, thereductionof forests,extinctionofendemicspeciesandpollutionofrivers,amongotherfactorsthatplacethenaturalandculturalheritageofthecountryathighrisk.[318]

Thissituationhasmultipleharmfuleffectssince,forexample,itthreatensthefoodsecurityof the ethnic communities - as was just described in the previous section - and violates thefundamental rights toahealthyenvironment, to life, tohumandignity, tohealth,water, territoryand culture, among others, as denounced by the petitioners of the case under examination.Similarly, illegalmining activities have a strong impact on ethnic communities to the extent thattheygeneratedisplacement, increase inschooldesertion,highratesofprostitutionandgenerallyundermine the traditional ways of life of the communities; not respecting or allowing thedevelopmentofancestralsubsistenceactivitiessuchasagriculture(plantainfarmingandpancoger)and artisanal mining (barequeo), and on the contrary imposing a single mode of sustenance:mechanizedmining[319].

Inthisregard,itshouldbenotedthat,asstatedinsection6.3,theConstitutionalCourt,hasrepeatedly recognized that indigenous, tribal and Afro-Colombian peoples have a concept ofterritory and nature that is alien to the legal canons of Western culture [320]. For thesecommunities,aswehaveseen,theterritory-anditsresources-isintimatelylinkedtoitsexistenceand survival from the religious, political, social, economic and even ludic playful point of view;therefore, it is not an object of dominion but an essential element of the ecosystems andbiodiversitywithwhich they interactonadailybasis (eg, riversand forests).That iswhy for theethniccommunitiestheterritorydoesnotfallonasingleindividual-asitisunderstoodundertheclassical conception of private law- but above all the human group that inhabits it, so that itacquiresaneminentlycollectivecharacter.9.36. Another consequence of the intensive development of illegal mining activities is theestablishmentofasingleeconomicmodel-whichexcludesothers-fortheDepartmentofChocóledbyarmedgroupsofoutlaws, foreignersanddrug traffickers, ithasbeen indicatedby the reportsthat the Ombudsman's Office and that the Office of the Attorney General of the Nation havecontributed to the file for reference. This "model of development of illegal mining" brought -principally-byforeignersandarmedactorshasworsenedinthelast20yearsanddirectlyattacksethnic communities, since it runs in their collective territoriesand iseroding their customs,usesandancestraltraditions,whichimpliesanaffectationtotheirrighttophysical,culturalandspiritualsurvival. The impact of illegalmining is so strong that, as the Plaintiffs have pointed out, it hasmanagedtoseparatefamilies,increaseviolenceandencouragethelossoftheancestralbeliefsandtraditionsoftheblackcommunitiesthatinhabittheAtratoRiverBasininChocó.[321]

This implies an imminent risk not only for the physical existence, the perpetuation andreproductionof traditionsandancestralculture,butalso for thehabitatandnatural resourcesoftheplacewheretheidentityoftheplaintiffcommunitiesasethnicgroupsisbuilt,strengthenedanddeveloped[322].Atthispoint,theChamberconsidersitnecessarytowarnthatthisthreatnotonly



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comesfromtheso-calledillegalmining,butalsolegalmining,whichwhennotdonecomplyingwiththelegalrequirementsorwithadequatecontroloftheState,produceseffectsontheterritory,theenvironmentandtheethniccommunitiesthatinhabittheareaswhereminingisdeveloped.9.37. Regarding the above, although it is not part of the object of the tutela studied, for theChamber it is important to reiterate that regarding the legal mining activity, the right to priorconsultationisafundamentalrightthatcannotbeoverlooked.Indeed,sinceitsfirstsentences,theCourthasgivenitthetreatmentofafundamentalrighttopriorconsultation,ofwhichalltheethnicgroups of the country are holders. In related jurisprudence, the Court, except for reasons ofimmediacyorinthecircumstanceoffindingelementsofjudgmentthatallowtoelucidatethatpriorconsultation was made, has ordered mostly to the seriousness of the problems studied thesuspension of projects or works that have the potential to affect or have affected territories ofethniccommunitiesuntiltherighttopriorconsultationisguaranteed.Inthesameway,thesearchfor free,priorand informedconsenthasrecentlybeenordered. Inaddition,othermeasureshavebeenadoptedsuchascompensation,reparationorcompensationoftheaffectedcommunitieswhenthedamagehasbeencausedorwhenthepotentialityofthesameisnoticed.

TheCourtconsidersitimportanttoreiteratetheimportanceofrespectingtherighttopriorconsultationsince,atpresent,theminingsituationinChocóisasfollows:accordingtofiguresfromtheMinistryofMinesandEnergyandtheANM,intheDepartmentofChocóthereare242miningtitlesinforce,ofwhichthemunicipalitiesofQuibdóandRiosuciohavethehighestpercentage(20%and10.7%respectively);followedbythemunicipalitiesofElCarmen(11.5%),BagadóandCondoto(10%), and Tadó (6%). On the other hand, according to the Mining Census carried out by theMinistryofMinesandEnergybetween2010and2011,527miningproductionunitswerecountedintheDepartmentofChocó,ofwhich99.2%didnothaveaminingpermitregisteredinthenationalmining registry,which implies that theywork in illegality. However, as there are no updated orprecisedata,thisinformationcansimplybeanapproximationthatdoesnotallowustoverifywhatkindofminingisdone,whetheritislegalorillegal,andwhereitisbeingexecuted,notonlyintheDepartmentofChocóbutalsoatthenationallevel.9.38. In this order of ideas, the Court considers that it is the responsibility of the nationalgovernment and the mining and environmental authorities to carry out integral processes oferadicationof illegalmining,and in thecaseswhere legalminingprojectsaredeveloped, topriorconsultation to ethnic communities when these activities are carried out in their collectiveterritoriesorwhenthesedirectlyaffect their territoriesandtheir traditionalwaysof life.For theChamber, it isclear,accordingtowhatwasanalyzed intheevidence inthefileandinthe judicialinspection[323],thattherehasbeenaviolationoftherightstoterritoryandculture(understoodasall themanifestations thatdefine itswayof life)of theethniccommunitiesof theAtratoRiverBasin as a consequence of the execution of illegal mining activities. Likewise, the Chamber isconcerned about the denunciation of several organizations and experts, as already outlined inchapter 7, sections 7.20 and 7.21 of this ruling, before the realization of legal and illegalminingactivities in protected areas and in national parks, practices that are forbidden and should theyoccur,theyshouldbesuspendedimmediately.

Regarding the foregoing, this Court finds that the defendant entities have violated thefundamentalrightstotheterritoryandcultureoftheethniccommunitiesoftheAtratoRiverBasin



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(Chocó),duetotheiromissiontoallowthedevelopmentofactivitiesintheircollectiveterritoriesofillegalminingthatendupthreateningandcompletelytransformingtheirtraditionalwaysoflife.Asaresult,aseriesofmeasureswillbeorderedtodealwiththisseriousviolationofthefundamentalrightstocultureandterritory,whichwillbeindicatedinthesectionoforders.9.39. In conclusion, after having (i) reviewed and verified each one of the affectations to thefundamental rights invoked by the plaintiff communities in the present acción de tutela, (ii)ofhavingvaluedtheevidenceattachedtothefile(reports,answers,concepts,interventions)andthejudicialinspectioncarriedoutbytheofficeoftheSubstantiationMagistrate,theChamberconcludesthatinthecasesubmittedtoitsstudy,thereisaseriousviolationoftherightstolife,health,water,food security, a healthy environment, the culture and the territoryof the ethnic communities thatinhabittheAtratoRiverBasin,itstributariesandsurroundingterritorieswithintheframeworkofwhathasbeencalled"thebiogeographicChocó",attributabletostateentitydefendants(bothlocalandnational)byomission in the fulfillmentof their legal andconstitutionalduties,bynot takingeffective,concreteandarticulatedmeasurestofaceandgivesolutiontotheexecutionrealizationofintensiveactivitiesofillegalminingintheareaofthefacts.

Thus,theCourtmustreiteratethattheserioussituationanalyzedinthisrulingalsohasitsorigin in a lack of state presence in the Department of Chocó that is translated into the design,construction and implementation of strong institutions and comprehensive public policies thatallowtheconstructionofanSRL intheregion,whereminimumconditions(oressentialpointsofdeparture)areguaranteed,allowingthedevelopmentofadignifiedlife,fullintheexerciseofrightsandwelfareconditionsforallChocoanos.9.40. Finally, theChamber considers that the ethnic communities that inhabit theAtratoRiverBasin have the right to guarantee their fundamental rights to the state entities sued and theColombianState.Andtodosowithplansandprogramsaimedatimprovingtheirqualityoflifeandcomprehensiveprotectionoftheirfundamentalrights,asoutlinedinchapter4,sections4.5to4.21.The ethnic communities of Chocó, as special subjects protected by the Constitution and our SRLformula, have the right to live in full conditions of social justice, humandignity and generalwell-being as in any other society that aspires to the achievement of well-being and also to theattainmentofhappiness.Inthisway,theultimategoaloftheconstitutionaljudge,inanyinstance,istherealizationofmaterial justice;consequently, thisCourtwillgrant theacciónde tutelaand therights invoked by the ethnic communities that are active in life, health, water, food security, ahealthy environment, culture and territory, for which purpose it will give a series of concreteordersthatallowaddressingthedifficultsituationthattheillegalminingexploitationhasgeneratedinthebasinoftheAtratoRiver.9.41. Ontheinter-communiseffectsofthepresentorder.Onefinalaspecttobehighlightedisthat the violation of fundamental rights in the case under examination has occurred on a largepopulation.Ashasalreadybeenoutlined inthisprovidence,amongtheactivecommunities is theGreaterCommunityCouncilof thePopularFarmerOrganizationof theAltoAtrato (Cocomopoca)which is composed of 3,200 families, the Greater Community Council of the Farmer AssociationIntegral del Atrato (Cocomacia) integrated by 120 communities and the Inter-ethnic SolidarityForumChocó(Fisch)by47organizations.



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Thus, the Chamber must note that the listed populations are just some of the plaintiffgroups, whose number may increase if we take into account that the potentially affectedcommunitiesareall thosethat inhabittheAtratoRiverBasinanditstributaries,whichinvolvesagood part of the population of the Department of Chocó, and therefore, this ruling will haveexceptional effects inter-communis. It must be noted in order to protect the rights of ethniccommunitiesthatevenwhentheyhavenotpromotedthisconstitutionalactionarealsoaffectedbythe factsdenounced, inorder togiveall themembersof thesamecommunityequalanduniformtreatmentthatensurestheeffectiveenjoymentoftheirfundamentalrights.

For the above reasons, the Court will protect the fundamental rights of the communitycouncilsactingwithinter-communiseffectsforanypersonorcommunitythatinhabitsthebasinoftheAtratoRiver, its tributariesand surrounding territories, insofaras thepopulationaffectedbythefactsdenouncedinthisactioncouldbemuchhigherthanthatrepresentedbytheplaintiffs.d.-Someconsiderationsregardingpublicmining-energypolicy.9.42.Inviewoftheabove,theChambermustpointoutthattheentitiesinvolved(bothlocalandnational), although they have deployed some budgetary and administrative efforts to avert thecausesandconsequencesofillegalminingactivityinpopulatedareasandintheenvironment,thesehavebeen insufficient for various reasons, as has alreadybeen explainedwith sufficiency in thisprovision.9.43.TheCourthasdetectedthattherecommendationsmadebythedifferentcontrolbodiessuchastheOmbudsman'sOffice,theAttorneyGeneral'sOfficeandtheOfficeoftheComptrollerGeneraloftheRepubliconthegravesituationofillegalmininginChocóhavenotbeenmetduetothehighcomplexityofthesameandthat,inmanycases,exceedtheinstitutional,budgetaryandarticulationcapacityoftheentitiesincharge,fromthelocaltothenationallevel,aswasseeninthesection9.18ofthepresentOrder.9.44. This Court does not ignore that illegal mining activity is extremely complex in that itcombinesseveral factorsat thesametime:poverty, lackofopportunities, inequality,prostitution,illegality,violence,armedactors,post-conflict,tonamejustafew.However,thisCourtunderstandsthatthesubjectunderstudyhasitsorigininaseriesofstructuralproblemsintheDepartmentofChocó(which,duetoitssize,exceedsthepurposeofthepresentaccióndetutela),towhichtheyareadded, already in the concrete case, someaspects related to theColombianmining-energypolicythatshouldbeevaluatedespecially inwhathas todowith itsdesignand implementation. In thisregard,theChamberwillpresentsomeconsiderationsbelow.9.45.Inthefirstplace,fortheChamberitisimportanttopointoutthat,beforeanationalminingpolicythatisaimedatstimulatinginthepresentandintheyearstocomeagreaterconsumptionofnaturalresources,itisindispensablethattheColombianState,inequalmeasure,buildsustainablegovernance and strengthen its institutions-especially at themunicipal and department levels- sothat they can respond effectively and responsibly to the great challenges that this industryrepresents,especiallyinrelationtoitscostsandbenefits,andalso,withthegrowingphenomenonof illegal mining. In effect, if the State neglects its responsibility to grant the greatest possibleprotectiontoournaturalresources,itendsuptransferringtheresponsibilityittothecitizensand



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localcommunities,which,consequently,wouldhave- ifsuchasituationoccurs-tofacethesameadministration,businessmen,multinationalsandminingworkers.

Of course, the Court does not intend to ignore the efforts of theGovernment or the legalprovisions that favor theprotection andpreservationof a healthy environment and even for thesustainabledevelopmentofmining,buthasverifiedthattheseinreality(intheregions,infact)theyhave lost theirbindingeffectandhavebecomewhat thedoctrinehasdescribedas "the symbolicefficacy of the law"[324]. In this order of ideas, in the opinion of the Chamber, to face thisphenomenon, for example, it would be necessary for the national Government to build a publicmining-energypolicythatconsiderstheenvironmentalandsocialrealitiesofthenation,whichgothroughclimatechange,thebiodiversitycrisisandtheincreaseinenvironmentaldevastationasaresultofthedevelopmentofextractiveindustries.

Additionally,theChamberconsidersthatitwouldbeconvenientforthecompetententities-suchasthePresidencyoftheRepublic,theMinistryoftheInterior,theMinistryoftheEnvironment,theMinistry of Finance and theNational PlanningDepartment and evenwith the support of theMinistry of Justice - develop a plan for institutional strengthening in order to provide regionalentitieswithsufficienttools-intermsofinstitutionalcapacity,financialresourcesandstaffing-toeffectively deal with all illegal mining activities [325], with special emphasis on (i)theenvironmental authorities of the region -Codechocó and Corpourabá-; (ii)the municipaladministrationsofChocóaswellasthedepartment;and(iii)thejudicialofficesanddependenciesofthe Attorney General's Office and the entities that are part of the Public Prosecutor's Office(AttorneyGeneral'sOffice,Ombudsman'sOffice andPersonhoodPersonerías) and controlbodies(ComptrollerGeneraloftheRepublic)thatdevelopactivitiesintheregion.

Finally,anotheraspecttoconsideristheinsufficientenvironmentalcultureduetothelackofaglobalvisionandinthelongtermpromotestheunsustainableuseofnaturalresources,whichderives in conflictsdue to thedominanceofprofit [326].There is, then, a co-responsibility in itsprotectionandconservation,rootedincitizenship,businessandtheState. Inthissense,Colombiamustmove towards environmental consciousness and sensibility, starting from the communitieswhoalsohavetheresponsibilityofpreservingandcaringfortheenvironment.Forthispurpose,itisimperative/tostrengthenaconstitutionalpedagogythatfavorsthevaluesofbiologicaldiversityandculturalheterogeneity,withtheaimofmobilizingtowardsanewhumanrationalitybasedontheprotectionandrespectofnatureasanexpressionofevolutionandcivilization.[327]

Inthisway,itisimportanttostrengthenthescopeandapplicationofschoolenvironmentalprojects or "PRAE" [328] that are part of the "national environmental education policy"complemented by Law 1549 of 2012, so that PRAE with emphasis on the regions are a reality,especially in rural areas andof greatbiodiversity such as theAmazonian andPacific regions, forexample.9.46.Secondly,itshouldbenotedthatthecurrentMiningCode-Law681of2001-asthisCourthasfoundinrecentrulings(suchastheT-766of2015,theC-035of2016andtheC-273of2016)reflects inconsistencies with the current constitutional order. These problems to regulate themining activity in the country have already been evidenced by the Corporation in the



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aforementionedmeasures, inwhich, respectively, theminingstrategicareasweresuspended, themining was banned in the paramos and the prohibition to the territorial entities to oppose thecarryingoutofminingactivitiesintheirjurisdictionswasalsoruledasunconstitutional.

Inthisregard,theCourt'sattentionisdrawntothefactthat,inviewofthisscenario,theremaybeadeficitofprotectioninminingandenvironmentalmattersregardingthelackofupdatingoftheMiningCode.Inthisregard,itshouldberememberedthatafterthedecisiontodeclareLaw1382of2010unconstitutional (or reform to theMiningCodeof2001)bymeansof theC-366of2011, the Colombian State has not complied so far with the obligation to issue a new miningregulation that follows the guidelines that at the timewas indicated by the Constitutional Court.This fact becomes evenmore importantwhen in the National Development Plan 2014-2018 theColombianStateimposesitselfasanobligation"toattendasaprioritytheissuanceofthenecessarylegal regulation in order to organize the existing mining activity (...) from a vision that isterritoriallyandenvironmentallyresponsible"[329].

Inthisregard,althoughtheNationalDevelopmentPlan2014-2018statesthat,"theminingauthoritywillcontinueitsprocessofstrengtheningandconsolidationthroughtheimplementationof the cadastre andmining registry, the agility in the response times, the audit and the regionalpresence"[330]accordingtoevidenceanddocumentssentbytheMinistryofMinesandEnergyandtheNationalMiningAgencyinthereviewprocess.Thesepropositionshavenotbeenimplemented,totheextent inwhichacomplete informationsystemandcompleteandupdatedminingcadastrehasnotbeenestablished.

However,regardingthestatepublicpolicytodealwithillegalmining,thegovernmenthasdecided that: "it should consolidate an inter-institutional group specialized in preventing andcontrolling the illegal extraction of minerals and the necessary regulations will be issued toestablish administrative and economic sanctions for these conducts, the prosecution of thoseresponsible,andthedispositionofthegoodsusedandproductsofthisactivity”[331].

As ithasbeenpossible todemonstrate in theanalysisof theconcretecase, inspiteof themeasures that the Colombian State has taken to face this situation (at the level of the NationalDevelopment Plan and of a series of legal and regulatory dispositions), there has been a lack ofcapacityofconcretion,articulationandexecutionsothatthedesignedmeasuresareeffectiveandallowtosolvethephenomenonofillegalmining.

Currently, both recent jurisprudence in mining matters, as well as the evaluation of theevidence attached to the file and the inspection made by the Court to theDepartment of Chocó[332]allowus toconclude that it isnecessary toevaluate themining-energymodel in forcewiththe object of achieving greater control of illegal mining activity, which, in turn, has importantrepercussionsonminingthatisdonelegally.9.47. Third, there is a concerning lack of information on the regionalmining reality in Chocó,which translates into the absence of censuses, documents or updated research and reference toidentify the main places where this activity takes place and what kind of impact it has. In thisregard, the Court considers that the mining authorities should conduct as soon as possible aregional mining census that allows us to know with certainty where legal and illegal mining



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processesarecarriedout,sothatcoherentpublicpolicydecisionscanbemadethathavevocationto be fulfilled. This census should be designed with a differentiated character so that it can beknownwhatkindofminingisbeingdone,whetheritistraditional,small,mediumorlarge,whichisofvitalimportancetobeabletodevelopformalizationprocesses.Inthisregard,theChamberurgesthecompetentauthoritiestoconductaregionalminingcensusintheDepartmentofChocó.9.48. Fourth, without accurate and reliable information, the State cannot design, much lessexecute a long-termpublic policy onmining in general or to combat efficiently, for example, theworryingphenomenonofillegalmining.Regardingthelatter,theChamberassessestheactionsandoperations (which have included some arrests, seizures and captures) made by the competententities such as the Ministry of Defense or General Prosecutor’s Office [333] to combat illegalmining.Nevertheless, theChamberconsidersthat it isnecessarythattheseactionsaredevelopedmorefrequently,withdueplanningandcoordination;butaboveallwithavocationforpermanenceovertime,thatis,withaperiodicity,monitoringandindicatorsthatmakeitpossibletoaccuratelyestablishtheimpactofitsresultsandtheeradicationofsuchillegalactivity.

Theimplementationofaunifiedstrategybasedoncurrentandaccurateinformationwouldallowthestrengtheningoflegalminingexploitationandanintegralconfrontationofillegalminingasanactivitythatnotonlyviolatestherightsofcommunitiesandtheenvironmentbutiskeytotheconstructionofpeaceandpost-conflictinregionsofthecountrythathavebeenhistoricallyaffectedbyviolencesuchasChocó.9.49.Fifth,theCourt'sattentionisdrawntothelackofpublicregulationofthegoldtrade.Ascanbe seen from the probative analysis, this mineral is the new strategy for financing the armedconflictanddrugtrafficking.Sincethistradeisnotregulated,noritsrelationtomoneylaundering,asevidencedintheresponsesoftheMinistryofFinanceandtheFinancialInformationandAnalysisUnit[334],thisactivitycontinuesinimpunity,beingextremelyprofitablefortheactorsofconflict,drug trafficking and organized crime, but also with an even more worrisome consequence:stimulatingillegalgoldmining.Todayitisnotpossibletodeterminethesourceofthegold,whetheritislegalornot,whatactivitiesarebeingfinancedanditisalsonotpossibletopersecutethosewhoarebehindthisillegalenterprise.Inthisregard,theCourtwillurgetheMinistryofFinanceandtheFinancial Information and Analysis Unit to establish a national regulation for gold trade, whichallowsthecorrespondingentitiestoinvestigate,identifyandfollowthepathoftradeofthismineraluntilitreachesitsorigininconnectionwithrelatedmining.9.50. Finally, inviewoftheseriousviolationoffundamentalrightsthatillegalminingandotherstructuralproblemsarecausingintheDepartmentofChocó,theCourtallowsitselftoremindtheColombian State, as awhole, at thenational level at theheadofGovernment and in the regionallevel at the head of the department and municipal authorities, which according to the PoliticalConstitution has a series of inalienable constitutional obligations with the sole purpose ofguaranteeingthefullvalidityofthefundamentalrightsoftheColombianpeople.Thataccordingtothe Preamble, they consist of "assuring their members life, coexistence, work, justice, equality,knowledge, freedom and peace, within a legal, democratic and participatory framework thatguaranteesapolitical,economicandsocialjusticeorder".Objectivesthataregoingtobedevelopedandreiteratedinarticles1(SocialRuleofLaw),2nd(EndofState),5th(Supremacyoftherightsoftheperson),7th(Protectionofethnicandculturaldiversity),8th(Protectionofthenation'scultural



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and natural wealth) 11(Inviolability of the right to life), 12 (Personal integrity), 13 (Right toequality),16(Righttofreedevelopmentofpersonality),22(RighttoPeace),44(Rightofchildren),48 (Right to social security), 49 (Right to health and basic sanitation), 63 (Protection of publicproperty),64(Guaranteeofprogressiveaccesstopropertyofland),65(Righttofoodsecurity),67(Right to education), 70 (Right to culture), 72 (Protection of cultural heritage), 79(Right to thehealthyenvironment),80(Protectionofnaturalresources),188and189(Functionsandobligationsof the President of the Republic), 288 (Territorial ordering), 298 (Departmental Regime), 311(Municipal Regime), 339 (National Development Plans), 356 and 357(General ParticipationSystem),365(EfficientPublicServices)and366(GeneralWelfareGuarantee).

Equally important is to reiterate that the State and its authorities have, by constitutionalcreation,aseriesof tools toaddressallkindsofeconomic,socialandecologicalemergencies thatmassivelyandsystematicallythreatenthefundamentalrightsofitscitizens.Article215[335]oftheConstitutionstatesthattheGovernmenthasthepowertousethepositionofstatesofemergency,"wheneventsoccurotherthanthoseprovidedforinArticles212and213thatdisturborthreatentoseriouslyandimminentlydisturbtheeconomic,socialandecologicalorderofthecountry,orthatconstituteseriouspubliccalamity".Inthisway,itiscleartotheCourtthattheColombianState,atthe national, regional and local levels, has a series of legal tools to deal with the serioushumanitarian,socialandenvironmentalcrisisthatisoccurringintheDepartmentofChocó.9.51. In a complementary sense and in relation to the serious structural problems reportedbythe Chocoan ethnic communities (which far exceed the scope of this constitutional action) inmattersof forceddisplacement,humanrightsviolationsandESCR,gaps ineducation,coverage inaqueduct, sewageandbasicsanitation,andanotherclassofunsatisfiedbasicneeds, theChamberwill urge the national government to effectively complywith the recommendations contained inresolution64of2014(issuedbytheOmbudsman'sOffice);andproceedtoconforminaslittletimeaspossible,tothe"Inter-institutionalCommissionforChocó",whichistheinstancedesignedbytheresolutioninquestion,whosepurposeistoachieveaverificationandfollow-upontheexecutionoftheproposedmeasuresandactionssuggestedbytheaforementioneddocument.10.-Orders.10.1. This Corporation has issued several types of orders, depending on themagnitude of theproblemgeneratedbytheviolationoftherightssubjecttoprotection.ThisCorporationhasissuedsimpleexecutionorders,generallyreferringtoordersofabstentionoractionthatcanbecarriedoutbyanauthoritywithouttheassistanceofothers.Ithasalsodictatedcomplexordersandstructuralmandates, which require processes of complex articulation and execution, involving severalauthoritiesandrequirecoordinatedactions.

In the present case, due to its complexity and the enormous challenges it represents interms of compliance, the Sixth Review Chamber will issue both simple execution orders andcomplex orders aimed at guaranteeing the fundamental rights of the ethnic communities of theAtratoRiverBasin.Thisisregardlessofwhetherornottheyhavefiledforanaccióndetutelafortheprotectionoftheirrights,forthisreason,theeffectofthejudgmentwillbeinter-comunis[336].



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The purpose of these orders is that the entities in charge of dealing with the problemsdescribedestablish,withinareasonableperiodof time,andwithinthescopeof theirpowers, themeasures,actionsandcorrectivemeasuresthatarenecessarytoovercometheseriouscrisisinthematterofillegalminingthataffectsthepopulationsinvolvedintheDepartmentofChocó.

Theseordersareaimed-ingeneralterms-atadoptingeffectiveandconcretedecisionsthatallow progressively and permanently to overcome both the insufficiency of resources and theshortcomings in institutional capacity, based on the constitutional principle of harmoniouscollaborationbetweenpublicpowerstoensuretheeffectiveprotectionof fundamentalrightsandthefullvalidityofthePoliticalConstitutionintheDepartmentofChocó.10.2.Next,theorderstoprofferinthepresentsentenceareoutlined:1.-TheAtratoRiver,itsbasinandtributarieswillberecognizedasanentitysubjecttorightsofprotection, conservation, maintenance and restoration by the State and ethnic communities, asindicatedinthemotivatingpartofthisprovisionintheSections9.27to9.32.

Consequently,theCourtwillorderthenationalgovernmenttoexerciselegalguardianshipandrepresentationoftherightsoftheriver(throughtheinstitutiondesignatedbythePresidentofthe Republic, which could be the Ministry of the Environment) together with the ethniccommunitiesthatinhabitthebasinoftheAtratoRiverinChocó;inthisway,theAtratoRiveranditsbasin - henceforth - will be represented by a member of the (plaintiffs) and a delegate of theColombianGovernment,whowillbetheguardiansoftheriver.Forthispurpose,theGovernment,headedbythePresidentof theRepublic,mustmaketheappointmentof itsrepresentativewithinthe month following the notification of this ruling. In that same period of time, the activecommunitiesmustchoosetheirrepresentative.

Additionally, and with the purpose of ensuring the protection, recovery and dueconservation of the river, the legal representatives of the same shall design and conform,withinthree(3)monthsfollowingthenotificationofthisorder, acommissionofguardiansoftheAtratoRiver,integratedbythetwoappointedguardiansandanadvisoryteamintegratedbyinvitationoftheHumboldtInstituteandWWFColombia,whohavedevelopedtheBitaRiverprotectionprojectinVichada [337]who therefore, have thenecessary experience to guide the actions to take.Thisadvisoryteamcanbeformedandreceivesupportfromallpublicandprivateentities,universities(regional and national), research centers on natural resources and environmental organizations(nationaland international),communityandcivilsocietywishingto jointheprotectionprojectoftheAtratoRiveranditsbasin.

Notwithstanding the foregoing, the panel of experts thatwill be responsible for verifyingcompliance with the orders of this Judgement (number 8) may also supervise, accompany andadvisetheworkoftheAtratoriverguardians.2.-TheMinistryoftheEnvironment,theMinistryofFinance,theMinistryofDefense,CodechocoandCorpourabá,theGovernmentsofChocóandAntioquia,andthedefendantmunicipalitieswillbeordered[338]-withthetechnicalsupportoftheHumboldtInstitute,theUniversitiesofAntioquiaand Cartagena, the Pacific Environmental Research Institute,WWF Colombia and other national



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and internationalorganizationsdeterminedby theAttorneyGeneral'sOffice - and in conjunctionwiththePlaintiffs,withinayearafterthenotificationofthesentenceisdesignedandputinplaceaplantodecontaminatethewatersourcesofChocó,beginningwiththebasinoftheAtratoRiverandits tributaries, the riverine territories, recovering their ecosystems and avoiding additionaldamages to the environment in the region. This plan will include measures such as: (i) thereestablishmentoftheAtratoriverbed,(ii)theeliminationofabanksformedbyminingactivitiesand(iii)thereforestationofareasaffectedbylegalandillegalmining.Additionally, this plan will include a series of clear indicators to measure its effectiveness andshouldbedesignedandexecutedinaconcertedmannerwiththeinhabitantsofthearea,aswellasensuring theparticipationof theethnic communities thatare settled thereunder theConvention169oftheOIT.3.- Likewise, theMinistry of Defense, the National Police - Unit against Illegal Mining, theNationalArmyofColombia, theGeneralProsecutor'sOfficeof theNation, thegovernorsofChocóand Antioquia and the defendant municipalities will be ordered [339], in conjunction with thePlaintiffethniccommunitiesandwiththesupportoftheMinistryofForeignAffairs,todesignandimplement,withinsix (6)monthsafternotificationof this ruling,a jointactionplan toneutralizeanderadicatedefinitelyillegalminingactivitiesthatarecarriedoutnotonlyintheAtratoRiveranditstributaries,butalsointheDepartmentofChocó.Inthisregard,theCourtreiteratesthatitistheobligationoftheColombianStatetoprosecuteanderadicatedefinitivelyanyillegalminingactivitythattakesplaceinthecountry.

Theaforementionedactionsmustincludetheseizureandneutralizationofdredges-andingeneralofthemachineryusedinthesetasks-,therestrictionandprohibitionofthetransitofinputssuch as fuel and associated chemical substances (mercury, cyanide) and the judicialization ofresponsiblepersonsandorganizations.Also, thisprocesswill be accompaniedby theMinistryofForeign Affairs in what has to do with the situation of foreigners who engage in illegal miningactivities.

Finally, thesemeasuresshould includeclearandprecise indicators thatallowaneffectiveevaluationandmonitoringofthemeasuresadopted.4.- In addition to the foregoing, theMinistryofAgriculture, theMinistryof the Interior, theMinistryofFinance,theDepartmentofNationalPlanning,theDepartmentforSocialProsperity,theGovernorsofChocóandAntioquiaandthemunicipalitieswillbeordered[340]thatinaconcertedmanner with the plaintiff ethnic communities, design and implement within the six (6) monthsfollowingthenotificationofthisrulinganintegralplanofaction[341]thatallowstherecoveryoftraditional forms of subsistence and food. This plan of action will be in the framework of theconceptofethno-developmentthatensuresminimumfoodsafetyinthearea,whichhasceasedtobe realized by the contamination of the waters of the Atrato River and by the intensivedevelopmentofillegalminingactivity.

ThisplanshouldalsobeaimedatrestoringtherightsoftheethniccommunitiesthatinhabittheAtratoRiverBasin,especiallyinrelationtotherecoveryoftheirculture,participation,territory,identity,wayoflifeandproductiveactivities,includingfishing,hunting,agriculture,fruitharvesting



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andartisanalmining. In this sense, themeasures takenmustbe focusedonguaranteeing: (i) thefoodsovereigntyofthecommunitiesand(ii)preventingtheirinvoluntarydisplacementoftheareaduetoillegalminingactivitiesandenvironmentaldamage.

These measures should include clear and precise indicators that allow an effectiveevaluationandmonitoringofthemeasuresadopted.5.- Likewise, the Ministry of Environment, the Ministry of Health and the National HealthInstitute, Codechocó and Corpourabá will be ordered - with the support and supervision of theHumboldt Institute, the Universities of Antioquia and Cartagena, the Institute of EnvironmentalResearchofthePacificandWWFColombia-tocarryouttoxicologicalandepidemiologicalstudiesoftheAtratoRiver,itstributariesandcommunities,whichcannottakemorethanthree(3)monthsto start or exceed nine (9)months for its completion, starting of the notification of the presentorder. After the notification of this order, the degree of pollution by mercury and other toxicsubstances is determined, and the possible damage towards human health of the populations,consequenceoftheactivitiesofminingthatusethesesubstances.

Additionally, theseentitiesmuststructureabaselineofenvironmental indicators inorderto havemeasurement instruments that allow affirming the improvement or deterioration of theconditionsoftheAtratoRiverBasininthefuture.6.-TheOfficeoftheAttorneyGeneraloftheNation,theOfficeoftheOmbudsmanandtheOfficeof the Comptroller General of the Republic will be ordered, in accordance with their legal andconstitutionalcompetences,tocarryoutaprocessofmonitoringandfollow-uponcomplianceandexecution of all orders issued in the above numerals, in the short,medium and long term at thenotificationof this judgment.Thisprocesswillbe ledandcoordinatedbytheAttorneyGeneraloftheNationwhowill report and be under the general supervision of the Administrative Court ofCundinamarca (first instance judge in the process of guardianship) and the Constitutional Court,who inany case, reserves the competence toverify the fulfillmentof theordersproffered in thisruling.

For this purpose, the Office of the Attorney General of the Nation will have to convenewithinthree(3)monthsafterthenotificationofthisrulingapanelofexperts[342]toadviseonthefollow-upandexecutionprocess-accordingtoitsexperienceinthespecifictopics-,alwayswiththeparticipation of the plaintiff communities, in order to establish timelines, goals and indicators ofcompliancenecessaryfortheeffectiveimplementationoftheordersherestated.

In the exercise of such functions, the Office of the Attorney General of the Nation, ascoordinatorofthefollow-upandexecutionofthisjudgment,withthesupportoftheOmbudsman'sOffice,theOfficeoftheComptrollerGeneraloftheRepublic,andthepanelofexpertsconvenedforthis purpose, will be in charge of: (i) directing, coordinating and promoting all compliance andexecutionof theorders issuedhere;(ii)designandimplementthegeneralandspecific indicatorsthatallowevaluatingcompliancewiththeordersissuedinthiscasebytheentitiesinvolvedandthenationalgovernment;(iii)evaluateandanalyzethereports,programsandplanssubmittedbytheStateentitiesthatareinvolvedintheprocessofcompliancewiththeseorders;(iv)investigateanddocumentcomplaintsaboutpossiblenon-compliancewiththemeasuresestablishedinthisruling;



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and (v) make recommendations and observations to the entities involved and to the nationalgovernmentregardingcompliancewith theorders issuedhereand ingeneralwithrespect to theguaranteeandrespectofthefundamentalrightsviolatedoftheethniccommunitiesofChocó.

Additionally, the Office of the Attorney General of the Nation, together with theOmbudsman's Office and the Office of the Comptroller General of the Republic, must submitsemiannualreportsoftheirmanagementwithindicatorsofcompliancewiththeordersissued,bothtotheAdministrativeCourtofCundinamarcaandtheConstitutionalCourttoensureitscompletion.7.-Finally,theNationalGovernment,headedbythePresidentoftheRepublic,isurgedtogiveeffectivecompliance to the recommendationscontained inResolution64of2014andproceed toconform inaperiodnotexceedingone (1)month from thenotificationof this ruling.The "Inter-institutional Commission for Chocó", which is the body designed by the resolution in question,whose purpose is to achieve a verification and follow-up of the implementation of therecommendations contained therein to address and resolve the serious humanitarian, social andenvironmentalcrisisfacingtheDepartmentofChocó.

IV.DECISION

Inmeritoftheabove,theSixthChamberofReviewoftheConstitutionalCourt,administeringjusticeinthenameofthepeopleandbymandateoftheConstitution,RESOLVES:FIRST-LIFTthesuspensionoftermsdecreedtodecidethepresentmatter.SECOND-REVOCATEthedecisionhandeddownonthetwenty-first(21)April2015bytheStateCouncil-SectionTwo,SubsectionA-,whichdeniedtheprotectionintheaccióndetutelainstitutedby theCenterofStudies forSocial Justice "TierraDigna "onbehalfof severalethniccommunitiesagainsttheMinistryofEnvironmentandothers,whichinturnconfirmedthedecisionofeleven(11)of February 2015 of the Administrative Tribunal of Cundinamarca -Section Four, Subsection B-.Instead,GRANT the actors the protection of their fundamental rights to life, health, water, foodsecurity,ahealthyenvironment,cultureandterritory.THIRD - DECLARE the existence of a serious violation of the fundamental rights to life, health,water, food security, a healthy environment, culture and the territory of the ethnic communitiesthat inhabit the basin of the Atrato River and its tributaries, attributable to the entities of theColombian State that are active (Presidency of the Republic,Ministry of the Interior,Ministry ofEnvironment and Sustainable Development, Ministry of Mines and Energy, Ministry of NationalDefense,Ministry of Health and Social Protection,Ministry of Agriculture, Department for SocialProsperity, National Planning Department, National Mining Agency, National Agency ofEnvironmental Licenses, National Institute of Health, Departments of Chocó and Antioquia,Regional Autonomous Corporation for the Sustainable Development of Chocó-Codechocó,CorporationfortheSustainableDevelopmentofUrabá-Corpourabá-,NationalPolice-UnityagainstIllegalMining,andthemunicipalitiesofAcandí,Bojayá,Lloró,MedioAtrato,Riosucio,Quibdó,Río



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Quito,Unguía,CarmendelDarién,Bagadó,CarmendeAtratoandYuto-Chocó-,andMurindó,Vigíadel Fuerte and Turbo -Antioquia -), due to their omission to provide an adequate, articulated,coordinated and effective institutional response to face the multiple historical, socio-cultural,environmentalandhumanitarianproblemsthatafflicttheregionandthatinrecentyearshavebeenaggravatedbytherealizationofintensiveactivitiesofillegalmining.FOURTH-RECOGNIZE theAtratoRiver, itsbasinandtributariesasanentitysubject torightsofprotection, conservation, maintenance and restoration by the State and ethnic communities, asindicatedinthemotivatingpartofthisprovisioninthesections9.27to9.32.

Consequently,theCourtwillorderthenationalgovernmenttoexerciselegalguardianshipandrepresentationoftherightsoftheriver(throughtheinstitutiondesignatedbythePresidentofthe Republic, which could be the Ministry of the Environment) together with the ethniccommunitiesthatinhabitthebasinoftheAtratoRiverinChocó;inthisway,theAtratoRiveranditsbasin-henceforth-willberepresentedbyamemberoftheplaintiffcommunitiesandadelegateofthe Colombian Government, who will be the guardians of the river. For this purpose, theGovernment, headed by the President of the Republic, must make the appointment of itsrepresentativewithin themonth following the notification of this ruling. In that same period oftime,theplaintiffcommunitiesmustchoosetheirrepresentative.

Additionally and with the purpose of ensuring the protection, recovery and dueconservation of the river, the legal representatives of the same shall design and conform,withinthree(3)months followingthenotificationof thisorder,acommissionofguardiansof theAtratoRiver,integratedbythetwoappointedguardiansandanadvisoryteamintegratedbyinvitationoftheHumboldtInstituteandWWFColombia,whohavedevelopedtheBitaRiverprotectionprojectin Vichada, [343] and therefore have the necessary experience to guide the actions to take. Thisadvisoryteammaybeformedandreceivesupportfromallpublicandprivateentities,universities(regional and national), academic centers and research in natural resources and environmentalorganizations (national and international), community and civil societies wishing to link to theprotectionprojectoftheAtratoRiveranditsbasin.

Notwithstanding the foregoing, thepanel of expertswhowill be responsible for verifyingcompliance with the orders of this judgment (tenth order) may also supervise, accompany andadvisetheworkoftheAtratoRiverguardians.FIFTH-TOORDERtheMinistryofEnvironment,theMinistryofFinance,theMinistryofDefense,Codechoco and Corpourabá, the Governors of Chocó and Antioquia, and the defendantmunicipalities[344]-withthesupportoftheHumboldtInstitute,theUniversitiesofAntioquiaandCartagena, the Pacific Environmental Research Institute,WWF Colombia and other national andinternationalorganizationsdeterminedbytheAttorneyGeneral'sOffice-andinconjunctionwiththe plaintiff ethnic communities,within a year after the notification of the judgment, design andimplement a plan to decontaminate the Atrato River Basin and its tributaries, the riverineterritories,recovertheirecosystemsandavoidadditionaldamagetotheenvironmentintheregion.This plan will include measures such as: (i) the reestablishment of the Atrato riverbed, (ii) theeliminationofareabanksformedbyminingactivitiesand(iii)thereforestationofareasaffectedbylegalandillegalmining.



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Additionally, thisplanwill includeaseriesofclear indicators tomeasure itseffectiveness

and shouldbedesignedandexecuted in a concertedmannerwith the inhabitantsof the area, aswell as ensuring the participation of the ethnic communities that are settled there under theConvention169oftheOIT.SIXTH–TOORDER theMinistryofDefense, theNationalPolice -Unitagainst IllegalMining, theNational Army of Colombia, theAttorneyGeneral's Office, the governors of Chocó andAntioquiaandthedefendantmunicipalities[345],togetherwiththeplaintiffethniccommunitiesandwiththesupport of theMinistry of Foreign Affairs, to design and implement,within six (6)months afternotification of this judgment, a joint action plan to neutralize and definitively eradicate miningactivities illegally carried out not only on the Atrato River and its tributaries, but also in theDepartmentofChocó.Inthisregard,theCourtreiteratesthatitistheobligationoftheColombianState to prosecute and eradicate definitively any illegal mining activity that takes place in thecountry.

Theaforementionedactionsmustincludetheseizureandneutralizationofdredges-andingeneralofthemachineryusedinthesetasks-,therestrictionandprohibitionofthetransitofinputssuch as fuel and associated chemical substances (mercury, cyanide) and the judicialization ofresponsible people and organizations. Also, this processwill be accompanied by theMinistry ofForeign Affairs in what has to do with the situation of foreigners who engage in illegal miningactivities.

Finally, these measures should include clear and precise indicators that allow for aneffectiveevaluationandmonitoringofthemeasuresadopted.SEVENTH - TO ORDER theMinistry of Agriculture, theMinistry of the Interior, theMinistry ofFinance, the Department of National Planning, the Department for Social Prosperity, theGovernmentsofChocóandAntioquia,andthemunicipalities[346]thatinaconcertedmannerwiththe plaintiff ethnic communities, design and implement within the six (6) months following thenotification of this judgment a comprehensive action plan [347] that allows the recovery oftraditional forms of subsistence and food within the framework of the concept of ethno-development thatensureminimumfoodsafety in thearea,whichhaveceased tobemadeby thepollutionofthewatersoftheAtratoRiverandtheintensivedevelopmentofillegalminingactivity.This plan should also be aimed at restoring the rights of the ethnic communities that inhabit theAtrato River Basin, especially in relation to the recovery of their culture, participation, territory,identity,wayoflifeandproductiveactivities,includingfishing,hunting,agriculture,fruitharvestingandartisanalmining. In this sense, themeasures takenmustbe focusedonguaranteeing: (i) thefoodsovereigntyofthecommunitiesand(ii)preventingtheirinvoluntarydisplacementoftheareaduetoillegalminingactivitiesandenvironmentaldamage.

These measures should include clear and precise indicators that allow for an effectiveevaluationandmonitoringofthemeasuresadopted.EIGHT-TOORDER theMinistryofEnvironment, theMinistryofHealthand theNationalHealthInstitute,CodechocóandCorpourabá-withthesupportandsupervisionoftheHumboldtInstitute,



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theUniversitiesofAntioquiaandCartagena,theInstituteofEnvironmentalResearchofthePacific,andWWFColombia-tocarryouttoxicologicalandepidemiologicalstudiesoftheAtratoRiver,itstributaries and communities, which may not take more than three (3) months to commence orexceed nine (9)months for its completion, as of notification of the present ruling, in which thedegreeofcontaminationbymercuryandothertoxicsubstancesisdetermined,andtheimpactonhuman health of the populations, as a consequence of the mining activities that use thesesubstances.

Additionally, theseentitiesmuststructureabaselineofenvironmental indicators inorderto have a measuring instrument that allows affirming the improvement or deterioration of theconditionsoftheAtratoRiverBasininthefuture.NINTH-TOORDERtheNationalAttorneyGeneral'sOffice,theOfficeoftheOmbudsmanandtheOffice of the Comptroller General of the Republic, which, in accordance with its legal andconstitutionalpowers,carryoutaprocessofmonitoringandfollowing-uponcompliancewithandexecutionofallordersissuedinthepreviousnumerals,intheshort,mediumandlongterm,fromthenotificationofthisjudgment.ThisprocesswillbeledandcoordinatedbytheAttorneyGeneraloftheNationwhowillreportandbeunderthegeneralsupervisionoftheAdministrativeCourtofCundinamarca (first instance judge in the process of guardianship) and the Constitutional Court,who inany case, reserves the competence toverify the fulfillmentof theordersproffered in thisruling.

Forthispurpose,theAttorneyGeneral'sOfficewillhavetoconvenewithinthree(3)monthsfollowing the notification of this ruling, a panel of experts [348] to advise on the follow-up andexecutionprocess-accordingtoitsexperienceinthespecifictopics-,alwayswiththeparticipationof the plaintiff communities, in order to establish timelines, goals and indicators of compliancenecessary for the effective implementation of the orders here proffered, according to thestipulationsinsections10.2number8.

Additionally, the Office of the Attorney General of the Nation, together with theOmbudsman's Office and the Office of the Comptroller General of the Republic, must submitsemiannual reportson itsmanagementwith indicatorsof compliancewithorders issued,both totheAdministrativeCourtofCundinamarcaandtheConstitutionalCourtforitsjurisdiction.TENTH - EXHORT the national Government, headed by the President of the Republic, to giveeffective compliance to the recommendations contained in resolution64of 2014andproceed toconform in a periodnot exceeding one (1)month from thenotification of this ruling, the "Inter-institutional Commission for Chocó", which is the body designed by the resolution in question,whose purpose is to achieve verification and follow-up on the implementation of therecommendations contained therein to address and solve the serious humanitarian crisis, socialandenvironmentalissuesfacingtheDepartmentofChocó.ELEVENTH -The National Government, through the President of the Republic, the Ministry ofFinanceandtheNationalDepartmentofPlanning,mustADOPTadequateandnecessarymeasuresto ensure sufficient and timely resources that allow the sustainability and progressivity of allmeasures to implement to comply with what is ordered in this ruling. For this purpose, the



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budgetaryitemsofthecasemustbeprovidedannually,inaccordancewiththehighcomplexityandstructuralnatureofthemeasuresordered.TWELF–GRANT inter communiseffects to thepresentdecision for thoseethnic communitiesofChocóthatareinthesamefactualandjuridicalsituationastheactors.THIRTEENTH-ThecommunicationprovidedforinArticle36ofDecree2591of1991ispublishedbytheGeneralSecretariat.Notifyyourself,communicate,publishandcomply.JORGEIVÁNPALACIOPALACIOMagistrateAQUILESARRIETAGÓMEZMagistrate(e.)WithclarificationofvoteALBERTOROJASRÍOSMagistrateMARTHAVICTORIASÁCHICAMÉNDEZGeneralSecretary[End]

Documents

River Atrato Decision (English), Dignity Rights Project