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TE1AH DICATAT/DIDOKUMENTASI KAN PADA

PERPUSTAI(MN FAKU LTAS PSIKOLOGIUNIVERSITAS PADJADJARAN

Perpustakan

Jatnika, MT32021988032003

Telah diperiksa oleh :

Guru Besar/Dosen Senior

Prof.Dr. Hj. Kusdwiratri SetYono

Fakultas Psikologi

[tas Padjadjaran

i Roosjati Siregar, M.Pd7111819032001

KETUA BAGIAN PSIKOLOGI KLINIS

&-a-a-o k_d\___-.-.

Drs. H.Hatta Atbanik, M.psiN lP. 1 947 05121981 03 1 001

Terdaftar di perpustakaanFakultas Psikologi Universitas padjadjaran

Fakultas Psikologi

, M.Pd

Asia Psychologlcal Association First ConventionArrgrrst, 18-20, tr(rrta Paradiso Ifotel, Bali

TIIE CIIARACTERISTICS OF TERROR ACTION IN INDONESIA.A SOCIO.CULTTIRAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL STTIDY

ByZatrral Abidin

A number of writers and observers of terrorism admitted the difficulty in defining

explaining terrorism comprehensively, acceptable to all parties. It is understandable

terrorism is a multidimensional issue, involving many aspects such as politic, legal,

, social, history, psychology, ideology, religion, morality, humanity, ethnicity,race. Therefore, when it comes to defining terrorism, observers and writers are

perely capable of explaining one (or two) of these dimensions, giving no considerationrfr other aspects. Indeed, I myself cannot escape from such difficulty. However, in this

'aper I try to unveil at glance the historical, social, political, and socio psychological

imensions of terorrism in Indonesia.

Discussing terrorism in Indonesia is very interesting, taking into account that itnds to proliferate continuously since 2000 until 2}Ol.Indonesia becomes the focus oftemational world due to numerous terrorist acts and violence taking place in the

rountry. Several countries such as United States and Australia had warned their citizensot to visit Indonesia because it is considered as a dangerous country for their citizens.

,,'!"ictims of terrorism in Indonesia.

The following are data of terrorist acts and violence in Indonesia:

o fu 2000, a bomb blast occurred at the Philippine Embassy in Jakarta, a grenade

explosion at the Malaysian Embassy, a bomb explosion at the Jakarta Stocks

Exchange Building, and a bomb explosion during Christmas at several regions(nine cities) in Indonesia.

' In 2007, there was a bomb explosion at the Jakarta Atrium plaza, KentuckyFried Chicken (KFC) in Makasar, and Ausftalia International School in Jakarta.

' In 2002, there was a grenade explosion at new year in front of JakartaBulunganChicken Restaurant, a bomb explosion in Bali (The fust Bali Bombing),Philippine General Consulate in Manado North Sulawesi, and at Mc Donald,sReastaurant in Makassar.

r fu 2003, there was a bomb blast at one part of National police Headquarter,cengkareng International Airport and J.w. Marriot Hotel.

' In 2004, there was a bomb explosion at Palopo Cafe and Australian Embassy.

' In 2005' there was a bomb blast in a housing estate in Tangerang and two otherexplosion in Bali.

' A number of bomb explosions occurred in Ambon and poso between 2002-2005.

' Since 2002 until now there has been a widespread terror action without bombexplosion, grenade or gunfire but in the form of destruction of places suspected tosolicit immoral activities (hotel, bar, cafe, karaoke); attacks and desffuction ofcitizens's house and worship places that are perceived as offering deviantpractices; and threat towards people whose opinions on religious teachings areperceived as "misguiding,,.

:1v[1$ consideration to targets of terrorism in Indonesia, the above data may becuped into the following categories:

1' The Embassy of the united States, its citizens as well as its allies, especiallyAustralia, and symbols reflecting the western or the united states (such as:KFC, McDonald's, paddy's Crub, Marriot Hotel, etc.). The reason as to whythe United states and Ausftalian citizens and western symbols become thetarget of terror is primarily due to their hostile actions toward Islamic worldand Arabic people, including, among others, the attack to Afghanistan andkaq.

2' The Embassy and General Consulate office of Malaysia and philippine. It ispossibie that the attacks toward representative offices of the fwo countries inIndonesia were carried out due to the fact that it is too risky to perform terroristaction in respective countries (attibutable to tight security in those two

countries)' Therefore the terrorists shifted their targets of the two countries inthe Indonesia territory where security system is relatively loose. These act ofterrorism become a strong indicator that terrorism in Indonesia is in the samenetwork as terrorism in Malaysi a andphilippine (also singapore).

3' churches' Attacks against churches occurred following the blowing up ofreligious conflict in Ambon and Poso. The attacks were aimed at spreading upthe conflict and arousing the fear of the people in several regions of Indonesia.

4' Goverment offices, especially Police Headquarters. No obvious reason couldexplain as to why the National Police Headquarter became one of the bombingtargets. However, it is suspected that the terror was meant to be a shocktherapy for the porice or to flaunt terrorists, power in Indonesia.

5' Public spaces, especially malls and luxurious places or buildings where it isassumed to be frequently visited by foreigners and the affluent. It is clear thatthese places are reratively strategic to be a tarret of a brast, no matter howminor it, since it would gain media attention.

6' Places suspected to solicit immoral activities. Such places are not onlyperceived as operating against the law but also violating moraliry and religiousteachings, and may damage the society

-{ question remains, who are rndeed the actors behind those terrorism actions?A number of observers and mass media suspect that the JI (Jamaah Islamiyah) is

-'tlieved to have been involved in all the four major bomb attacks - in Bali inJctober 2002 and 2005, at the Marriott Hotel, Jakarta in 2003 and outside the'\ustralian Embassy, Iakarta n 2oo4 (ICG, 2005). JI is arso suspected to be invorveda the bombing of the Embassies and General Consurate offices of Malaysia and?hilippine. Meanwhile Laskar Jihad is suspected to carry out the bombing of a:umber of churches, Front Pembela Islam (Islamic Defendant Front) is suspected to:ave attacked severar praces suspected to solicit immorar practices.

It would be interesting if that suspicion is proved to be true since thosenizations are indeed independently exist even though they are under the sameogcal umbrella of Islam' However, in this case, it is not Islam as it is understood

' the majority of Moslem in Indonesia and many countries. To the terrorist actor allmic values have to be applied in every aspect of life without exception and those not

line with the values are considered sinful and should be combated. Holy war (ihad)inst sinful practices and fight against non-believers should be done physically and

y. Terrorist actions are parr of the Holy War (ihad)

Socio historical and social psychological perspective on terrorism in Indonesia.

Based on documentary study on terrorism in Indonesia there are factors that may

in the cause of terrorism emergence in Indonesia. These factors, among others,

Historical, economic, and potitical factors:

(1) The history of rebellious acts in Indonesia. Several observers believe that

terrorism in Indonesia is inseparable from the history of separatist

movement done by Darul Islam (DI) that had been growing since 1948 inWest Java and spreading out to several regions in Indonesia (Sulawesi and

Sumatra). DI movement was aimed at building Islamic nation in Indonesia.

According to ICG (International Crisis Group, 2005) the terror movements

that happened lately are inseparable from DI and more or less have

network \Mith DI. Ideas, paftiotism, heroism, and method or tactic to move

their bases to escape from the opponents chase (army and police) adopted

by current terrorists mostly reflect those embraced by DI figures in the past.

@ Problem of injustrce in economic development. Economic development

initiated during the New Order era had created social, culfural, economic,

political, and educational inequality. As a result, there has been social and

culrural gap between members of the society and berween some social

groups and the govemment. This condition had left a number of people

feeling underpriviledged, such as some Islamic group who feel disappointed

and treated unfairly Terrorists in Indonesia generally come from the

society who are moslem and in term of economy, social and education are

(3)

relatively low. only a small number of their readers come from sociar andeconomic class that are relatively hrgh.

Political factor. The era of repressive New order regime reft no space toradical Islam to openly ctiized the government. During that period, manyIslamic boarding schoors were suspeoed and several outspoken studentsand ulema were arested (...) However, soon after the fall of New order,radical Islamic organisations such as FpI, Laskar Jihad, and MMI wereemerging without poritical pressure and regal sanction from the governmenteven though some of their actions may be categorized as terror actions.

Socio Psychological Factors :

(t) Inferiority feeling and anger. Terrorist actors generally come from a marginalgroup in term of economy and politic. They position themselves as the abusedgoup, mistreated by political power and market economy. They refi.rse to getinvolved in political circle or mainstream because they perceive those a*s asdirty practices' Those who want to enter political arena and mainstream hadfailed due to their incompetence in the areas. As a result, they feel inferior andanw.

(2) Isolation and brainwashing. There are formal and, informar rerigiousorganisation or instirutions that facilitate, organize, and educate the youngstersfrom that marginal group' within those instirutions there is a fum line betweenin-group and out-group, "we" and "you", the righteous and the wicked, theright and wrong. In-group is the goup who is righteous while the out_group isthe wicked, evil, devil, and sinner. Brainwashing processes take place withinthose instirution' To a certain degree, they are also isolated into different goupwithin the insitutions themserves to ensure strong in_group and out_groupidentity and to Suarantee that the ideology or doctrine entrenched in theu mindby their leaders are not "poruted,, by the outside worrd. Arthough they can leada normal life in the community, they are capable of hiding their self-identityand their terrorism acdvity. Their ability to hide their identity is made possibleby the fact that they always move from one place to another.

(3) Conformity. within every institution there is always a leader and followers.Generally, aleader holds a central position and is charismatic that every wordor order he says will be followed unconditionally by his followers. Thefollowers higly respect the leader and would do any suggestion proposed by theleader, including to carry out a suicide bombrng.

(4) Affirmation of in-group identity ("we',) and out-group (,,you,,) and a negativeperception against the out-group set off the emergence of dehumanizationattitude toward the out-group. The out-group is assumed to be inhuman or half-human being. In this context it is understandable that terorist acts againts theout-8roup is deemed as normal. Kilhng and massacre of ideological opponentsare nofinal because the out-group is considered as enemy and not a humanbeing.

(5) The terrorists experienced an out-group homogeneity bias, causing them toperceive every member of the out-group as the same, beanngno differences. Asthe result, every member of the opposition group (out-group) will potentiallybecome a victim of terror, with no exception. Innocent civilians can be thetarget of terror because they belong to the opposition side or part of theopponents (Imam Samudra. . .).

(6) Rationalization' Theological justification for terorism acts is intentionallysearched from the verses of the holy book. Terror is interpreted as jihad (hotywar) and iihad is interpreted as physical war against religious enemy andpeople with different beliefs. Verses from the holy book are used to justiff theterrorist acts' There are numbers of verses in AI Qur'an that tell story about thestruggle and battle of the prophet Muhammad and his army against the enemyof Islam' The verses are then interpreted as to validate their terrorist acts withtheir own interpretation,

(7) Belief in going to heaven. Based on theological foundation, risk and deathincludrng death caused by exploding a bomb in one,s own body (suicidebombing) is believed by the actors to be a passport to heaven guaranteed byGod. To die on the struggre is to die as a marryr (syahid death).

(8) Perception on the lacking of Iaw enforcers to change the prevaling siruadon.This perception has been mentioned, for example, by FpI reader, Habib Riziek,who said that FPI will be disbanded if police and law enforcers trury carry outtheir duties to abolish immoraliry. If this is true, then terrorism becomes analternative' when the law is perceived to be dysfunction and preaches areconsidered to be ineffective, then terror is the opdon. In many terrorism cases inseveral countries' terrorist act becomes the strategic choice (Martha crenshaw,

lee8).

(9) Belief that teror is a tool and not a goal. The main goar of terrorism act is toengender changes' especially a change toward a society that hold values theyadopt' Therefore' if there are victims of terror who come from the sim,arreligion orother in faith) they are believed to die as a martyr and will gostraight to heaven' victims are only the price to be paid in struggle to achievethe urtimare goal, that is a sociefy embracing the values they adopt (see ImamSamudera,2OO4).

Characteristics of terror action in IndonesiaHow does terorism in Indonesia differ from that of other counfties?Some psychological factors experienced by the terorrists in Indonesia may be sim,arto those experienced by their counterparts in other countries and those with differentreligious background (for example, terrorists who are Christian and Jewish in other

::Tl::] 1',or however, distinguished factors rhat are different andtsrll anocharacterize terrorism in Indonesia. These differences are, for exampre, norr..lfuough.

I ' History' Terrorism in Indonesia is rooted from the historical struggle of someIndonesian people in order to find the nation,s form and ideol0gy. severaryears after Indonesian independence from the Dutch col0niar (1g45) therewere rebellion and terrorist acts done by DI to tum Indonesia into an Islamicnation' The influence and network of DI now still exist inside organisationsthat carried out terrorist acts. Terrorism in other countries certainly have theirown respective history.

I

-

2' The actors are from the majoriry goup. In other countries such as philippine

and India, for example, terrorist acts are done by the minority groups againtsthe majority goup who has economic and political power. The terrorist actsthey do were meant to fight against the majority hegemony. on the otherhand, in Indonesia, adors actually come from majority group (moslem)eventhough they are the minority within the group (radical moslem). Howcould this possibly happen? This is due to the fact that the majoriry of peopleat national level economically belong to the mrnoriry groups. It means thateven though bv number moslem population is the majority in Indonesia,nationally they belong to the minoriry group in term of economic ownership(power).

3' There is no social support for terrorists. In many other countries, especially interm of religious and political terrorism such as in Israel and palestine, a

number of citizens support the actors. In Indonesia, however, there is nosocial support from Indonesian society toward the terrorists. This absence ofsupport is recognizable by the lack of mass protection for terrorist actors.Only a few citizens protect and hide terrorists from the police. Since theygain no support, the terrorists often seek hiding places in the area wherepeople are paying less affention to one another. These places among othersare boarding houses, recreational areas, and isolated praces.

4. variety of terrorist organisation and target. As mentioned above,organizations suspected as the terrorist actors are coming from differentorganizations with various motiyes and targets. This means, terrorism inIndonesia widely diversed. It has not been known for sure whetherorganizations suspected as terrorist in other countries have a wide range oftargets as those in Indonesia. If not, then Indonesia may be among a few (ifnot the only one) countries in the world with the most terrorist organizationsand with the widest variation of terrorism targets.

Reccomendation

Efficru to combat terrorist acts in Indonesia should consider the following matters:

l' Economic and educational deveropment shourd grve prioriry to theempowe[nent of adherents of Islam with lower economic, social, and culturalstatus' Despite the fact that they are the majoriry of Indonesian sociery, theirsocial and economic status are relatively low. The prevalent feeling of defeatand hopelessness experienced by some of them are potentials in creating otherterrors in the future.

2' The big and moderate Isram organizatrons (especialy, Nu, Muhamm adiyah,MUD has to play theu strategic rore for empowering their members andelevating the quality of life of moslem community as to promote their statusto be equal to other segment of society who has achieved higher standard ofliving.

3' In quantity' the role of the moderate and intelligent ulemas should bepromoted' Today and in the furure, Indonesia needs ulemas who are capableof empowering and erevating the quarity of life of mosrem community as topromote their starus to be equal to other segment of sociery who has achievedhigher standard of living. These leaders must be able to interpret jihad (holywar) in term of building and empowering Moslems so that they are not leftbehind compared to other groups or parties.

4' Law enforcement and police professionalism. Law enforcement is an essentialelement to hamper terrorist acts. Indecisiveness and unprofessionalism of thelaw enforcers and police in handling the terrorist acts wilr not onry encourageterrorist acts in Indonesia but will also nurhrre the sympathetic feeling towardthe terrorists' Sympathy for terrorists has been growing higher in a number ofmoslem communities such as toward rwo executors of the Bari Bombing,Amrozi and Imam Samudera.

5' As long as the united states and its allies are still perceived as arogant andhostile toward a number of Isramic Nations, they wilr aiways become theobject and target of terrorism in Indonesia. The united states and its allieshave been widery perceived as terorists by many Indonesian that they arelikely to be the target of attack and the object of revenge and holy war byradical Moslem in Indonesia. The united States and its ariies are seen as the

enemy of Islamic Nations because of their brutality againts Afghanistan andIraqi citizens as well as moslem hostages at the United states military prisons.Therefore, to prevent terrorism in Indonesia targetted to the interests of theunited states and its allies, Indonesian government need to put politicalpressure to the united states, demanding them to impose a more sympatheticpolicy toward the Islamic Nations.

Bibliography

Abas, Nasir' 2005. Membongkar ramaah Islamiyah. pengakuan Mantan Anggota Jr.Jakarta: Grafindo Khazanah Ilmu

Abidin, Zarnal 2005. penghakiman Massa.Accompli Publisher.

Kajian atas kasus dan pelaku. Jakarta:

Ba'asyir, Abu Bakat. 2006. Catatan dari Penjara untuk mengamalkan dan menegakknnDinul Islam. Depok: Mushaf

inessen, Martin van. 2}ol. Genealogies of Islamic Radicalism in post-Suhartorndonesia' This paper was written foi ttre intemational colloquium ,,L,islampolitique i l'aube du XXIdme sidcre" organtzedin Tehran on october 2g-29,2001 by the Instirute of Political and International Srudies and the FrenchInstitute of Iranian Srudies in Tehran.

' Stephen F' 1998' psligious Suicide in Islamic Asia: Anticolonial terrorism inIndia, India, and the philiphine . lournol of conflict Resolution. yol 32, issue l.March 1998. p.3l-59

' 1l December 2002. rndonesia Backgrounder; How the lemaah Islamiyah terroistnetwork operates. Singapore/Brussels

Asia Report N 92- - 22 February 2005. Recycling Militants in Indonesia: DarulIslam and the Australian Bombing. Singapore/Brussels

Asia Report N 114 - 5 May 2006. Tetroism in Indonesia; Noordin,s Networks.Singapore,/Brussels

mbijn, F. & Lindblad, J.T. 2ooz. Roots of viorence in Indonesia. Leiden: KrrLVPress.

Ttg9, w. (ed). 1986. contemporary Tenoism. New york: Facts on FilePublication

l0

Moghaddam, F'M. , Cultural precon-ditions for potential terrorist group: terrorismand social change. In Moghaddam, F.M. and Marselta, AJ Gurl 2002.Understanding teroism. Washington, DC: ApA

Muttaqin, F & Sukidi. 2001. Terois serang Islam. Babak bara benturan Barat-rslam.Bandung: Pustaka Hiday ah

Nordholt, H.s. A genealogy of violence. In Colombijn, F. & Lindblad, J.T. 2ooz.Roots of violence in rndonesia. Leiden: KrrLV press.

Reich, Walter' 1998. origins ofterrorism. Psychologies, ideologies, theologies, states ofmind.Washington, DC: Woodrow Willson CentIr press.

!B' 2002' Dishonest crimes, dishonest language: An argument about terrorism.$^Y?{.UUTI F;y: and Marsella, A.J. ( r{r1. zOOti.' urdrorording terroism.Washington, DC: ApA

mudra, Imam. 2004. Aku melauan teroislSolo: Jazera

, Sarlito Wirawan. 2006. What isbomben in Indonesia. I't ConventionJ akarta, February 27 -28, 2006

in their minds? The psycholog of suicideof Asian Psychological Association.

s, Michael J. 2005- what is terrorism and can psychology do anything toprevent it?. Behavioral sciences and the law 32 (l_20)(www. interscience. wiley. com)

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