Rod Machado's Private Pilot eHandbook - lacapnm.org€¦ · professional; whowantstogofirst? ... Rod Machado’s Private Pilot Handbook Eye See ... space used by IFR pilots, the basic

In this chapter we’re going to dis-cuss how the airspace in the UnitedStates is constructed. We’ll concernourselves with the weather mini-mums and equipment requirementswhen flying in several varieties ofairspace. I’ll do my best to simplifythe subject and make myself perfect-ly clear. (When one of my early flightinstructors asked if he made himselfperfectly clear, I wanted to run myhand up and down behind him andsay, “Hey everyone, come here, look,Bob’s perfectly clear now!”)

Airspace rules sound and lookworse than they are in practice. Thefact of the matter is that 99% of thetime 99% of the pilots will need toknow only a handful of basics. Someof what you’re about to read coverssituations that, quite honestly, arenot very prevalent. You need to beaware that certain rules exist,though, so you’ll know when it’s timeto refresh your memory.

Bright student of aviation that youare, you might be asking yourselfuseful questions such as “Why?” Whyis it so complicated, why are there somany rules, why do I care?

You care because the airspacestructure is there to assure the maxi-mum safety for everyone. Knowingwhere you can fly and under whatconditions is essential to keepingyourself, your passengers, and lots of

other people healthy and happy. Youalso care because I guarantee youthat this stuff will show up on all theFAA aeronautical knowledge examsyou ever take, both computerized andoral.

One more question. Why is the V-formation of ducks longer on one sidethan the other? Well, of course, oneside has more ducks. Despite theasymmetric display, our fine-feath-ered friends are pretty good at keep-ing themselves from bumping intoone another. They are their own airtraffic control system. This is all the

more remarkable when you considerthat they have slightly less mentalcomputing power than an Etch-a-Sketch.

Even if a few ducks were to collide,what’s the worst that could happen?Some ruffled feathers? A headache,resulting in a duck coming in on awing and a Bayer (I had to do that).

Pilots, on the other hand, can’tafford a collision. Megatons of metalhurtling through the air at enormousspeeds means any encounters will beof a very unfortunate type. Let’s seehow that can be avoided.

Page I1

N2132B

Huh?

OK gentlemen, both of you showed up at thesame place at the same time. Now let’s beprofessional; who wants to go first?

Tower, this is the big jet. You can letour little buddy go first.

THE AIRSPACE CAN SOMETIMES BE A BIT CROWDED

Chapter Nine

AirspaceThe Wild Blue, Green and Red Yonder

Licensed exclusively for DeWayne Britton ([email protected]) Transaction: #0002858938

Rod Machado’s Private Pilot Handbook

Eye SeeOur modern airspace system has

evolved to protect you (the pilot)from bumping into other aircraft andvarious solid objects (mountains,trees, antennas. etc.). This is accom-plished by having rules that deter-mine how and where you can (andcan’t) fly under given conditions. Therules vary depending not only onweather conditions, but also on thetype of airspace in which you’re fly-ing. In order to maximize safety, theairspace has been divided into differ-ent types of areas, which generallyreflect how busy that patch of air-space is and thus how demanding theflying is within it. Once upon a time,these had names like airport trafficarea, and terminal control area.They’ve been renamed with snappytitles like Class A, B, C, D and E air-space. These are simple but they’renot too descriptive. By whatevername, your job as a pilot is to knowat all times what kind of airspaceyou’re in and what its rules are.

Any time you are flying, you willbe operating under one of two prima-ry sets of rules: visual flight rules(VFR) or instrument flight rules(IFR). Generally speaking, VFR flightis fair-weather flying based on theconcept of being able to look out the

window and see any obstacles orother aircraft at all times. IFR isflight when clouds, fog, rain, dustand other kinds of natural phenome-na reduce visibility. IFR flight is, ofcourse, more demanding. It requiresadditional training for the pilot (aninstrument rating) and additionalequipment for the airplane. A VFRflight is a pretty hang-loose proposi-tion. No flight plan is required(although it’s suggested), you can getfrom hither to yon via any route youwant, and you don’t need to talk toanybody except perhaps tower con-trollers at your departure or arrivalairport.

IFR, on the other hand, is a tight-ly-controlled exercise. You file aflight plan prior to departure, inwhich you propose a very specificroute, including altitudes, based on

electronic highways in the sky. Youreceive a clearance, which may con-tain modifications to your proposedroute, and you follow it from takeoffto landing, communicating constant-ly with air traffic controllers on theground. With rare exceptions, you areunder constant radar surveillance.

The exact flight visibility andrequired distances from clouds forVFR flight vary, depending on thetype of airspace in which you’re fly-ing. In other words, flying in busyairspace requires greater flight visi-bility and distance from clouds thanflying in less-busy airspace. Theseminimum requirements, known asbasic VFR weather minimums, allowyou ample time to see and avoidother aircraft. See and avoid is thebasis of all VFR flight. When youcan’t see and avoid, you’re no longerflying VFR. Keep that in mind,please, because far too many needlessaccidents occur every year whenpilots qualified only for VFR flightcontinue on into bad (IFR) weatherand create business for a metal sal-vage dealer.

You might be wondering, “Whatkeeps an IFR pilot from popping outof a cloud and bumping into a VFRpilot?” A VFR pilot, adhering to theminimum distance-from-clouds andflight visibility requirements, shouldhave adequate time to see and avoidan IFR aircraft emerging from acloud. That’s why, in the types of air-space used by IFR pilots, the basicVFR weather minimums make colli-sions highly unlikely. This assumes,of course, that pilots are looking outtheir windows and making an effortto see and avoid other aircraft.

I2

BAD JOKE!...it was only then that I realized our transpon-der was set to 7700 instead of 1200. Someoneset the emergency signal into the transponderas a practical joke prior to our flight. Neithermy student nor I had noticed the error. I regretthat the military was called on to do an inter-cept as escort. I guarantee that I will check mytransponder carefully preceding future flights.

ASRS Report

I think youbetter comewith me!

Uh oh. I guess that chart saidrestricted area and not recommended

area like I thought. I’m in troubleagain, but not as much as those

guys. They all seem to have one heckof a mixture problem.


Chapter 9 - Airspace: The Wild Blue, Green & Red Yonder

Controlled and UncontrolledAirspace

Two basic types of airspace exist inthe United States, controlled anduncontrolled. The major differencebetween the two can be distilleddown to one very important point:controlled airspace is likely to beused by more aircraft (especially air-craft on IFR flight plans) thanuncontrolled airspace. That’s whycontrolled airspace typically hasgreater cloud distance and flight visi-bility requirements than uncon-trolled airspace.

That makes sense, doesn’t it? Afterall, if more airplanes use controlledairspace, the risk of a collision ishigher. It’s a numbers game. Greaterflight visibility and cloud distanceminimums make it more likely thatpilots will see and avoid each other.

Uncontrolled airspace, on theother hand, is less active. It’s normal-ly found close to the surface, awayfrom busy airports, and in areasdevoid of airways (airways are theelectronic highways in the sky I men-tioned a few paragraphs ago, onwhich IFR flights are conducted and

along which many VFR pilots alsonavigate). Since uncontrolled air-space is used less often, you can typi-cally fly in this airspace with a lowerflight visibility and cloud distanceminimums.

If you’ve ever watched fish in anaquarium, you’ll agree they swimaround completely confused. If theythink at all, it’s to contemplatewhether the Almighty is really anenormous nose that occasionallyappears overhead and always pre-cedes the sudden and inexplicableappearance of fish food falling fromthe sky. It’s obvious that fish can’tunderstand anything because theydon’t have the big picture. I don’t wantyou to suffer the fish’s dilemma. Let’stake a look at airspace from the big pic-ture perspective (just for the halibut).

The Big PictureFigure 1 represents the big picture

overview of the national airspace sys-tem. Don’t be alarmed. This will allmake a great deal of sense to yousoon (and we won’t need to do aVulcan mind meld to get you throughthis). As you can see, the airspace ismade up of several layers, shapes and

sections. Each layer or section has aletter designation of either A, B, C,D, E, and G. Yes, I know, the F ismissing. That’s because there is noF-type airspace in the United States.

Because the people in charge didn’twant any, that’s why.

Class A, B, C, D and E is controlledairspace. Class G is uncontrolled air-space. Your job is to know the mini-mum flight visibility, cloud distance,aircraft equipment, and pilot qualifi-cations for each class of airspace.

With the use of an aeronauticalsectional chart and a little knowl-edge, it’s easy to identify the weatherminimums needed for any class ofairspace. Just because the designa-tions for airspace run from A to G(less F) doesn’t mean we need tolearn about them in alphabeticalorder, and a fair argument can bemade that taking them out of orderactually makes more sense.

Let’s try this. We’ll start withClass A (at the very top), then moveon to Class E, then Class G airspace.There’s a method to my madness (atleast this portion of it). Class A air-space overlies Class E airspace, which,in turn, overlies Class G airspace.

I3

FL 600

18,000' MSL

10,000' MSL

Class B

Visibility 3 milesClear of Clouds

Class C

ClassD

ClassE

Class E(Green)

Class E(Green)Class E

(Green)

Class A(Red)

Class AVFR Prohibited

14,500' MSL

Class G(Purple)

Class

G

Class G

1000'

1 mile

1000'

5Miles

Visibility

Anywhere in Class E or G at & above10,000' MSL but below 18,000' MSL

1000'

2000'

500'

3Miles

Visibility

Anywhere in Class Ebelow 10,000' MSL

1 Mile Vis-Day3 Miles Vis-Night

Less than 10,000' MSL

More than 1,200' AGL

1000'

2,000'

500'

Night,Same as Above

Day - 1 Mile Vis& Clear of Clouds

Day,1 Mile Vis &

Clear of CloudsNight,

Same as Class GAbove 1,200'AGL & Below10,000' MSL

700'AGL 700'AGL

1,200'AGL

1,200'AGL

1,200'AGL

1,200'AGL

Not Part Of ATC SystemFig. 1



Class A AirspaceClass A airspace consists of con-

trolled airspace extending from18,000 feet MSL up to and including60,000 feet MSL (Figure 2). This air-space stretches from coast to coastwith an additional 12 nautical mileextension over ocean waters.

Flight in Class A airspace requiresthat you have an instrument ratingand be on an IFR flight plan. Why?Let me put it this way. When you’reflying at and above 18,000 feet,you’re flying where the heavy metalusually goes. Think about two300,000 pound airplanes closing in oneach other at a closure rate of 1,000knots or more. See and avoidbecomes something of a moot point.At this level, what keeps the metalmonsters apart is flight plans and AirTraffic Control (ATC), the nice peo-ple at the radar screens.

At and above 18,000 feet MSL wedon’t refer to altitudes with MSL val-ues. All pilots flying in Class A air-space set their altimeters to 29.92inches of mercury, rather than localstation pressure. These altitudes arereferred to as flight levels (FL) asshown in Figure 3. Class A airspacestarts at 18,000 feet MSL and offi-cially tops out at FL600 (pronounced“flight level six zero zero”) or 60,000feet (add two zeros onto the flightlevel value to obtain the five digitaltitude value in feet).

There’s a good reason pilots don’tuse local station pressure at and

above 18,000 feet. Imagine the pilotof a jet aircraft flying at hundreds ofmiles per hour having to reset thealtimeter to the local station pressureevery 100 miles or so. That pilotwould be changing numbers in thealtimeter’s window faster that ateenager channel surfing with theTV’s remote control. This pilot wouldneed carpel tunnel surgery after eachflight. It was decided that all pilotsflying in Class A airspace would sim-ply agree to use 29.92 as the altime-ter setting and revert back to localstation pressure when below 18,000feet. At least everyone operating atand above 18,000 feet MSL is flyingby the same altitude reference.

As a nice bonus, flight at andabove 18,000 feet MSL will clear allterrain in the United States with theexception of Mt. McKinley in Alaska.

With a few exceptions that ATC han-dles, pilots can set their altimeters to29.92 at the transition altitude of18,000 feet MSL and not worry aboutterrain.

Since Class A airspace doesn’tcome anywhere near the surface, it’snot designated on any aeronauticalsectional chart. In other words, theonly way you know you’re in Class Aairspace is when your altimeter indi-cates 18,000 feet. (Frankly, the onlytime I can imagine someone unin-tentionally stumbling into Class Aairspace is when they’re flying thefamily’s F-16 and accidentally hit theafterburner switch.)

Up to this point, we’ve only dis-cussed the performance of civilianairplanes. Military airplanes also usethe airspace system. Often, theyoperate secretly at high altitudes,

I4

18,000'MSL

18,000'MSL

Class A extends over waterwithin 12 nm of the coast.

Class A airspace starts at 18,000' MSL and extendsvertically to 60,000' MSL. It extends offshore and

overlies the waters within 12 nautical miles of thecoast within the 48 states

and Alaska.

CLASS A AIRSPACE

Alaska

Base of Class A18,000' MSL

Top of Class A60,000' MSL

Fig. 2

Why So High?Why was 18,000 feet MSL chosen for the beginning of

Class A airspace? When the airspace system was original-ly conceived back in the 1950’s, designers thought fewgeneral aviation airplanes would fly above 18,000 feetMSL. At the time, private airplanes commonly went nohigher than 15,000 feet MSL. Things have changed. Wenow have general aviation airplanes that climb like home-sick angels and can easily ascend to 41,000 feet or more.Airspace operational specifications, however, haven’tchanged much since the 1950’s.

Why does Class A airspace only go up to 60,000 feet? Similar reasoning applies.There weren’t (and still aren’t) very many commercial airplanes that can reach suchlofty heights, though the late British Concorde jet did come pretty close to toppingthis altitude, while traveling at twice the speed of sound (that’s why you can’t hearthe in-flight movie until two hours after you land—just kidding!). With the develop-ment of the Space Plane, it won't be long before this rule, too, is outdated.

18,OOOMSL

CLASS A AIRSPACESHOWN IN RED

Fl 600 (60,000'MSL)

Fig. 3Licensed exclusively for DeWayne Britton ([email protected]) Transaction: #0002858938


doing their own thing. In the early1980s, a radar controller at the LosAngeles Center had an experiencewith a military pilot flying an SR-71(the Blackbird, once used for secretaerial reconnaissance around theworld). This aircraft is so fast andflies so high that its performance isstill classified. Even the controllersdon’t know how high it flies. Thepilot of this SR-71 called the con-troller and said, “L.A. Center, this isBlackbird 431 Charlie, request FlightLevel 850” (that’s 85,000 feet!). Thecontroller started laughing andreplied, “Hey 431 Charlie, if you canget up there, you can have it.” Therewas a pause, then, in his best ClintEastwood voice, the pilot replied,“We’ll be coming down to FlightLevel 850!” Now that’s performance.

Class E AirspaceThe airspace lying directly below

Class A airspace is Class E airspace(Figure 4). Class E airspace overliesthe 48 United States and Alaska(including a 12 nautical mile exten-sion off the coastline).

Class E airspace is controlled air-space, implying that quite a fewpilots are likely to use it. It’s madeup of airways, commonly flownroutes, and those areas between busyairports.

You’ll probably do the majority ofyour flying in Class E airspace, solet’s cover it thoroughly. After all, ifyou use something regularly, you

should know a lot about it, shouldn’tyou? Unfortunately, I have a friendwho regularly eats at a Mexicanrestaurant but still doesn’t know theproper Mexican names for food. Heordered a burrito and asked the wait-

er if it came with any Guatemala onit (it’s actually called guacamole).The waiter said, “No, sir, but I dohave some Nicaragua and conquis-tador that is mighty tasty.” It pays tolearn all about the things you use.

Figure 5 provides a better under-standing of the vertical structure ofClass E airspace. This figure shows aplot of land over which lies Class Eairspace. The Class E airspace in thisfigure starts at 1,200 feet AGL. Notethat this is above ground level, notabove sea level. Where there are hillsor mountains, Class E airspace startsat 1,200 feet above the variable risingand descending surface as shown byposition 1.

Class E airspace can also dropdown to 700 AGL as shown in posi-tion #2. Class E airspace can alsodescend all the way down to the sur-face around an airport. When Class Eairspace touches the surface, it’sidentified by a dashed magenta linein the shape of a circle, possibly withrectangular attachments, as shown atposition #3. In just a while I’llexplain why it drops to the surfaceand why this airspace is shaped theway it is. For now, our objective is to

understand what Class E airspacemeans to you as a pilot. To do that,let’s divide Class E airspace into twosections: a section at and above10,000 feet MSL and a section lessthan 10,000 feet MSL.

I5

18,000'MSL

Class A extends over water

within 12 nautical miles of the coast.

Class E also extends to within 12

miles from the coast (not shown

doing so in this graphic).

Class E airspace starts at 1,200 feet AGL (sometimeshigher or lower) and extends up to but notincluding 18,000' MSL -- the base of Class A

airspace.

CLASS E AIRSPACE

18,000'MSL

Base of Class A18,000' MSL & top of Class E airspace

Base of Class Eairspace at 1200' AGL

1,200'AGL

Alaska

Class Estarts at700' AGL

Class Estarts atsurface #2 #1#3

Class E (controlled) airspace (green) generally begins at 1,200 feetabove ground level (#1) and extends vertically up to but not including thebase of Class A airspace. Within the area of the magenta faded border(#2), Class E begins at 700 feet AGL. Within the red dashed lines (#3),Class E beings at the surface. Therefore, it's surface-based Class E air-space in this area.

CLASS E AIRSPACE

Base ofClass E

1,200' AGLClass A18,000' MSL

Class A18,000' MSL

Class Estarts at

1,200' AGL

Class Estarts at

1,200' AGL

Our modern airspace system has evolved to protect you (thepilot) from bumping into other aircraft and various solidobjects (mountains, trees, antennas, etc.).

Fig. 4

Fig. 5



Class E at and Above10,000 Feet MSL

To operate VFR in Class E air-space at and above 10,000 foot MSLyou need the basic VFR minimumsshown in Figure 6. You’re required tooperate at least 1,000 feet above,1,000 feet below and one statute mileto the side (horizontally) of any cloudformation. This means that if you seea cloud directly in front of you, youmust maneuver to climb over it by atleast 1,000 feet, go below it by atleast 1,000 feet or go to the side of itby at least one statute mile (5,280feet). You’re also required to have aminimum of five statute miles offlight visibility at all times. Theseminimums make it easier for you tosee and avoid other (and possiblyfaster) aircraft.

Here’s Rod Machado’s AirspaceSimplification Rule #1: If you’reflying at and above 10,000’ MSL,you could find fast jet fighters likethe F-111. This reminds you that theminimum flight visibility is five (F)statute miles and the minimum dis-tance above, below and to the side ofa cloud is 111 or 1,000 feet above,1,000 feet below and 1 statute mile tothe side or. To make this easy toremember, just think 5V/111.

You may be wondering, “How do Iknow when I’m one statute mile tothe side of a cloud?” Good question.You must take your best guess. Thereason you are required to be onestatute mile horizontally from acloud at these altitudes is to preventbeing hit by emerging IFR aircraft. Ifyou’re at or above 10,000 feet MSLand a jet (traveling at 450 knots) on

an IFR flight plan pops out of acloud, your entire vocabulary wouldbe reduced to two words: “Badthing.” Do you have any idea howscary it is to look out your windowand see a jet comingdirectly at you at450 knots? It’sprobably as scary ash a v i n g S t e p h e nKing as a flightinstructor. Being atleast one mile tothe side of a cloudprovides you with a better chance ofseeing and avoiding other aircraft.

One way to make a practical judg-ment on distance from clouds is to

always ask yourself “If a jet were topop out of there at about 500 knotsright now, aimed directly at me,would I have time and space to dosomething about it?” With that

thought in mind, you should alwayshave sufficient clearance from clouds,and it will be a heck of a lot morethan one mile.

I6

Too High in the SkyThe electronic highways in the sky I’ve referred to are called Victor airways below 18,000 feet, and

jet routes (JR’s) at 18,000 feet up to a maximum of FL450 (45,000 feet).

Jet routes stop at FL450 because above 45,000 feet the aircraft’s VOR equipment, which receivesthe signals that define where the highways are, can pick up signal interference from other VOR sta-tions. There are only a certain number of VOR frequencies to go around. VOR’s near one anotheralways have different frequencies. Remember, VOR communication is line-of-sight. The higher youare, the farther you can “see.” Above FL450, it is possible to see farther than the amount of territorywhere frequency exclusivity can be guaranteed.

Above FL 450 aircraft use point-to-point navigation, like radar vectors, inertial navigation systemsor GPS (global positioning systems). These systems don’t rely on the VOR system for navigation.

10,000 ' MSL

18,000' MSLClass A airspace -- IFR ONLY!

Class E at and above 10,000' MSL

Class E below 10,000' MSL

700' AGL ToSurface

1,200' AGL 1,200' AGL

1,000'

1,000'

1,000'

1 Mile

500'

2,000'

Fig. 6

Rod Machado’s Airspace Simplification Rule #1:If you’re flying at and above 10,000’ MSL, youcould find fast jet fighters like the F-111. You need5 miles Visibility, 1,000’ above, 1,000’ below and 1mile horizontally from any cloud formation.



Since there is no aircraft speed restriction at and above10,000 feet MSL, jets and other fast flying aircraft typi-cally move at or near their top speed. Over land, however,jet pilots must avoid flying faster than the speed of sound(if you’re breaking the sound barrier in your Piper Cub,please send me a little note with information on whatpower setting you’re using).

Class E Below 10,000 Feet MSLMost recreational flying is done below 10,000 feet MSL.

It’s not that our airplanes can’t fly higher than this, butthe performance of the majority of general aviation air-planes drops off pretty rapidly as you get above 10,000feet. For short flights, it’s just not worth the time andfuel it takes to fly high.

Figure 6 shows the VFR cloud distance and flight visi-bility minimums below 10,000 feet MSL. Any altitude inClass E airspace below 10,000 feet MSL requires that youfly at least 1,000 feet above, 500 feet below and 2,000 feethorizontally from any cloud formation. Three miles offlight visibility is also required. Here’s Rod Machado’sAirspace Simplification Rule #2: Since you’re likely tosee at least three Cessna 152’s below 10,000 feet, let’sencode the minimums in an easy-to-remember formula:3V/152.

Why are the cloud distance and flight visibility mini-mums below 10,000 feet MSL less than those at andabove 10,000 foot MSL? There is a 250 knot (288 MPH)indicated airspeed limit for all aircraft operating below10,000 feet MSL. A 250 knot airplane could still pop outthe side of a cloud and you’ll be as shocked as a pig seeingsomeone eating a ham sandwich. Maintaining a distanceof no less than 2,000 feet horizontally from any cloud for-mation minimizes the risk of a collision. To repeat myselffor a good cause, stay as far away from any cloud as youneed to in order to feel really, really safe. Two thousandfeet might not do it for you; it certainly doesn’t for me. Iprefer three, four or even five thousand feet (big feet too).

Why is a greater distance required above a cloud thanbelow? Many high performance airplanes typically climbfaster than they descend. Small jet aircraft, like Learjets,can climb at several thousand feet per minute after take-off (Learjets feel like someone strapped a little rocketonto your back). Being higher above the cloud tops helpsreduce the risk that you will unintentionally become ahood ornament for a Learjet.

Pilots of jet aircraft, particularly big ones, rarelydescend at thousands of feet per minute when they arebelow 10,000 feet MSL. Why? Trying to arrest a 6,000foot-per-minute sink rate in a fully loaded Boeing 747would take hundreds of feet. Boeing 747’s (also known as“aluminum overcasts”) have such inertia that descents inexcess of 1,000 feet per minute while close to the groundare done with great care. Since pilots generally descendat lesser rates than they climb, required distances belowclouds are typically less than those above.

The minimum flight visibility of three statute miles isless than that required above 10,000 feet. Once again,because of the speed limit, somewhat less margin isacceptable. Allowing more than the minimum is certainlythe wise thing to do.

I7

Here’s Rod Machado’s Airspace Simplification Rule#2: Since you’re likely to see at least three Cessna152’s below 10,000 feet. You need 3 visibility,1,000’ above, 500’ below and 2,000’ horizontallyfrom any cloud formation. Let’s encode the mini-mums in an easy-to-remember formula: 3V/152.

DON’T MAKE LOW PASSES,UNLESS WEARING GLASSES

Approaching the airport, neither thepilot nor passenger could visually veri-fy the gear down. The pilot thenopened the window for a closer look.At that point the pilot’s eyeglasseswere blown from the aircraft. After los-ing eyeglasses, pilot turned final andresumed pumping of gear. On what

appeared to be a normal glidepath the pilot encountered aridge line. After an abrupt pull-up maneuver to avoid the ridge,all emergency pumping of the landing gear ceased. With asmooth flare the main landing gear failed and the aircraft slidto a stop. Moral: It is a mistake for a pilot who relies on eye-glasses to open the window and look for the landing gear.

ASRS Report

Keep your speed upBubba. I’m getting afeeling that we’veentered the wrong

airspace!



Class E Airspace Starting At700 Feet AGL

When Class E airspace starts at700 above ground level, it will be sur-rounded by a magenta faded line, asshown in Figure 7. Anywhere withinthis magenta faded area, controlledairspace starts at 700 feet AGL. Anaeronautical sectional chart showsthis magenta faded border quiteclearly in Figure 8, position 1.Outside the border of the magentafade, controlled airspace starts at1,200 feet AGL.

Within the borders of the magentafade, at and above 700 feet AGL, RodMachado’s Airspace SimplificationRule #2 applies. In other words, youneed a minimum of 3V/152 for VFRflight.

Why would an airspace designerwant to lower Class E airspace to 700feet AGL around or near an airport?To keep VFR pilots from bumpinginto IFR pilots who are makinginstrument approaches.

The keyhole type extensions ofClass E airspace starting at 700 feetAGL in Figure 8 identify descentpaths followed by IFR airplanes dur-ing their instrument approaches. Thekeyhole slot is shown on the aeronau-tical sectional chart excerpt in Figure8, position 1. IFR pilots on an instru-ment approach typically descend toaltitudes of 700 feet AGL (and lower).They remain in Class E airspace dur-ing most of their IFR approach. Ifthey see the airport, they land; ifthey don’t see it, they fly off to anoth-

er airport (hopefully one that hasfewer clouds and better visibility).

Remember that in Class E airspacebelow 10,000 feet MSL, VFR pilotsshould be flying with no less than3V/152. This means if an IFR pilotpops out of the clouds, there shouldbe ample time for the VFR and IFRpilots to see and avoid each other(IFR pilots are equally responsible tosee and avoid whenever they arenot in instrument meteorologicalconditions).

Some airports have instrumentapproaches that bring IFR pilotsdown closer than 700 feet AGL, asshown in Figure 9. There are airportsallowing IFR pilots to come within200 feet AGL or less while still in theclouds. Since controlled airspace

I8


CLASS E AIRSPACE AT 700' AGLWithin the borders of the magenta faded area surrounding an airport,Class E (controlled) airspace starts at 700 feet above ground level (AGL)instead of the normal 1,200 feet AGL. The lower base of Class E airspace(i.e., 700' AGL), keeps airplanes flying instrument approaches in con-trolled airspace asthey descend to theairport.

Class Eairspace

Carr Mem.Airport

Class A18,000' MSL

Class A18,000' MSL

Class Estarts at

1,200' AGL

Class Estarts at

1,200' AGL

700' AGL

Fig. 7


Class Estarts atsurfaceMcComb-Pike

Airport

CLASS E AIRSPACE AT THE SURFACEWithin the borders of the magenta (red) dashed line, Class E airspacedescends all the way to the surface surrounding McComb-Pike airport.Since some instrument approaches bring pilots real close to the surfaceof an airport, this lower Class E surface area keeps them in controlledairspace during theirdescent.

Class Eairspace

Class Estarts at

1,200' AGL

Class Estarts at

1,200' AGL

N2132B

N2132

B

Fig. 8

Fig. 10Fig. 9

1

1

McComb-Pike airport as shown on anaeronautical sectional chart.

Carr airport as shown on anaeronautical sectional chart.



helps VFR pilots see and avoid otherpilots, these airports have Class Eairspace lowered all the way to thesurface. (There are other reasons whycontrolled airspace is lowered, but theseare beyond the scope of this book.)

Figure 10 shows how surface-basedClass E airspace is shown on an aero-nautical sectional chart. A dottedmagenta line defines the lateralboundaries of the controlled airspacesurrounding McComb-Pike Countyairport (position 1). Airports withoutair traffic control towers use amagenta dashed line to represent thissurface-based Class E airspace.(Airports with established controltowers, as you’ll see a little later, useblue-dashed lines to represent con-trolled airspace in contact with thesurface around that airport.)

What does this surface-based ClassE airspace mean to you as a VFRpilot approaching and departingMcComb-Pike airport? It means RodMachado’s Airspace SimplificationRule #2 applies all the way to thesurface within the boundaries of themagenta-dashed line. The only thingdifferent here is that the controlledairspace normally existing at 700 feetor 1,200 feet AGL drops to the sur-face within the boundaries of themagenta dashed line.

Additional Requirements InSurface-Based ControlledAirspace

There are two additional require-ments when operating at an airporthaving any type of surface-based con-trolled airspace established for it(Class E in the case of McComb-Pike):

1. The reported ground visibility atthe airport must be at least threestatute miles. If the ground visibilityisn’t reported, then the flight visibili-ty during takeoff, landing or whenoperating in the traffic pattern mustbe at least three statute miles. (Theflight visibility is always determinedby the pilot on the honor system.)

2. If a ceiling exists at that airport,it can be no lower than 1,000 feetAGL if you desire to operate beneathit. If you want to take off, land or

operate in the traffic pattern, theceiling (if one exists) must be at least1,000 feet AGL or more.

A ceiling is defined as the heightabove the earth’s surface of the low-est layer of clouds reported as brokenor overcast, or any reported verticalvisibility into obscuring phenomena.We’ll be talking more about theseterms in Chapter 13. For themoment, consider a ceiling as beinganything in the sky you can’t readilysee through (like clouds for instance).

To summarize these requirements,remember this. To operate to, from,or at an airport within the bound-aries of any surface-based controlledairspace, you need a minimum ofthree miles reported visibility (flight

visibility if none reported) and noless than a 1,000 foot ceiling (if a ceil-ing exists). Let’s symbolize thesebasic VFR requirements as 3V/1C.(As you’ll soon see, in addition toClass E, there are three other typesof controlled airspace that can sur-round an airport at the surface: ClassD, C and B.)

Here’s Rod Machado’s AirspaceSimplification Rule #3: Taking off,landing, or operating in the trafficpattern of an airport having any typeof surface-based controlled airspacerequires basic VFR minimums of atleast three miles visibility and, if aceiling exists at that airport, it can beno lower than 1,000 feet. We’ll sym-bolize this rule as 3V/1C.

I9

N911

1,000' Ceiling & 3 Miles Visibilityare the basic VFR minimums

in Class E surface-basedairspace

1,000' Ceiling & 3 Miles Visibilityare the basic VFR minimums

in Class E surface-basedairspace

1,200' AG

L

700' AG

L1,000'Ceiling

500'

500'

WHY 1,000 FEET WAS CHOSEN AS THE MINIMUM CEILINGIf you think like a flight instructor (we’re attracted to bright, shiny objects and trin-

kets that rattle), then you’re probably wondering why 1,000 feet was chosen as theminimum ceiling for basic VFR within any surface-based controlled airspace. Well,as famed undersea explorer Jacques Cousteau says, “We do not know, but weshall soon find out.” (Although, come to think of it, I’ve never actually seen him gointo the water).

In Class E airspace, less than 10,000 feet MSL, you need to remain at least 500feet below any cloud formation. Regulations also require that you remain at least500 feet above the surface over a noncongested area. For the sake of rulemaking,the airport is assumed to be built around a noncongested area (you and I know thatthis isn’t always true, but it’s general enough to make this point). Adding the 500foot minimum altitude requirement to the 500 foot minimum clearance beneath acloud gives you a minimum ceiling height of 1,000 feet. These values are shown inFigure 11.

Fig. 11



I specifically chose the words aboveto indicate that surface-based con-trolled airspace is established for aspecific airport (usually the one inthe center of that airspace). We callthis the primary airport. Sometimes,other airports lie within the bound-aries of the primary airport’s surface-based controlled airspace. These arecalled satellite airports (think of themas orbiting the primary airport,although they really don’t move!). Asyou’ll soon see, the above simplifica-tion rule #3 also applies to satelliteairports, with one exception.

Just because Class E airspaceexists at the surface of an airportdoesn’t mean it stays that way 24hours a day. In other words, the sur-face-based portion of that controlledairspace can revert back to Class Eairspace starting at 700 or 1,200 feetAGL.

Normally, any type of surface-based controlled airspace requires a

federally certificated weather observ-er or weather-observing system bepresent to make visibility and cloudheight determinations. These weath-er observers or observing systemscan be tower controllers, flight ser-vice station personnel, licensedweather observers, or federally cer-tificated automated weather observ-ing stations known as AWOS-3(Automatic Weather ObservingSystem). Some means of pilot-to-ATCcommunication is also required.Either direct communications withATC, relayed communicationthrough an FSS, or communicationvia a remote communication outlet isacceptable.

The official weather observer’shours of operation normally coincidewith the hours during which the sur-face-based controlled airspace exists.I said normally, not always. Theactual hours that surface-based con-trolled airspace exists are shown inthe A/FD (Airport/Facility Directory)as shown in Figure 12. If the weatherobserver leaves before these hours,the surface-based airspace is still ineffect. This is one reason why groundvisibility might not be reported, yetthree miles of flight visibility is stillrequired for landing.

Special VFR ClearanceWhat happens if you want to land

or depart McComb-Pike airport andthe reported ground visibility is lessthan three miles or the ceiling is lessthan 1,000 feet? Do you circle, eatinga sandwich, until the cows comehome or the clouds blow away? Notnecessarily.

I10

R o d M a c h a d o ’ s Ai rspaceSimplification Rule #3: Takingoff, landing or operating in thetraffic pattern of an airport hav-ing any type of surface-basedcontrolled airspace requires aminimum of 3 miles visibilityand a 1,000’ ceiling or 3V/1C.

Mc COMB–PIKE CO–JOHN E LEWIS FLD (MCB) 4 S UTC�6(�5DT) NEW ORLEANSN31°10.71� W90°28.31� H–6J, L–21B, 22F

413 B S4 FUEL 100LL, JET A1+ IAPRWY 15–33: H5000X100 (ASPH–GRVD) S–25, D–30, DT–60

MIRL 0.5% up NWRWY 15: MALSF. PAPI(P2L)—GA 3.0° TCH 38�.RWY 33: PAPI(P2L)—GA 3.0° TCH 46�.

AIRPORT REMARKS: Attended 1400Z‡–dusk. For attendant and fuel afterhrs call 601–684–8950. MIRL Rwy 15–33 preset med intsdusk–0600Z‡, after 0600Z‡ increase ints, ACTIVATEMALSF—CTAF.

WEATHER DATA SOURCES: ASOS 119.025 (601) 249–3223. HIWAS 116.7MCB.

COMMUNICATIONS: CTAF/UNICOM 123.05GREENWOOD FSS (GWO) TF 1–800–WX–BRIEF. NOTAM FILE MCB.RCO 122.4 122.2 (GREENWOOD FSS)RCO 122.1R 116.7T (GREENWOOD FSS)

�R HOUSTON CENTER APP/DEP CON 133.5AIRSPACE: CLASS E svc continuously.RADIO AIDS TO NAVIGATION: NOTAM FILE MCB. Fig. 12

RemainClear

RemainClear

OfClouds

OfClouds

10,000' MSLSpecial VFR - 1 Mile Visibility and

Remain Clear Of CloudsSpecial VFR - 1 Mile Visibility and

Remain Clear Of Clouds

A special VFR clearance applies only within the lateral limits of the Class Esurface area (B,C & D also) below 10,000 feet MSL. It allows you to fly with1 mile visibility while remaining clear of clouds. The purpose of SVFR is toallow you to depart toward VFR weather or to land when the weather isless than basic VFR.

SPECIAL VFR (SVFR)

1,200' AG

L

700' AG

L

Fig. 13

The A/FD indicates that McComb-Pike’sClass E surface area operates continuously.



You can request something knownas a special VFR clearance (SVFR)from the nearest ATC facility. This ispermission to operate within the sur-face-based controlled airspace at lessthan basic VFR minimums.

An SVFR clearance allows you tooperate below 10,000 feet MSL downto the surface, within the lateralboundaries of surface-based con-trolled airspace (Class E in thisinstance at McComb-Pike) under thefollowing conditions:

1. The pilot must have a clearancefrom ATC.

2. The reported ground visibility(by the official weather observer)must be at least one statute mile. Ifthe ground visibility isn’t reported,then the flight visibility must not beless than one statue mile.

3. The pilot must remain clear ofall clouds and maintain one mileflight visibility.

Despite the lowered visibility thatSVFR permits, this is considered asafe operation from the perspective ofATC. Since ATC is responsible forproviding separation between aircraftduring SVFR conditions, they usuallyallow only one aircraft to operatewithin the lateral boundaries of thesurface-based controlled airspace atany one time during SVFR opera-tions. Remember, SVFR applies to

any surface-based controlled airspace(Class E as well as three other typeswe haven’t discussed yet: B, C and D).

The whole purpose of SVFR is toget into or out of an airport that’ssurrounded by surface-based con-trolled airspace when the weatherconditions are less than basic VFRminimums. This clearance is notintended to let you fly to a far-off des-tination, halfway around the globe,with a minimum of one mile flightvisibility while remaining clear of allclouds. The SVFR clearance is only

applicable within the horizontalboundaries of the vertically extended,surface-based airspace at that air-port, as shown in Figure 13. TheSVFR clearance is good below 10,000feet MSL unless ATC assigns a loweraltitude restriction.

SVFR is a very handy tool, andwhen used properly, a safe one. It isthe answer to the phenomenon,observed by every pilot, that if thereis one cloud in the sky it will hangover the airport. You can use SVFRto depart or arrive at an airport whenthere is some local obscuring phe-nomena such as fog, haze or lowclouds and the enroute weather isabove basic VFR minimums for theairspace in which you’ll fly.

Let’s examine how you go aboutgetting a SVFR clearance.

Obtaining an SVFR ClearanceSpecial VFR clearances are usually

obtained by contacting the nearestATC facility (tower, FSS, approach ordeparture control.) For instance, let’ssuppose the reported ground visibili-ty at McComb-Pike is two miles andyou need to obtain an SVFR clear-ance. You can obtain this clearanceby calling the FSS located on the fieldat McComb-Pike (Figure 10). (Theletters FSS indicate that a FlightService Station is on the airport.)

I11

Report ReachingOne of the things making special VFR special is that you get the air-

space all to yourself. Until you report reaching VFR conditions, or clearof the lateral limits of the surface-based controlled airspace, all othertraffic is barred. If you reach VFR conditions 30 seconds after depar-ture, say so. Pick up the nice microphone, summon your best radiovoice, and say “SoCal Approach, Cessna 2132 Bravo is VFR.”

One of the quickest ways on or off earth to become highly unpopu-lar is to fail to report reaching VFR, especially when 19 other peopleare backed up waiting.

The only thing worse is to depart the frequency without reportingclear. For some reason, there is a subgroup of pilots who think that theyonly have to take care of themselves and everything else will be fine.They take their special VFR clearance, depart the airport, and withoutso much as an adios they flip the dial and tune in the baseball game.Down below, some controller is calling every 30 seconds, while consid-ering whether to order a missile strike from a nearby Air Force base.

Until ATC can confirm that you are out of the airspace, they can’t doa thing with all the other people other than try and harness the steamcoming from their ears. Don’t be a special VFR abuser.

WHICH WAY DOES THE MAGENTA AND BLUE FADE?

The magenta fades in thed i r e c t i o n o f t h e r e darrows, indicating con-trolled (Class E) airspacestarts at 700 AGL withinthe faded border areas.

The blue faded border(often seen in the westernpart of the US), indicatescontrolled (Class E) air-space begins at 1,200feet AGL in the directionof the blue fade (the samedirection my blue arrowspoint).

If you see only a magen-ta fade and no blue fade,just assume the area onthe other side of themagenta faded border isClass E airspace startingat 1,200 feet AGL.

Class E airspace beginsat the surface within themagenta dashed lines.

To learnaboutthis non-fadedarea, seepage 16.

Hey! We’rebackin’ up.



The FSS specialist would contact the ATC facility incharge of the surface-based controlled airspace (Class Ein this case) at McComb-Pike and obtain an SVFR clear-ance for you. Since no control tower exists at this airport,the nearest approach and departure control or air trafficcontrol center will normally have jurisdiction over thisairspace. The clearance may sound something like this:

"Cessna 2132 Bravo is cleared to climb to VFR withinthe Class E surface area within 4 miles of McComb-Pikeairport, maintain special VFR conditions until reachingVFR. Report reaching VFR."

This is a typical SVFR clearance issued when condi-tions of restricted visibility exist near the airport. Whencleared for takeoff, you must maintain at least one mileflight visibility and remain clear of clouds within 4 milesof McComb-Pike. The assumption is that you will reachVFR conditions (3V/152 when operating below 10,000’

MSL) by the time you depart the controlled airspace.An altitude limitation may be given in an SVFR clear-

ance when it’s necessary to keep you separated from IFRtraffic in the vicinity of the airport. For example, ATCmay issue the following SVFR clearance:

"Cessna 2132 Bravo is cleared to maintain special VFRconditions at or below 2,000 feet within the Class E sur-face area of McComb-Pike airport."

By the time you reach 2,000 feet, it’s expected that youwill be in VFR conditions. If not, the clearance forbidsyou to continue your climb in special VFR conditions. Ifyou haven’t reached VFR conditions by 2,000 feet, youshould contact the ATC facility responsible for that air-space and request further instructions. In this instance, Iwould ask ATC for my SVFR clearance to be amendedwith a higher altitude restriction.

If you were approaching McComb-Pike airport and thereported ground visibility was 2 miles, you could call theFSS and request an SVFR clearance into Class E air-space. The clearance might sound something like this:

"Cessna 2132 Bravo is cleared into Class E airspacefrom the west, toward McComb-Pike airport, in specialVFR conditions at or below 2,500 feet, maintain SVFRconditions until reaching McComb-Pike."

Now, don’t go out and fall on your sword or throwyourself in front of an onrushing glacier, but studentpilots are limited in the SVFRs they can obtain. Studentpilots can’t fly when the ground or flight visibility is lessthan three miles during the day and five miles at night(no exceptions!). Students can, however, obtain a clear-ance for SVFR operations when the ceiling is less than1,000 feet (I’m not recommending you do this, either. Letyour flight instructor be the judge of this. Check and seeif he or she will allow such activity).

No pilot (student or otherwise) can obtain an SVFRclearance from sunset to sunrise unless they have aninstrument rating and an airplane equipped for instru-ment flight. This obviously means no SVFR at all for stu-dent pilots at night. Clouds are difficult to see at night,making them much easier to accidentally fly into. Aninstrument rating provides good insurance for SVFRoperations at night in case you accidentally fly into acloud.

Satellite Airports Lying Within the PrimaryAirport’s Surface-Based Controlled Airspace

Sometimes an additional airport (a satellite airport)lies within the surface-based airspace originally estab-lished for another airport (the primary airport). PortAngeles (Figure 14) is an example of such an airport. Itlies within the Class E surface area established forFairchild International airport. If Fairchild reports lessthan three miles visibility, an SVFR clearance isn’trequired for operations at Port Angeles as long as thepilot has a minimum of three miles flight visibility (orground visibility—if it’s reported at the satellite airport).However, if Fairchild (the primary airport) reports a ceil-ing less than 1,000 feet AGL, then an SVFR clearance isrequired for operations anywhere within that surface-based controlled airspace. Simply stated, visibility isdetermined by pilots on the honor system but ceilings aredetermined by the official weather observer at the prima-ry airport. This rule pertains to any type of surface-basedcontrolled airspace (B, C, D as well as E).

Figure 15A and 15B provide a quick summary of theVFR weather minimums for flight in Class E airspace.

I12

Fig. 14

A wise man says,“Airspace is not some-thing a pilot should find

between the ears.”

Port Angeles is a satellite airport located within the

Class E airspace of another airport (Fairchild Intl.).


Chapter 9 - Airspace: The Wild Blue, Green & Red YonderI13

N911

N911

Class E airspaceat & above

10,000' MSL

Class E airspaceat & above

10,000' MSL

Class E airspacebelow

10,000' MSL

Class E airspacebelow

10,000' MSL

Basic VFR inClass E surface

area

Basic VFR inClass E surface

area

Special VFR inClass E surface

area

Special VFR inClass E surface

area

1,000'

2,000'

500'

1,000'

1 Mile

1,000'

Clear Of Clouds

1,000' ceiling (min)

Airspace/ALtitude Visibility Cloud Clearance

SUMMARY OF VFR WEATHERMINIMUMS FOR CLASS E AIRSPACE

Fig. 15A

VFR REQUIREMENTS IN CLASS E AIRSPACE

Groundheight5,333' MSL

1,000'

2,000'

500'

1,000'

2,000'

500'

N911

N911

18,000'MSLUp to

but notIncluding

10,000'MSL

1,000'

1 Mile

1,000'N911

Shown aboveare the basicVFR weather minimums forClass E (controlled) airspace below 18,000'MSL. The VFR requirements above 1,200' AGLand below 10,000' MSL also apply to the con-trolled airspace extending to the surface. Addi-tionally, a minimum of a 1,000' ceiling (ifone exists) is also required for basicVFR in a class E surface area.

1,000'Ceiling (min)

Also required forBasic VFR

Also required forBasic VFR

1,200' AGL18,000' MSLto but

not including

0' to 1,200' AGL

Fig. 15B

AVIATION’S PRIORITIES1. Aviate: Always fly the airplane.2. Navigate after the airplane is under control.3. Communicate: Don’t lose control or lose

positional awareness just to talk to ATC.

TO ERR IS HUMAN—BUT NOT

COMPULSORY

Reporting over XYZ (last foreignpoint before entering USA), the con-troller asked us to contact theAmerican center on 125.65 andsquawk 7500. We acknowledged andcomplied. Center asked me to con-firm squawking 7500. I confirmedwithout it reminding me that this wasthe hijack code. The approach wascurious in that we received (sort of),special handling. There didn’t seemto be anybody else on the frequencyand everything went very smoothly.

Tower asked us to roll out all theway to the end of the long runway,which seemed odd. I taxied off therunway and was surrounded by aphalanx of vehicles (police cars, air-port vehicles, FBI, Border Patrol, M-16 carbines, sirens, lights, and cus-toms people). The whole world wasthere to greet us. It was only whensomeone asked if I knew the mean-ing of Code 7500, that it dawned onme what had happened. It was thendifficult to convince the authoritiesthat the flight was in no way abnor-mal. Unfortunately, in the papers thenext day they correctly spelled myname.

Our foreign controller fr iendscould use a refresher on emergencycodes like the one these companypilots received.

ASRS Report



Class G AirspaceWe’re about to do much ado about

nothing.Welcome to the short course on

Class G, or uncontrolled airspace.This is a tiny sliver of airspace whoserules are thicker than its depth, andwhose practical importance to mostpilots on most occasions is vanishing-ly small unless you routinely fly fromPoint A to point B at or below 1200feet above the ground.

While there are several types ofcontrolled airspace (Class B, C, D andE), there is only one type of uncon-trolled or Class G airspace. It’s gen-erally found below Class E airspaceat altitudes less than 1,200 or 700feet AGL. Figure 16 depicts Class Gairspace. In fact, the only place nearthe surface where you won’t findClass G airspace, is within the sur-face-based controlled airspace thatsurrounds an airport.

Think about Class G airspace as athin layer of water resting over the

entire, continental United States. Inother words, any place other than anairport having surface-based con-trolled airspace must have a thinlayer of Class G airspace lying on topof it. Those airports having surface-based controlled airspace in theUnited States couldn’t possibly covereven 1% of the nation’s surface(believe me when I say it’s much,much less than that, but we’ll use 1%anyway). Simple math indicates thatover 99% of the United States surfacearea must have Class G airspacelying on top of it and extending verti-cally to 700 or 1,200 feet AGL. As youcan imagine, Class G airspace within700 or 1,200 feet AGL is quite com-mon. That’s why it’s nice to knowsomething about the basic VFR mini-mums in Class G airspace.

To understand what Class G air-space means to you, it’s necessary tothink back to the introduction of thischapter. Our airspace discussionrevolves around the idea that con-trolled airspace is likely to be used by

more aircraft (especially aircraft onan IFR flight plan) than uncontrolledairspace. Therefore, the basic VFRweather minimums are stricter incontrolled airspace.

Have you noticed how the basicVFR weather minimums change withaltitude? Generally, the lower you go,the less restrictive the weather mini-mums become. At low altitudes (sayless than 1,200 feet AGL), fewer air-planes, and certainly fewer fast air-planes, fly close to the surface forlong periods of time (except for tak-ing off and landing at airports ofcourse). There is less threat of a colli-sion at these lower altitudes betweenairports.

With fewer airplanes flying longdistances at low altitudes betweenairports, it’s reasonable to concludethat the VFR weather minimums inthese areas should be the leastrestrictive. That is precisely the case.In Class G airspace at and below1,200 feet AGL, the basic VFR mini-mums for daylight operations are onestatute mile flight visibility whileremaining clear of all clouds asshown in Figure 17. We’ll simplifythis with the symbol 1V/COC. (COCstands for clear of clouds.)

Monett airport, shown in the aero-nautical sectional chart excerpt inFigure 18, position 1, is in Class Gairspace. During the day you maydepart or land at Monett with a mini-

I14

Class G (uncontrolled) airspace starts at the surface and ascends up-ward until reaching the base of Class E (controlled) airspace. Class G air-space may extend upward to 700 or 1,200 feet AGL or even higher. Gen-erally, Class G airspace contains fewer big and fast airplanes (except inthe vicinity of certain airports). Therefore, the visibility and cloud clear-ance requirement is usually not as great as in controlled airspace.

CLASS G (UNCONTROLLED) AIRSPACE

Base ofClass A

18,000'MSL

Class G0' to 1,200' AGLClass G

0' to 700' AGLMonett

AirportMonettAirport

Class G 0'to 1,200' AGL

Fig. 16

N911

1,000'

2,000'

500'

N911 Clear Of Clouds

Class Gairspace1,200 feet

or less AGLregardless

of MSLaltitude

Day

NightAirspace/Altitude Visibility Cloud Clearance

Fig. 18

Fig. 17

Monett airport lies in Class G (uncontrolled)

airspace. Class E (controlled airspace starts

at 700’ AGL.

1

2

3



mum flight visibility of one mile,while staying clear of all clouds, aslong as you remain at or below 700feet AGL. Class E airspace starts at700 feet AGL within the magentafaded borders above Monett (position2). For flight above 700 feet AGL,within the magenta border’s laterallimits, you must have the basic VFRminimums for Class Eairspace operations below10,000’ MSL (3V/152).

Outside the lateral lim-its of the magenta fade, atwhat altitude does ClassE airspace start? I hopeyou said it starts at 1,200feet AGL, as shown inFigure 16. Let’s assume you want totake off or land at Mt. Vernon airport(position 3, Figure 18). You can do soduring the day with a minimum ofone mile flight visibility and remain-ing clear of clouds as long as youascend no higher than 1,200 feetAGL. Climbing higher than 1,200feet AGL above Mt. Vernon puts youin Class E airspace which requires3V/152.

Most pilots do not routinely flyaround at 1200 AGL or below. That’sbecause most pilots realize there’snot much margin of safety in case ofengine failure when you’re 1200AGL, there’s a good chance of bump-ing into something tall (like a basket-ball player or TV antenna), and youprobably couldn’t convince the FAAthat this met the standard for sensi-ble altitude when over a denselyoccupied area. For these reasons, andmany others, Class G airspace is notsomething in which you will spend alot of your pilot life. In fact, you’llprobably spend more time trying tomemorize the rules about Class Gairspace than you will using them tofly within such airspace.

Remember, the airspace designa-tions and the basic VFR weatherminimums for each are there for a

reason—to protect you and otherpilots. Rules are often created for justthat purpose. In fact, that’s why younow see little signs on Coke machinessaying, “If you lose money in thismachine, don’t shake it, call the man-ager.” Apparently people withoutmuch common sense were shakingthe machines, causing them to tip

over and squish these folks graveyarddead. (If you’ve been injured by afalling Coke machine, you probablyshouldn’t be flying an airplane. Ialways check for Coke imprints onthe forehead before I fly with any-one.)

Night Operations in Class GAirspace at 1,200 Feet AGLAnd Below

To offer you additional protection,the FAA has established slightlystricter basic VFR minimums atnight in Class G airspace. If you areoperating in Class G airspace at orbelow 1,200’ AGL, from sunset tosunrise, the Class E (less than 10,000feet) airspace minimums apply—3V/152.

Why the increase in basic VFRminimums at night? Simply stated,it’s more difficult to see and avoidobjects when it’s dark outside (per-haps that’s how Neanderthalsreceived their sloped foreheads—bywalking into stationary objects atnight. If they were around today,they’d probably be found under Cokemachines). The additional flight visi-bility and cloud clearance minimumslessen the risk that pilots will hit

terrain, obstructions, or other air-craft when it’s dark. Figure 17 alsodepicts the minimums for night oper-ations in Class G airspace at or below1,200 feet AGL.

One exception to nighttime mini-mums exists for airplanes operatingin Class G airspace while in the traf-fic pattern. If the flight visibility is

less than three statutemiles but not less thanone statute mile duringnight hours, an airplanemay be operated clear ofclouds if it is flown in theairport traffic patternwithin one-half mile ofthe runway. The as-

sumption is that if a pilot is close tothe runway, it’s unlikely that he orshe will hit an obstruction.

Here’s Rod Machado’s AirspaceSimplification Rule #4: When flyingin uncontrolled airspace at or below1,200 feet AGL during the day,you’re low enough to knock over 1COC machine (COC sounds likeCoke) and end up wearing a night-E.Therefore, the weather minimumsfor Class G airspace below 1,200 feetAGL during the day are 1 mile visi-bility and remain clear of clouds. Atnight, they become the same as forthe Class E airspace directly above—3V/152.

At this point, you know moreabout Class E and G airspace thanmost pilots will know throughouttheir entire career. That’s the truth.You could skip the following sectiondealing with Class G airspace above1,200 feet AGL and probably neverhave a need for the information.Nevertheless, I challenge you to mas-ter this subject. If you do, you’llbecome a guru. Pilots will sacrificeheadsets and training aids in yourhonor. Hobbs meters will run slowerin your presence. Most of all, I’ll beproud of you for the attempt.

I15

Rod Machado’s Airspace Simplification Rule #4:When flying in Class G (uncontrolled) airspace at orbelow 1,200’ AGL during the day you’re low enough toknock over 1 COC machine (sounds like Coke). Youneed 1 mile visibility and must remain clear of clouds.

Airplane call-ing the tower,what’s yourposition?

I’m sittingupright, mostlyvertical, over.

No, that’s notwhat I mean. Sayaltitude, over.

Altitude, over.

Use caution forterrain south of

the airport.Hey tower, Idon’t see no

train!

OK, now listento me. Whereare you at?

I’m over mypresent posi-

tion now.


Rod Machado’s Private Pilot HandbookI16

Class G0' to 1,200' AGL

Class E

1,200' AGL

Class G

14,500' MSL

(up to but not Including)

Surface

Top ofClass G

& baseofClass E

The direction the blue tinted line fades indicateswhere Class E (controlled) airspace begins at1,200' AGL. On the opposite side of the bluetinted line is Class G (uncontrolled) air-space from the surface, up to but notincluding 14,500' MSL.

Class G

Class E

3-D VIEW OF BISHOP'S AIRSPACE

Up to but notincluding

18,000' MSL

Operations In Class G Airspace

Above 1,200 Feet AGLClass E airspace begins at 700 feet AGL

within the magenta faded area as shown inFigure 19, position 1. Directly outside themagenta fade, Class E airspace begins at1,200 feet AGL as shown by position 2. Howdo I know this? Because these positions are allsurrounded by a blue-tinted line that fades inone direction and has a solid border on theother (position 3). The blue tint fades in thedirection where Class E airspace begins at1,200 feet AGL. This is shown by the directionof arrows marked by the number 4.

On the other side of the blue-tinted line,opposite the direction that it fades, is Class Gairspace. Normally, Class E airspace begins at1,200 feet AGL, but not in those areas shownat position 5. Here, Class G airspace actuallyrises vertically to more than 1,200 feet AGL, asshown by the direction of the white arrowpointing toward the area of position 5. In fact,Class G airspace in this area rises up to butnot including an altitude of 14,500 feet MSL asshown in Figure 20 (this is an approximate 3-Drepresentation of Figure 19).

Now, I must admit that Class G airspaceextending more than 1,200 feet AGL is rare inthe central and eastern United States. It is, however, more common in the western and north-central parts of the United States. Theway to find it is by looking for the border of the blue tinted line on aeronautical sectional charts (Figure 19, position 3). On theopposite side of the blue fade, will be Class G airspace extending more than 1,200 feet AGL. Despite the presence of Class G air-space more than 1,200 feet AGL, it’s a reasonable assumption that most of your flying will be done in Class E airspace.

OK, I’ve pushed you where no mammal has gone before, beyond normal vertebrate endurance. So why stop now? I only haveone last thought for you. We’ve already concluded that Class G airspace above 1,200 feet AGL is not very common. Why not make

it all Class E airspace starting at 1,200 feet AGLover the entire United States? The reason is that airtraffic control can’t use some portions of the air-space above 1,200 feet AGL for IFR flights. In otherwords, there’s no way to use the navigational facili-ties (VOR navigation for instance) because ofrestrictions imposed by other types of airspace,navigation station limitations or, as is frequentlythe case, by terrain-created signal limitations.

There is an interesting point here. The highestmountain in the 48 contiguous United States isMount Whitney, at 14,491 feet MSL. If you’re at orabove 14,500 feet MSL anywhere in the UnitedStates, you’re not likely to have a problem withmountains interfering with navigational signalreception. That’s why Class G airspace more than1,200 feet AGL, extends up to, but not including14,500 feet MSL as shown on the left hand sideof Figure 20. At and above 14,500 feet MSL, it’sClass E airspace (at least until reaching thebase of Class A airspace).

On occasion, the floor of Class E airspacestarts at altitudes higher than 1,200 feet AGL.See Postflight Briefing #9-1 for advanced infor-mation on this topic.

Fig. 20

Fig. 19

Class G airspace extending from the surface up to but not including

an altitude of 14,500’ MSL (area #5).

4

5

5

2 1

3

No blue tint in

this direction.

Blue tint fades

in this direction.



General Conclusions About Class A, E and G AirspaceHere are some general conclusions that make understanding VFR minimums easier. First, the lower you go, the

less restrictive the weather minimums for VFR flight (Figure 22). In Class A airspace (at and above 18,000 feet MSL)there is no VFR flight allowed. How much more restrictive can you get? Below Class A airspace and at or above10,000’ MSL, the flight visibility minimum is five miles. Below 10,000’ MSL the visibility minimum drops from fivemiles to three miles, then finally to one mile within Class G airspace next to the surface (daytime assumed). Cloudclearance minimums also become less restrictive at lower altitudes.

Second, at night, the Class G airspaceminimums increase to those of Class E air-space. In other words, if you’re flying VFRat night in Class G airspace, you need thesame VFR minimums as you do in Class Eairspace for similar altitudes. Frankly, ifyou like to fly long distances at night at1200 AGL or less, you should probably bewearing a vacancy sign on your forehead,right above the Coke imprint.

Third, when flying at and above 10,000feet MSL, while higher than 1,200 AGL,the VFR weather minimums are the same,regardless of whether you’re in Class E orG airspace. Postflight Briefing #9-2 pro-vides you with a useful memory aid inrecalling these minimums.

Here’s Rod Machado’s AirspaceSimplification Rule #5: If you’re flyingmore than 1,200 feet AGL and your altime-ter indicates 10,000 feet MSL or higher,the basic VFR minimums are the sameregardless of the class of airspace in whichyou’re flying (5V/111). At night, all Class G

I17

Shown below are the basic VFR weather minimums within Class G (un-controlled) airspace for three altitude levels: from the surface up to and in-cluding 1,200' AGL, more than 1,200' AGL but less than 10,000' MSL andat or above 10,000' MSL up tobut not including14,500' MSL.

BASIC VFR MINIMUMS IN CLASS G AIRSPACE

1,000'

2,000'

500'1,000'

2,000'

500'

N911

Day

N911

Day

N911

Night

N911Night

Night

14,500'MSLUp to

but notIncluding

10,000'MSL

1,000'

1 Mile

1,000'N911

Day

Class G 0' to1,200' AGL

Groundheight5,333' MSL

Fig. 21

VFR Weather Minimumsfor Class G Airspace

Figure 21 is a 3-D depiction of theVFR weather minimums for all Class Gairspace. Notice that in Class G air-space at 10,000 feet MSL and above,the weather minimums are the same asthey are for Class E airspace at this alti-tude. There is, however, a differencebetween night and day basic VFR mini-mums at altitudes less than 10,000 feetMSL but more than 1,200 feet AGL. Atnight, all Class G airspace basic VFRminimums are the same as those forClass E below 10,000 feet MSL—3V/152(is this starting to sound like a familiartune? I wrote the words—you do themusic).

Of course, at this stage you’re proba-bly checking your forehead for a Cokemachine imprint. It’s not there, it justfeels like it. I’m proud of you for stickingwith this. It gets easier from now on.Honest!

Class GClear of clouds

Class AIFR Flights Only

As a general rule, the basic VFR weather minimums decrease as you getcloser to the surface. At night, the VFR requirements all become the samebelow 10,000' MSl: 3 miles, 1000'/2000'/500'.

GENERALIZATION OF LOWERING VFR MINIMUMS

1,000'

2,000'

500'

1,000'

1 Mile

1,000'

Day

Day

18,000' MSL

1,200' AGL

10,000' MSL



basic VFR minimums become thesame as Class E minimums for simi-lar altitudes.

You might be wondering, “Do allpilots who fly rememberall these rules?” Yes, invarying degrees. What’sperhaps most important isthat you are aware theyexist, so you’ll at leastthink to check in situa-tions where there mightbe a question. A pilot witha good understanding ofairspace seldom finds him- or herselfin trouble with the FAA. Not onlywill you impress other pilots withyour practical knowledge, you’ll sailright through those flight reviewsand phase checks.

It’s also the case that the vastmajority of pilots do not spend muchtime flying around VFR in marginalconditions, so the precise letter of thelaw about VFR minimums doesn’treally come into play for them on allthat many occasions. If you want to flyin marginal weather conditions, pleaseget an IFR rating and use it. You’llbe flying more often and more safely.

Remember, if you’re interested ina visual memory aid to help remem-ber all these airspace rules, please seePostflight Briefing #9-2 at the end ofthis chapter.

Several years ago, at an FAA officein Santa Monica, a student was tak-ing the private pilot knowledge exam.This was his third attempt, havingfailed on his first two tries (the air-space section gave him trouble).Finally, this student decided to cheat.The observing FAA inspector becamesuspicious when he noticed the stu-dent kept opening and closing thebread on his bologna sandwich.

Walking quickly into the testingroom, the inspector attempted tocatch the student in the act of cheat-ing. The inspector testified he hadnever witnessed anyone eating abologna sandwich so fast in his life.When the inspector asked the stu-dent why he shoved an entirebologna sandwich into his mouth, the student replied, “A sudden surge ofhunger came over me.” Considering

the state of intelligence of this fellow,the inspector should have simply pro-vided him with a few bent quartersand told him to go get a Coke.

Class B, C and D AirspaceThe last three variations of con-

trolled airspace are Class B, Class Cand Class D airspace. All three typesof airspace start at the surface andsurround those airports that have anoperating control tower. Each class ofairspace serves the single purpose ofcoordinating takeoffs and landingsbetween individual aircraft. That’swhy an operating control tower isrequired. Geometric versions of thesethree different types of airspace areshown in Figure 23.

In Chapter 6 we referred to ClassD and C airspace as having the shapeof a single and double-stacked tunacan. We referred to Class B airspaceas looking like an inverted weddingcake. Now it’s time to upgrade thissimile to an analogy.

It’s safe to generalize here and saythat the taller the airspace structure,the busier the airport with which it isallied. The word busy implies more as

well as bigger and fasterairplanes. A good way tounderstand how big andsmall airplanes operatewithin these three typesof airspace is to thinkabout fish. If you havegoldfish, you put them ina small bowl. They cer-tainly don’t need a large

living area. Sharks, on the otherhand, need bigger aquariums. Whalesneed giant tanks. Airplanes are likefish, in that larger ones need morespace in which to operate.

Think about these three airspaceshapes as aquariums or water tanks(Figure 24). Class D airspace is smallin comparison, meaning (most of thetime) that smaller airplanes (gold-fish) like Cessnas, Pipers andBeechcraft swim there. Class C air-space, being slightly larger, meansthat bigger and faster airplanes likeLearjets and Boeing 737’s (sharks)may be found there. Class B airspace(big tanks) means that aircraft likeBoeing 747’s and DC-10’s (whales)may loom within this airspace. Let’sexamine each class of airspace start-ing with Class D (the goldfish bowl).

I18

10,000' MSL

Class B

Class C

ClassE

Class E

1,200'AGL 700'AGL 700'AGL

Class B, C, D all surround an airportwith an operating control tower,

Class E airspace does not*.

Class B, C, D all surround an airportwith an operating control tower,

Class E airspace does not*.

*There may be a few exceptions where a Class E or G surface area actually does have an operatingcontrol tower. These exceptions are minor and shouldn't ever concern you.

ClassD

= Air Traffic Control

Tower

= Air Traffic Control

Tower

An airport with an operating control tower can have either Class B, C, or Dairspace at its surface. The Class of airspace depends on several factors:how busy the airport is, the types of airplanes using the airport, the numberof IFR flights, the facilities available at the airport, etc.

CLASS B, C, OR D AIRSPACE

Fig. 23

Rod Machado’s Airspace Simplification Rule #5: Ifyou’re flying more than 1,200’ AGL and your altimeterindicates 10,000’ MSL or higher, the basic VFR mini-mums are the same regardless of the class of air-space in which you’re flying (5V/111). At night, allClass G basic VFR minimums become the same asClass E minimums for similar altitudes.



Class D AirspaceClass D airspace is controlled air-

space starting at the surface of air-ports having an operating air trafficcontrol tower (Figure 25 shows itsdimensions). It’s established to helpair traffic controllers provide anorderly flow of traffic taking off orlanding at airports within this air-space.

The blue dashed line surroundingChico airport in Figure 26 (position1) represents the lateral dimensionsof Class D airspace. The radius ofClass D airspace varies with individ-ual airports and is individually tai-lored to the instrument approachprocedure for which the controlled(Class D) airspace is established. Itaverages 4.3 nautical miles (5statute miles). The top of the air-space cylinder generally extends toheights of approximately 2,500 feetA G L . T h e h e i g h t a l s o v a r i e s ,depending on local needs. Position 2in Figure 26 identifies the actual topof Class D airspace in hundreds offeet above sea level as shown by thebracketed value of 27 (2,700 feetMSL). As you can see, the 2,700 footMSL top of Chico’s Class D airspaceis approximately 2,500 feet above itselevation of 238 feet MSL.

Class D airspace is established atairports having sufficient traffic tojustify the presence of a control

tower. Normally, numerous generalaviation airplanes are found takingoff or landing at the primary airportwithin this airspace. The primary air-port shown in Figure 26, position 3,(the one with the control tower) isusually found at the center of theblue dashed circle. This doesn’t meanyou won’t find the occasional largeraircraft (shark or whale) at this air-port. It does mean, however, thatthere may be quite a few smaller air-planes (goldfish) in the vicinity.

All aircraft operating within ClassD airspace are required to establish

and maintain two way radio commu-nication prior to entering and whenoperating within this airspace. Inother words, you must talk to thecontrol tower before taking off, land-ing, or flying through this airspace.Of course, if you overfly Chico airportat more than 2,700 feet MSL, oroperate beyond the lateral limits ofthe blue dashed line, you’re not inClass D airspace and no communica-tion is required. (See Chapter 6, FAR91.129 for the precise definition ofestablishing and maintaining com-munication.)

I19

Class B

Class C

Class E

1,200'AGL 700'AGL 700'AGLClass

D

Think of different classes of airspace as fish tanks. The bigger the tank, thebigger the critter found within the tank. Similarly, larger classes of airspaceusually contain larger airplanes. Of course, smaller fish (propeller air-planes) can also be found swimming in larger tanks.

= Big aircraft, 747's, etc.

= Smaller jet and prop aircraft

= Small guys, C-172's, etc.

AIRSPACE AS A FISH TANK

Fig. 24

DIMENSIONS OF CLASS D AIRSPACE

Approx.2,500'AGL

Average4.3 nm

inradius

Operating anywhere within the boundaries of Class D airspace requiresthat you establish and maintain communication with the Air Traffic Con-trol tower prior to entering this airspace. While controllers don't provideseparation between aircraft, they do provide sequencing as well as in-formation about known air traffic.

Class D

Fig. 26

1

2

3

Fig. 25CLASS D AIRSPACE AT CHICO



Chico airport (Figure 26, position3) is solid blue in color. This identi-fies the airport as having a controltower. Remembering this is easy,since blue is the color your face usu-ally turns when you’re attempting tounderstand what fast-talking con-trollers are saying. Communicationwith the air traffic controller is madeon the tower frequency of 121.0 MHzshown next to the symbol CT (controltower). Realize that Class D airspaceonly exists when the control tower isoperating. This means the controltower has someone in it. After all,there’s no way you can establish com-munications without controllers (thenight cleaning staff will not answeryour calls). When the tower shutsdown, the airport is treated like anon-tower (uncontrolled) airport.

Figure 27 shows an excerpt fromthe A/FD for Chico airport. Class Dairspace is effective from 1500 to0300 UTC. This is the same as theoperating hours of Chico’s controltower (0700 to 1900 local time), asshown on the aeronautical sectionalchart’s side panel in Figure 28.According to the A/FD (Figure 27,point C), when Class D airspace isnot in effect, the airspace reverts toClass G airspace.

Figure 29 identifies the Class Eairspace extensions added onto ClassD airspace. As I’ve mentioned before,extensions of Class E airspace areadded when it’s necessary to keepIFR airplanes in controlled airspaceduring their instrument approaches.

Tower controllers give the impres-sion of being pretty serious, yet mostof them have a great sense of humor.For instance, one of our airport’smore senior pilots had his false teethfall out during a landing (he sneezedand flared at the same time and blewhis teeth out of his mouth). Thetower called but he couldn’t reply. Hefinally got his teeth back in and said,“Tower, I’m sorry about the delayedresponse but my teeth fell out onlanding. The controller said, “Well,you might think about pulling backon the wheel a little sooner nexttime.” I think the controller alsosaid, “and make sure you stay awayfrom those Coke machines, OK?"

Weather Minimums For Class D Airspace

The weather minimums for ClassD airspace are exactly the same asthey are for Class E airspace below10,000 feet MSL. Therefore RodMachado’s Airspace SimplificationRule #2 applies here. You need tomaintain the VFR minimums of3V/152—3 miles visibility, 1,000 feetabove any clouds, 500 feet belowclouds, 2,000 feet laterally fromclouds—while airborne. Since ClassD airspace is surface-based controlledairspace, Rod Machado’s AirspaceSimplification Rule #3 also applies.Taking off, landing or operating inthe traffic pattern of an airport hav-ing any type of surface-based con-trolled airspace established for itrequires a minimum of 3V/1C—3miles visibility, 1000 foot ceiling.

As with Class E airspace, this isreported ground visibility. When it’snot reported, the pilot must maintainat least three statute miles flight visi-bility. If weather conditions at thatairport are less than three milesreported ground visibility or lessthan a 1,000 foot ceiling (if a ceilingexists), an SVFR clearance isrequired before taking off, landing, orentering the traffic pattern withinthe surface-based portion of Class Dairspace (and its Class E extension).

I20

CHICOCHICO MUNI (CIC) 4 N UTC�8(�7DT) N39°47.72� W121°51.51� SAN FRANCISCO

240 B S4 FUEL 100LL, JET A TPA—See Remarks Class III, ARFF Index A H–3B, L–2G/HRWY 13L–31R: H6724X150 (ASPH–GRVD) S–63, D–100, DT–170 HIRL 0.5% up NW IAP, AD

RWY 13L: MALSR. PAPI(P2L)—GA 3.0° TCH 52�. Rgt tfc.RWY 31R: REIL. VASI(V4L)—GA 3.0° TCH 50�.

RWY 13R–31L: H3000X60 (ASPH) S–25 0.4% up NWRWY 13R: Rgt tfc.

AIRPORT REMARKS: Attended 1500–0300Z‡. For fuel after hrs call530–588–4888. PPR for unscheduled air carrier ops with morethan 30 passenger seats call arpt manager 530–879–3910. Forjet/heavy acft opr E of fld TPA—1740(1500), for light acft opr Wand E of fld TPA—1240(1000). Rwy 13R–31L is part of an asphpad 3000�X1500�. When twr clsd ACTIVATE HIRL Rwy 13L–31R,VASI Rwy 31R and MALSR and PAPI Rwy 13L–121.0.

WEATHER DATA SOURCES: AWOS–3 119.675 (530) 879–3850. LAWRS.COMMUNICATIONS: CTAF 121.0 UNICOM 122.95

RANCHO MURIETA FSS (RIU) TF 1–800–WX–BRIEF. NOTAM FILE CIC.RCO 122.1R 109.8T (RANCHO MURIETA FSS)

�R OAKLAND CENTER APP/DEP CON 132.2TOWER 121.0 (1500–0300Z‡) GND CON 121.9

AIRSPACE: CLASS D svc 1500–0300Z‡ other times CLASS G.RADIO AIDS TO NAVIGATION: NOTAM FILE CIC.

(T) VOR/DME 109.8 CIC Chan 35 N39°47.39� W121°50.83� at fld. 215/16E.ILS 111.3 I–CIC Rwy 13L. Fig. 27

This is the A/FD excerpt for Chico showing the effective hours of operation for Class Dairspace (point A). Notice that these are the same as the operating hours of the airtraffic control tower (point B).

A

B

C

Fig. 28

The operating hours of an air traffic control tower (Chico in this instance), arealso found on the sectional chart’s frequency tab.

CONTROL TOWER FREQUENCIES ON THE SECTIONAL’S TAB



During the day, you can usuallytell if the primary airport is belowbasic VFR minimums by looking atthe airport’s rotating beacon. Thebeacon, which flashes white andgreen as it rotates, is normally acti-vated at night to help identify an air-port with runway lights. When it’sactivated during the day, it meansthat an existing ceiling is less than1,000 feet or the visibility is less thanthree miles, or both. Either way, anSVFR clearance (or an IFR clearanceif IFR rated) is required to operateinto or out of the surface-based con-trolled airspace under these conditions.

Satellite Airports WithinClass D Airspace

On occasion, another airport lieswithin the lateral boundaries of ClassD airspace, as seen in Figure 30.Martha Lake airport (position 1), anuncontrolled airport, lies within theClass D airspace of SnohomishCounty airport (position 2).

If you’re landing at Martha Lake,you need to establish and maintaintwo way radio communication withthe primary airport (SnohomishTower) prior to entering Class D air-space. If you’re taking off fromMartha Lake airport, you must estab-lish contact with Snohomish tower assoon as practicable after departing.

Sometimes a special arrangementis made with the control tower con-cerning satellite airports within its

Class D airspace. This provision isknown as a letter of agreement. It’ssomewhat like a prenuptial agree-ment that attempts to prevent theuppercuts, headlocks and generalmayhem associated with divorcehearings. For example, a letter ofagreement with the tower mightallow pilots from a particular flight

school at a satellite airport to take offor land in a specific direction withoutfirst establishing communicationswith the tower. Unless you know thatyou are covered by this procedure,you should always establish andmaintain two way radio communica-tions with the tower prior to enteringClass D airspace.

I21

Class Estarts at

surface here

Class Estarts at

700'AGL here

CHICO'S CLASS D AIRSPACE

Class EairspaceClass E

airspace

Class D (blue cylinder) airspace starts at the surface of an airport with anoperating control tower. It extends vertically to approximately 2,500' feetabove the airport elevation. Chico airport, shown below, has an elevationof 238' MSL. This makes the top of the Class D airspace approximately2,700' MSL ([27]). The radius of Class D airspace is approximately 4.3 nau-tical miles (but this varies from airport to airport).

5 sm

Appx.2,500'AGL

Class Estarts at

1,200' AGL

Fig. 29

Fig. 30

Martha Lake airport (position 1) is a satellite airportwithin Snohomish’s (position 2) Class D airspace.

1

2

Compare Chico’s Class D airspace onthis sectional chart excerpt below withthe model to the left.



Class C AirspaceSmaller jet-type aircraft (sharks) as well as propeller dri-

ven aircraft (goldfish) are normally found in Class C air-space. Radar services are available to ensure traffic separa-tion between this mixture of fast and slow, IFR and VFRaircraft. An operating control tower (as found in Class Dairspace) as well as radar approach control services areassociated with the existence of Class C airspace. Figure 31shows the typical dimensions of this airspace.

Class C airspace is geometrically shaped like two cylin-ders—a larger one on top of a smaller one (the double tunacan, remember?). The surface-based inner cylinder (the coresurface area) extends upward to approximately 4,000 feetAGL and has a five nautical mile radius from the center ofthe primary airport. The upper cylinder (the shelf area)normally begins at 1,200 feet AGL and has a 10 nauticalmile radius from the center of the primary airport. Theupper limit of the top cylinder is generally found at 4,000feet above the elevation of the primary airport. Remember,the Class C airspace fish tank is larger because it must holdsharks as well as goldfish. Dimensions of Class C airspacemay vary depending on local terrain and traffic considera-tions.

Class C airspace is depicted on an aeronautical sectionalchart by solid magenta rings surrounding the primary air-port, as shown in Figure 32. Beale Air Force Base is the pri-mary airport in this case. Positions 2 and 3 show both theinner and outer cylinders of this airspace. Elevation num-bers (positions 4 and 5) show that the two sections of theouter cylinder start at 2,600 feet and 1,600 feet MSL respec-tively and extend vertically to 4,100 feet MSL (that’sapproximately 4,000 feet above Beale’s airport elevation of113 feet MSL).

I22

DIMENSIONS OF CLASS C AIRSPACE

Operating anywhere within the boundaries of Class Cairspace requires that you establish and maintain com-munication with the appropriate ATC facility (usuallyApproach Control) prior to entering this airspace. ATCprovides , andbetween VFR and IFR aircraft. It also provides this sameservice within a 20 nm radius of the primary airport (oftendefined as the o ). A mixture of faster ( ) andslower aircraft ( ) is common in Class C airspace.

basic radar service sequencing separation

uter area

10 nm radius,shelf area.

Appx 4,000'above theprimaryairport's

elevation.

5 nmradius,

coresurface

area.

Appx 1,200'above primary

airport elevation

Appx 1,200'above primary

airport elevation

BEALE'S CLASS C AIRSPACE STRUCTURE

4,100' MSLto

2,600' MSL

1,600' MSL(Appx. 1,200' AGL)

Higher terraincauses some

portions of Class Cairspace to rise in

order to remainapproximately

1,200' AGL

Fig. 32 Fig. 33

Fig. 31

1

7

6

5

4

2

3

Class C airspace at Beale Air Force Base as shown on

a sectional chart. Position 1 shows the facility having

jurisdiction over this airspace.



Because of higher terrain east ofthe airport, a section of the outercylinder begins at a higher MSL alti-tude (position 4), yet it’s still approxi-mately 1,200 feet AGL. The innercylinder elevation limits (position 6)extend from the surface (SFC) to4,100 feet MSL. Figure 33 shows a 3-Dview of Beale’s Class C airspace.

Equipment Requirements ToOperate Within Class CAirspace

If you are planning on enteringClass C airspace (to land at any air-port within the inner cylinder, or tofly through the area) you must estab-lish and maintain two way radio com-munication with the appropriateATC facility prior to entering thisairspace. The facility you must com-municate with is the one providingair traffic services for that airspace.Normally, this will be the localapproach control facility for thatarea. Position 1 in Figure 32 showsthe frequencies for the ATC facili-ty having jurisdiction over thisairspace.

Two-way radio communication isrequired in Class C as well as Class Dairspace. In addition, operationswithin Class C airspace require atransponder with Mode C capability(an encod ing a l t imeter ) . Th i stransponder requirement also appliesif you are flying anywhere above theceiling and within the lateral bound-aries of Class C airspace upward to10,000 feet MSL. In other words,even though you’re above the top ofClass C airspace, as long as you arewithin its lateral boundaries andbelow 10,000 feet MSL, you need atransponder with an encoding altime-

ter. This helps keep ATC aware ofpotential traffic conflicts as pilotsexit and enter the top of Class C air-space.

Class C ServiceWithin Class C airspace you’ll

receive Class C service. It’s reallyfirst class service for Class C air-space. It means ATC provides youwith basic radar service, sequencingto the primary airport, and separa-t ion of VFR aircraft from IFRaircraft .

Although not shown on the sectionalchart, there is an imagined outer areato Class C airspace that’s assumed toextend to a 20 nm radius from the pri-mary airport. It’s considered goodoperating practice (although notmandatory) to contact the approachcontrol facility within 20 nm of the pri-mary airport. This gives the controllermore time for sequencing and separat-ing you from IFR aircraft. (An aircraftdoesn’t need to be operating in theclouds to be considered an IFR air-craft. It need only be on an IFR flightplan, regardless of the weather condi-tions. IFR aircraft are in constant con-tact with ATC and these are the air-craft Class C service sequences youwith and separates you from.)

Let’s assume you’re departing theprimary airport within Class C air-space. Obviously you must establishand maintain two way radio commu-nication with the control tower justas you did in Class D airspace. Afterdeparture, you must communicate asinstructed by ATC while operatingwithin this airspace. This meansyou’ll probably be handed off fromthe tower to Departure Control whenleaving the airport. The tower mightsay, “Cessna 2132 Bravo, contact BayDeparture Control on 121.3.” Whendeparting the primary airport inClass C airspace, the ATIS will oftenrequire you to contact ClearanceDelivery for departure instructions.Normally you will be given the depar-ture control frequency, a transpondersquawk code and instructions on howto depart the area (such as a headingor a route to be flown).

Satellite Airports WithinClass C Airspace

Figure 32, position 7, shows thatHammonton airport is an uncon-trolled, satellite airport within theinner circle of Beale’s Class C air-space. You can depart a satellite air-port without an operating controltower if you establish and maintaintwo-way radio communication withthe appropriate ATC facility (usuallyapproach or departure control) assoon as possible after departing. Inother words, you may take off and,as soon as it’s feasible, contactSacramento Approach Control onone of the frequencies shown in thered tabbed box (position 1).

I23

Will The Flier Please Fly?Do make it a point to have your radios in good workingorder when dealing with busy air traffic controllers. One pilotwas attempting to call the tower for departure without muchsuccess. All the controller heard was, “Bzzzz, bzzzz, bzzzz.”The controller said, “Aircraft calling the tower, your transmis-sion is inaudible.” Once again the controller heard “Bzzzz,bzzzz, bzzzz.” This time the controller got upset and said,“Aircraft calling tower, get that radio fixed, you sound like afly.” Suddenly, from somewhere, the controller hears anoth-

er pilot’s high pitched voice saying, “Bzzz, bzzz, I am a fly, bzzz, bzzz.” Never let itbe said that pilots don’t have a sense of humor.

GOOD GRIEF, WILL SOMEONE TALK TO THIS GUY!!!A small aircraft was observed maneuvering low within Class D airspace with no

contact with the tower. The tower controller suspected the aircraft was NORDO (noradio) and was planning to maneuver traffic around it. Pilot finally called tower whenentering downwind and was cleared to land on Runway 15L. Airplane landed on 15R,necessitating a go-around for another airplane on short final to 15R. After landing, thepilot said he was taking pictures and didn’t know he was supposed to establish com-munications with the tower before entering Class D airspace. He THOUGHT he hadlanded on 15L. He said he didn’t carry his private pilot license or medical certificatebecause it was getting wrinkled in his wallet.

That license should not get wrinkled during its possible suspension. Pilot mightbenefit by reading the FARs since he will probably have some spare time. ASRS



Variations in Class C AirspaceFigure 34 shows Class C airspace

for Santa Barbara airport. A portionof the outer cylinder on the easternside of Santa Barbara’s Class C air-space is missing (no, this has nothingto do with UFO cattle mutilations).Steeply rising terrain east of the air-port necessitated removal of this sec-tion.

The inner cylinder of SantaBarbara’s Class C airspace is con-trolled airspace touching the surface.As we’ve previously seen with sur-face-based Class E airspace, a key-hole extension is sometimes neces-sary to accommodate instrumentpilots making approaches into theairport. An extension of Class E air-space (position 1) is added onto theinner cylinder of Class C airspace atSanta Barbara (Figure 34). Withinthis small segment of the magentadashed line, Class E airspace extendsfrom the surface upward to the over-lying shelf of Class C airspace (theoverlying shelf begins at 1500 feetMSL in this case).

Weather MinimumsFor Class C Airspace

The weather minimums for ClassC airspace are exactly the same asthey are for Class D airspace andClass E airspace below 10,000 feetMSL. Rod Machado’s AirspaceSimplification Rule #2 applies here.You need to maintain the VFR mini-mums of 3V/152 while airborne.Since Class C airspace is surface-based controlled airspace, RodMachado’s Airspace SimplificationRule #3 also applies. Taking off,landing, or operating in the trafficpattern of an airport having any typeof surface-based controlled airspaceestablished for it requires a mini-mum of 3V/1C. As with Class D andE surfaced-based airspace, an SVFRclearance is required if these mini-mums don’t exist.

If an SVFR clearance is necessary,contact Santa Barbara ClearanceDelivery (if on the ground) orApproach Control (if airborne). This

clearance allows operations below10,000 feet MSL, within the lateralboundaries of the Class C surfacearea as shown by position 2 (not theboundaries of the upper cylinder), aswell as to any Class D or E airspaceextension (position 1). As with allSVFR clearances, an ATC-issued alti-tude restriction supersedes the10,000 foot MSL limit.

An excerpt from the A/FD (Figure35) shows that Santa Barbara’s ClassC airspace is in operation from 1400Zto 0700Z. These are also the hours ofoperation of the control tower.Outside these times, the A/FD saysthat Class E airspace exists at theairport. Therefore, there is alwayssome type of surface-based controlledairspace existing at SBA.

I24

Fig. 34

The Class C airspace at Santa Barbara varies in shape to accommodate local ter-

rain features. A Class E airspace extension (position 1) is added onto Class C air-

space.

1

SANTA BARBARA MUNI (SBA) 7 W UTC�8(�7DT) N34°25.57� W119°50.49� LOS ANGELES14 B S4 FUEL 100LL, JET A OX 1, 2, 3, 4 TPA—See Remarks LRA H–4G, L–3D, 4F, 7A

Class I, ARFF Index C IAP, ADRWY 07–25: H6052X150 (ASPH–PFC) S–110, D–160, DT–245

HIRLRWY 07: MALSR. Tree. Rgt tfc.RWY 25: REIL. VASI(V4L)—GA 3.0° TCH 46�. Fence.

RWY 15R–33L: H4184X100 (ASPH) S–48, D–63, DT–100 MIRLRWY 15R: REIL. Tree. RWY 33L: Tree. Rgt tfc.

RWY 15L–33R: H4180X75 (ASPH) S–35, D–41, DT–63RWY 15L: Thld dsplcd 217�. Bldg. RWY 33R: Rgt tfc.

AIRPORT REMARKS: Attended 1330–0600Z‡. Fee for fuel after hours call805–964–6733 or 967–5608. Numerous flocks of birds on andinvof arpt. Rwy 15L–33R dalgt hrs only. Arpt has noise abatementprocedures ctc arpt ops 805–692–6005. Due to limited rampspace at the airline terminal non–scheduled transport categoryacft with more than 30 passenger seats are required to ctc arptops 805–692–6005 24 hour PPR to arrival. Commercial airlineramp CLOSED to all General Aviation acft. TPA—1004(990) smallacft, 1504(1490) large acft. Pure jet touch/go or low approachesprohibited. When twr clsd ACTIVATE MIRL Rwy 15R–33L CTAF.

WEATHER DATA SOURCES: ASOS (805) 681–0583.COMMUNICATIONS: CTAF 119.7 ATIS 132.65 (805) 967–0283

UNICOM 122.95HAWTHORNE FSS (HHR) TF 1–800–WX–BRIEF. NOTAM FILE SBA.

�R APP/DEP CON 125.4 (330°–150°) 124.15 127.725 120.55 (151°–329°) 124.15 127.725 (1400–0700Z‡)�R L.A. CENTER APP/DEP CON 119.05 (0700–1400Z‡)

TOWER 119.7 (1400–0700Z‡) CLNC DEL 132.9 GND CON 121.7AIRSPACE: CLASS C svc 1400–0700Z‡ ctc APP CON other times CLASS E.RADIO AIDS TO NAVIGATION: NOTAM FILE HHR.

The A/FD excerpt for Santa Barbara shows the hours of operation for Class C air-space (position 1). Notice that these hours coincide with the hours of operation ofthe tower (position 2) and approach/departure control (position 3). When Class Cairspace isn’t in effect, Class E airspace exists within the depicted surface bound-aries (position 4).

23

4

1

2



Class B AirspaceNow let’s talk about where the

whales swim (747’s, DC-10’s, etc.).Airports like Los Angeles, Chicago,San Francisco, New York-JFK andothers are home to these metallicsky mammals. Class B airspace isestablished to separate the whalesfrom each other as well as fromany small goldfish or sharks thatmight swim with them duringtakeoff or landing at the primaryairport.

As we’ve already learned, theshape of Class B airspace is like aninverted wedding cake. It usuallystarts with a circular-based sur-face area surrounding the primaryairport. Ever widening circularcylinders lie on top of lower cylin-ders, creating the inverted wed-ding cake (with a squished brideand groom) appearance, as shownin Figure 36.

Class B airspace is designed to keeplarger aircraft in a protective tank with-out unnecessarily restricting the move-ment of smaller aircraft below. Specialextensions of the tank are nothing morethan approach and departure paths intoand out of the primary airport. Thesesections establish boundaries that pre-vent other aircraft from straying intothe path of larger and faster aircraft.

Typically, Class B airspace has aradius of 15 to 30 miles from the pri-mary airport and it extends verticallyfrom the surface to 10,000 feet MSL.Figure 37 shows how Class B airspacefor the Dallas-Ft. Worth InternationalAirport (position 1) is displayed on anaeronautical sectional chart. Theboundaries of Class B airspace aredefined by solid blue lines surround-ing the primary airport (position 2)

Position 3 shows that Class B air-space in the innermost ring extendsvertically from the surface (SFC) to11,000 feet MSL (DFW’s Class B air-space is a little taller than normal.Most Class B airspace extends toabout 10,000 feet MSL). Position 4shows another section where Class Bairspace starts at 3,000 feet MSL andextends to 11,000 feet MSL. Position5 shows a section starting at 5,000

I25

Class B airspace resembles an inverted wedding cake. Its multiple tier structure isdesigned to keep larger aircraft ( ) and small aircraft ( )separated as they approach or overfly the primary airport. This is why an ATC clear-ance is required when operating anywhere within Class B airspace.

CLASS B AIRSPACE

Some Class B air-space structures have

a corridor allowingflight that's exempt

from Class B airspaceentry requirements.

Fig. 37

Fig. 36

CLASS B AIRSPACE FOR DALLAS-FT. WORTH INTL. AIRPORT

1

2

3

45

7

6

8



feet MSL and extending vertically to11,000 feet MSL. Sections of Class Bairspace may vary in altitude andshape to accommodate arriving anddeparting traffic (probably from air-ways or high altitude transitions).

An important thing to be aware ofis that the rings and segments ofClass B airspace are often made up ofDME arcs and/or radials or bearingsfrom local navigation stations. (DME,or distance measuring equipment, isan electronic instrument that tellsyou your distance from a navigationstation, which is often a VOR.) Forinstance, the 207 degree radial fromthe Maverick VOR (position 6) makesup the line that identifies where thefloor of Class B airspace changesfrom 4,000 feet to 3,000 feet on oneof the inner rings (see the values cir-cled in red at position 7). The arcs orrings of Class B airspace are deter-mined by distances from theMaverick VOR (position 6). Sincemany airplanes have GPS or DMEcapability, pilots can tell their posi-tion relative to the individual rings ofthis Class B airspace.

Requirements to EnterClass B Airspace

Now that you know what Class Bairspace is and how it’s depicted onan aeronautical sectional chart, youare inevitably curious about what ittakes to swim with the big ones. First,in order to take off or land at an air-port within this airspace, or to simplyfly through the airspace, you musthold at least a private pilot’s license(an exception exists for student andrecreational pilots seeking privatepilot certification who were given theinstruction and appropriate logbookendorsement required by FAR 61.95).

Second, an ATC clearance isrequired before operating in Class Bairspace. This clearance must beobtained from the ATC facility havingjurisdiction over that area. Normally,it’s the local approach and departurecontrol serving the primary airport.This assumes you’ll have a two wayradio capable of communication withthe appropriate ATC facility.

The communication requirementfor Class B airspace is different thanthe communication requirement forClass C or D airspace. While you needonly establish and maintain commu-nication for Class C or D airspace,you need to obtain a clearance toenter Class B airspace. In otherwords, if you contact the controller toenter Class C or D airspace and thatcontroller says, “Roger 2132 Bravo,stand by,” you’ve established commu-nication. You can enter that airspace.If, however, the controller in chargeof Class B airspace says, “Stand by,”this is most definitely not a clearance,You must remain on the outside look-ing in until permission is granted toenter the tank.

A typical clearance into Class Bairspace will be:

“Piper 2132 Bravo is cleared toenter Class B airspace via direct tothe Los Angeles VOR, maintain 5,500feet while in Class B airspace.”

Departing Class B airspace:

“Piper 2132 Bravo is cleared out ofClass B airspace via radar vectors toMATWA intersection, climb andmaintain 3,500 feet while in Class Bairspace.”

The arrival clearance would proba-bly be provided by approach control

and the departing clearance by clear-ance delivery or ground control.Sometimes controllers will clear youto an intersection on or off an airwayas part of your clearance. These inter-sections, consisting of five letters, areusually shown on an aeronautical sec-tional chart. MATWA is the name of atypical intersection. One time, a pilotasked a controller (who was in a goodmood) to “call MATWA” for him. (Inavspeak, a request to “call” some-thing means “Please tell me when Ireach that spot, or when you want meto make that turn.”) Without hesita-tion the controller said, “HereMATWA, here MATWA, here boy,whistle, whistle, whistle.” Who saidcontrollers don’t have a sense ofhumor?

Third, a transponder with Mode Ccapability is also required. For IFRpilots, a VOR receiver or RNAV systemis required when operating within thisairspace. If for any reason the Class Bairspace doesn’t extend to 10,000 feetMSL, a transponder with Mode Ccapability is required when operatingabove the ceiling and within the lat-eral boundaries of Class B airspace.

It’s interesting to note that whileClass B airspace is controlled air-space, it actually has slightly lessstringent VFR weather minimums

I26

Lookout!We’re enter-ing Class Dairspace.

We’ve got tocall the tower

man!!!

Geesh!Some

instructorsreally getinto thissimulator

thing, don’tthey?

Hey mister, I’mtalking to you.

We’re not going tomake it, go around.

Do it now!

For Pete’ssake, check

that oilpressure,

lookout fortraffic, get

your nose upfella!



(you knew there had to be one excep-tion, right?). Three miles visibility isstill required within Class B airspace.However, you only need to remainclear of clouds instead of the typical1,000’/500’/2,000’ distance minimums.The reason for this is that all aircraftoperating within this airspace arebeing sequenced and separated whileunder ATC control. There is littlechance of another pilot popping outof a cloud and creating a collisionthreat to nearby aircraft. This clouddistance reduction prevents pilotsfrom having to fly evasive headings(often to the surprise of ATC) whiletrying to maintain a minimum dis-tance of 2,000 feet from any cloud.

Special VFR WithinClass B Airspace

Since Class B airspace is surface-based controlled airspace, RodMachado’s Airspace SimplificationRule #3 applies. Taking off, landingor operating in the traffic pattern ofan airport having any type of surface-based controlled airspace requires aminimum of 3V/1C. A special VFRclearance is required if these mini-mums don’t exist.

Because of the high volume of traf-fic as well as the type of traffic operat-ing within Class B airspace, specialVFR (SVFR) operations may beunavailable. Figure 38 shows the let-ters NO SVFR for the primary airportin Houston’s Class B airspace. Pilotswithout an instrument rating would

need to wait until VFR conditionsexisted at the airport before theywould be permitted to take off or land.

Corridors AndCircumnavigatingClass B Airspace

Because of the numerous airplanesin, near, and around Class B air-space, you should be cautious whencircumnavigating this area. Pilotsoften elect to fly underneath thefloors or individual shelves of ClassB airspace, thus avoiding the needfor an ATC clearance. To enhancethe opportunity for seeing and avoid-ing other aircraft, a speed limit isestablished in these areas. FAR19.117C requires that pilots notexceed 200 knots indicated airspeedwhen operating below the lateral lim-

its (or through a VFR corridor) ofClass B airspace area.

At a few locations, a VFR corridorhas been implemented to assist pilotstransiting the Class B airspace.Figure 39 depicts the LAX VFR corri-dor. This opening or tunnel throughthe Class B airspace is called the spe-cial flight rules area. Basically, it isan exception to the Class B airspacethat allows pilots to fly either northor south, directly over Los AngelesInternational Airport without havingto meet some of the operationalrequirements of Class B airspace.You don’t need a clearance to usethis corridor. You may need to meetother requirements, such as having aVFR terminal area chart, specificnavigation equipment, etc. Just fol-

low the requirements listed on theVFR terminal area chart for thearea’s Class B airspace. (You’lllearn about terminal area charts inChapter 10)

More than one of these specialroutes may exist within the bor-ders of Class B airspace. At thetime of this writing, Los Angeleshas two additional routes allowingpassage through Class B airspace.Unlike the special flight area men-tioned above, these require thatyou meet all the operationalrequirements of Class B airspace(i.e., FAR 91.131). Therefore, anATC clearance is necessary, aswell as minimum equipment andpilot qualifications.

I27

Fig. 38

Fig. 39

Some airports with Class B airspace prohibit special VFR operations (position

1), because of the high volume of traffic present.

A VFR corridor exists through Class B air-

space (Los Angeles in this instance) to

assist pilots in transiting this airspace

without an ATC clearance.

1



Transponder and Mode CWithin 30 NM of CertainAirports

In addition to the requirement fora transponder with Mode C capabilityin Class A, B and C airspace, FAR91.215 also requires this equipmentin other areas. Several airports listedin appendix D, section 1 of FAR Part91 require a transponder with ModeC capability from the surface to10,000’ MSL when operating within30 nautical miles of that airport. Youcan tell if an airport requires this bylooking at the aeronautical sectionalchart. You’ll see a magenta coloredring surrounding the primary airportlisting this Mode-C requirement, asshown at Dallas-Ft. Worth Inter-national airport, Figure 37, position8. The ring is slightly off-center fromDallas-Ft. Worth’s Class B airspace,because the Class B airspace is cen-tered at the Maverick VOR (position6), while the ring is centered atDallas-Ft. Worth airport (position 1).

Transponders and Mode CAbove 10,000 Feet MSL

A transponder with Mode C is alsorequired in all the airspace of the 48contiguous United States and theDistrict of Columbia when operatingat and above 10,000 feet MSL,excluding the airspace at and below2,500 feet AGL. If you’re flying at or

below 2,500 feet AGL above Mt.Whitney (standing at 14,491' MSL),you don’t need a transponder withMode C (although you should bring aparka and mittens).

Transponders InControlled Airspace

If your airplane has a transponder(and most do), the rules require thatit be turned on (including the Mode Ccapability) any time you are operat-ing in controlled airspace. This is tobe done even when it’s not requiredby the specific type of airspace inwhich you’re operating. You shoulduse the code assigned by ATC, or theVFR code (1200) when not in contactwith ATC.

Transponder and Mode CDeviations

Occasionally, electrical equipmentceases to operate. It’s possible that,one day, you might see a big puff ofwhite smoke come from thetransponder (and the inside of yourcockpit could go to less than basicVFR minimums). The transponderhas probably failed.

According to FAR 91.215, if youhave a transponder lacking Mode Ccapability, you can request a devia-tion to operate within airspacerequiring Mode C at any time. Such arequest is made with the ATC facilityhaving jurisdiction over that airspace

(typically the tower or approach con-trol have jurisdiction). If you have atransponder that is temporarily inop-erative and you need to continue toyour destination, just let the con-troller know of any intermediatestops you’ll be making. He or she canOK the flight on the spot. If, howev-er, your airplane doesn’t have atransponder at all, a request must besubmitted at least one hour inadvance.

One day an air traffic controller atVan Nuys airport received a call froma hang glider using a handheld radio.This guy called up and said, “VanNuys Tower, this is, ahh, hang gliderBob, over your airport for landing.”The controllers didn’t know what elseto do, so they cleared him to land inthe grass besides the runway. I men-tioned to my friend that they shouldbe glad I wasn’t in the tower at thetime. My friend asked why. I said thatI would have made him go around!

Speed Restriction InClass C and D Airspace

To help prevent faster aircraftfrom gobbling up goldfish, an addi-tional speed restriction is applied toClass C and D airspace. When anyaircraft is within four nautical milesof the primary airport in Class C andD airspace and at or below 2,500 feetAGL, a 200 knot speed restrictionapplies.

I28

The ADIZ (Air Defense Identification Zone)The ADIZ is a boundary along the eastern and western coasts of the United States and the U.S./Mexican border and around land-

based areas where national security is a concern (i.e., Washington D.C. area as shown in the bottom right figure). Unauthorizedpenetration of this zone is sure to arouse the suspicion of the military and/or drug enforcement agencies. Pilots penetrating theADIZ without following proper procedures have been known to end up with a military jet escort for a portion of their flight. If you’rethinking about either leaving the U.S., entering the U.S. or just entering any ADIZ, you must meet several requirements. A DVFR(Defense VFR) flight plan must be filed for coastal and domestic ADIZs and positionreports must be made. A transponder (Mode C) and two-way radio are also required (seethe AIM for more information on ADIZ entry requirements and position reporting). For VFR

entry into a land-based ADIZ youmust have a transponder (Mode C),two-way radio and must file and acti-vate a VFR (or IFR) flight plan thenyou must contact ATC to obtain atransponder code, maintain two-waycommunications at all times within theADIZ as well as maintain your discretetransponder code until you have land-ed or are outside the ADIZ boundary.You must also close that VFR flightplan after landing.

Coastal ADIZ

Land-Based ADIZ



Terminal Radar Service AreaIn Chapter 8 I briefly mentioned

the Terminal Radar Service Area(TRSA). Let’s fly by for a closer lookat a type of airspace that’s unusualby virtue of having nothing about itthat’s mandatory!Recall that in a TRSA, ATC pro-

vides sequencing and separationbetween all participating VFR aircraftand all IFR aircraft. Figure 40 depictsa typical TRSA. Its boundaries areidentified by a black line. TRSA’stake on variable sizes and shapes butthey usually contain a surface-basedlayer around the primary airport withone, two or more elevated cylinders ofairspace. Altitudes for the differentlayers are shown within the individ-ual rings as with Class B airspace.Suppose you’re approaching

Binghamton airport and you wantTRSA service (refer back to Chapter8 for more detail on TRSA service).

You would refer to the frequency tabon the edges of the aeronautical sec-tional chart to identify the appropri-ate approach control frequencies.Figure 41 shows the frequencies forthe Binghamton TRSA. Any bearingsshown are from the airport. If you’reapproaching anywhere within thebearings of 051° to 184° from the air-port, you can contact ApproachControl on 127.55 MHz. The A/FD(Figure 42) also contains this infor-mation. If you’re departing Binghamton,

you can also elect to use the TRSAservice. Usually the ATIS or theground controller will provide youwith the appropriate departure con-trol frequency to use after departure.In short, the TRSA is a good thing.

It helps pilots approach and departbusier airports in a safer manner.Having ATC call traffic for youenhances safety. Pilot participationin the TRSA service is recommended,but not mandatory. If you happen tobe talking to approach control (whenapproaching) or ground control anddon’t want TRSA service, you shouldstate, “Negative TRSA service.”There may be times when you wantto fly your own (and perhaps moreexpeditious) route to the airport and

I29

Fig. 40

The A/FD also contains similar information about the Binghamton TRSA,frequencies based on bearings from Binghamton airport (position 1).

Fig. 42

THE BINGHAMTON TERMINAL RADAR SERVICE AREA (TRSA)

1

Fig. 411

The frequency tab found on the sectional chart shows the approach control frequen-cies for TRSA service at Binghamton (position 1). These frequencies are based on thelisted bearings from the primary airport (Binghamton in this instance).

THE SECTIONAL CHART’S FREQUENCY TAB



have ATC provide only traffic infor-mation for you. At times like these,when it’s real busy, TRSA service canentail extensive delay vectoring. Inthis instance you might say:

“Binghamton Approach, this is2132 Bravo, negative TRSA service,request traffic advisories enroute toBinghamton airport, over.”

When approaching and beforeentering Binghamton’s Class D air-space, you’d cancel traffic advisorieswith approach control, then establishcommunication with BinghamtonTower and request landing instruc-tions.

Conversely, when departing an air-port, you can state, “Negative TRSAservice” to the ground controller.This tells the controller that youwant to fly your own route out of theairport.

You might be wondering why wehave TRSAs when we have Class Band C airspace that seem to serve asimilar function. TRSAs belong toairports that don’t qualify for Class Bor C airspace, yet have enough trafficto justify the presence of some sort ofradar service.

A friend of mine was departingOntario airport, in the Los Angelesarea, when Ontario had a TRSA. Hewas heading 270° (west), toward thePacific Ocean, and wanted to go toSan Diego (south, to his left about90°). He kept asking for a headingtoward San Diego. but the controllercouldn’t comply because of a trafficconflict. Finally, in frustration, my

friend said, “Ontario Approach, thisis 2132 Bravo, I’ve been flying 270for 10 minutes, can’t I please have amore southerly heading?” The con-troller replied, “All right 32 Bravo,turn left to a heading of 269!” Seewhat I mean? It gets busy sometimes.

Special Use AirspaceAs if A, B, C, D, E and G weren’t

special enough, there are a few morespecial surprises out there in the air.Special use airspace is pretty muchwhat it says it is—airspace that is setaside for a particular purpose. Someof it you can use, though with cau-tion, while some of it is strictly offlimits without specific permission.

Prohibited Areas – Prohibitedareas are just that—areas whereflight is simply prohibited. Figure 43shows prohibited area P-47. Thisarea is defined by blue-hatched lineswithin the prohibited area. Underthe special use airspace sectionshown on the sides of the aeronauti-cal sectional chart, Figure 44, there isa listing of different special use air-space segments as well as their limi-tations. P-47 extends to 4,800 feetMSL and is in continuous operation.

Like many things, prohibited is asomewhat relative term. Some pro-hibited areas function only duringlimited hours. Make the worst caseassumption—that prohibited reallymeans prohibited—and you can’t gowrong. This is one of those situationswhere making a mistake will proba-bly get you a bushel basket full of

trouble. Prohibited areas protect sen-sitive sites ranging from the WhiteHouse to national security areas orsecret military installations. Unlessyou have a lot of free time on yourhands, don’t even think about tryingto get permission to cross a chunk ofprohibited airspace. Go around it!

Restricted Areas – Restrictedareas are much more numerous thanprohibited areas. Unlike prohibitedareas, they restrict flights due to theunusual activities conducted withinthem. These areas often containinvisible hazards to aircraft such asthe firing of artillery, aerial gunnery,guided missiles or, in the case of therestricted area in Figure 45, big rock-ets. Restricted areas are identified byblue-hatched lines similar to thosedefining prohibited areas. You cantell the difference by the listing ofeither a P or an R next to its identify-ing number.

Rockets are often fired fromVandenberg Air Force Base located inR-2516. There’s nothing more unset-tling than looking out your windowand seeing yourself in formation witha Saturn-V rocket booster. The spe-cial use airspace section on the aero-nautical sectional chart (Figure 46)shows R-2516 is in use continuouslyand extends to an unlimited height.Unlimited is really, really high so youcan forget about climbing above it.

Before you can enter or fly througha restricted area, you need permis-sion from the controlling agency (thisis often obtainable through the local

I30

Fig. 43

Prohibited area P-47 shown on asectional chart.

Fig. 44

The sectional chart’s special use airspace tab provides information onprohibited area P47.

THE SECTIONAL CHART’S SPECIAL USE AIRSPACE TAB



Air Route Traffic Control Center —ARTCC). Some restricted areas havedesignated hours or days of operation(as opposed to being active continu-ously). It’s unlikely that you’re goingto get permission to enter a restrictedarea when it’s in use.

Many times restricted areas aren’tin use. The controlling agency forR-2516 is ZLA CNTR (Los AngelesARTCC). Contact them for this per-mission. If you don’t know how toestablish contact with the center, callthe nearest FSS for help in doing this.Be cautious when flying in, near,

or around restricted areas. A friendonce unknowingly penetrated anactive restricted area and saw redtracer shells whisking past his win-dow. He had entered a gunnery rangeat a low altitude. Since they don’tmake bulletproof flight jackets (andseats), he felt pretty uncomfortable.Until bulletproof airplanes becomepopular, avoid flying in activerestricted areas unless you have per-mission from the controlling agency.In the early 1970s one of my stu-

dents accidentally entered an activerestricted area. He thought the top ofthe restricted area was 1,500 feetinstead of 15,000 feet. A crease in hischart had rubbed off the last zero in15,000. Upon entering the area, hescattered a covey of F-4s like fright-ened quail. The flight leader joinedup on him and tried to give him hand

signals to switch to 121.5 MHz. Mystudent simply thought the guy waswaving at him so he waved back.Finally, out of frustration, my stu-dent pulled his power to slow downand assess the situation. Unable tomaintain the slow speed, the jet spedoff into the distance. The moral tothe story is to get a new chart ifwrinkles make it unreadable.

Warning Areas – Warning areasare another type of special use air-space where hazards may exist forpilots. Think of warning areas asrestricted areas for airspace overwhich the U.S. doesn’t have the rightto impose a restriction because it’sbeyond the country’s boundaries.These areas are identified by a blue-hatched line, similar to restricted andprohibited areas, as shown in Figure 47.

Warning areas contain hazards simi-lar to those found in restricted areas(things that go bang in the night, andday; hyperactive fighter aircraft at lowaltitudes; and unescorted test rockets).Penetration of a warning area

when it’s in use can be very interest-ing. The Aeronautical InformationManual states that warning areasmay contain hazards to “non partici-pating” aircraft. Participation, by theway, is on a strictly invitational basis,and you are not invited. It’s best toavoid warning areas if at all possible.The special use airspace section onthe sectional chart (Figure 48) showsthat W-291 extends to 80,000 feet andis intermittently in operation. Callingthe controlling agency listed (ZLA—Los Angeles Center) is a good idea ifyou’re planning on entering this area.

I31

Fig. 45 Fig. 46

Fig. 47

Restricted area R-2516 as shown on a

sectional chart.

Warning area W-291 shown on a sectional chart.

It usually extends from 3 nm

outward from the coast of

the United States.

Information on special use airspace(restricted areas in this instance)can be found on the sectionalchart’s special use airspace tab.

Note: Special Use Airspace (SUA) NOTAMSare issued when SUA is active outsidescheduled/published times. NOTAMS tobe discussed in last chapter.

Fig. 48

WARNING AREA INFO ON THE SECTIONAL CHART TABWarning area information on the sectional chart’s special use airspace tab.



Alert Areas – Alert areas areshown on sectional charts to help iden-tify areas where there is a high volumeof pilot training or an unusual type ofaerial activity. These areas are shownin a magenta color using the samesymbolic hatching used by restricted,prohibited or warning areas. Figure 49shows a typical alert area. Figure 50shows the special use airspace box onthe sectional chart that provides infor-mation on this airspace (the text usedhere is also magenta). You are not pro-hibited from entering an alert area,but as the name suggests, you shouldmaintain added vigilance (remember,all pilots have a responsibility for colli-sion avoidance). An alert area can be aplace where a lot of student militarydrivers are practicing, but instead ofcars they have airplanes that go hun-dreds of miles per hour. Got the pic-ture?

Military Operations Areas –Known as a MOA (as in mow-ahh),military operations areas aredesigned to separate or segregate cer-tain nonhazardous military activitiesfrom IFR traffic (outside of Class Aairspace). Figure 51 depicts the mili-tary operations area outlined with amagenta hatched line. MOAs areoften given names instead of numbers

(the military has always liked secretcode names). Figure 52 shows theMOA airspace listing found on theaeronautical sectional chart. It listsaltitude for all the MOAs. These arethe MOAs’ base altitude. All MOA’sare assumed to extend vertically toFL180 (18,000 feet) unless stated oth-erwise. The Bakersfield MOA, accord-ing to Figure 52, consists of the air-space starting at 2,000 feet AGL andextending up to flight level 180,between the hours listed. The ZLA(Los Angeles Center) is the control-ling agency for the Bakersfield MOA.

Unlike restricted or prohibitedareas, a MOA doesn’t restrict or pro-hibit the flight of VFR aircraft. Youcan enter a MOA without permission.I suggest, however, that you contactthe nearest FSS and ask about thestatus of that particular MOA. If it’sactive (also referenced to as hot), Ialso suggest you contact the control-ling agency prior to entry and ask fortraffic advisories.

Be aware that you will find alltypes of military training activitieswithin this airspace. It’s possible thatmilitary pilots will be doing aerobat-ics, dog fighting (I don’t know whythey’re so angry at dogs), or highspeed runs (no military speed limit in

a MOA). The last thing you want todo is get in the way of a bunch of bat-tle thirsty pilots who haven’t seencombat in a while.

Take note of the red circle aroundKern Valley airport in the IsabellaMOA. The note attached to this circle(known as an aerodrome traffic zone)states that the MOA excludes the air-space below 1,500 feet AGL withinthe circle. In other words, you can dotouch and goes in peace below 1,500feet at Kern Valley. I had one studentin a ground school class who suggest-ed that if a military pilot were chas-ing you (they don’t do that) you couldmake for the red circle. At least theycan’t go in there. I retorted that if hereally wanted to get you, he’d be cir-cling outside that circle until youmade a break for your home field.Don’t worry, the military guys arefriendly, they don’t chase us smallguys—at least on purpose, anyway.

My recommendation is to avoidactive MOA’s when and where possi-ble. Sometimes you have no choicebut to fly through them. If so, dokeep your eyes open. One student ofmine claimed he discovered whythey’re called MOA’s. Apparently, ifyou get frightened by a military jetwhile in one of these areas, you won’twant to go back “no moah.”

Military Training Routes(MTRs) – Military training routesare highways for military jet aircraft.They usually come in two brands:IFR or VFR military training routes.IFR military training routes aredesigned to be flown above 1,500 feetAGL. VFR military training routesexist at and below 1,500 feet AGL.Figure 53 shows how MTRs aredepicted on an aeronautical sectionalchart.

MTR’s have the letters “IR” or“VR” identifying whether they are

I32

Fig. 49

SAY AGAIN!Reason pilot gave for taking offwithout a clearance: “We may havebeen distracted by trying to beextra vigilant.”

ASRS Report

Fig. 50

Alert area information found on the sectional chart’s special use airspace tab.

ALERT AREA INFO ON THE SPECIAL USE AIRSPACE TAB

Alert area A-220 shown on a sectional chart.



IFR or VFR routes. If either routehas a four digit number next to it, itwas designed to be flown at andbelow 1,500 feet AGL (i.e., VR1266).If the route has only three numbersnext to it, it was designed to be flownabove 1,500 feet AGL (i.e., IR216).Arrows point in the direction theseroutes are usually flown.

While you are not prohibited fromflying along or near an MTR, it’s agreat idea to avoid them wheneverpossible. Consider that there are nospeed restrictions for military air-craft along an MTR. Military jet air-

craft may be flying at many hundredsof miles per hour just a few hundredfeet off the ground, scaring all kindsof terrestrial-dwelling animals(groundhogs, ducks, mice, humans,etc.). Don’t be one of them! A simplecall to the nearest FSS will give youinformation on the status of MTR’sin your area. In other words, the FSSshould know whether the MTR is in use.

Temporary Flight Restrictions –When an unusual situation arises(natural disaster, events of high pub-lic interest, forest fires, national secu-rity, etc.) the FAA will often issue aTFR or temporary flight restrictionfor that area. Such a restriction helpsprotect persons or property on thesurface, protect those providing disas-ter relief from the hazard of low fly-ing sightseeing type aircraft, protectthe President, Vice President or otherpublic figures or provide a safe envi-ronment for space operations.

These temporary flight restrictionsare usually issued in the form of anotice to airmen (NOTAM). NOTAMsdesignate an area and altitude inwhich the restrictions apply.

After the attack on September 11,2001 numerous TFRs have beenestablished for security reasons. This

is one reason you need to check allNOTAMs during flight planning.TFRs are changing and new ones arebeing created frequently. Beforeevery flight, check with the local FSS,or a reliable NOTAM internet sourcefor TFR information about the areain which you’ll fly. The following is atypical temporary flight restriction:

Flight Restriction - Julian, Californiadue to fire fighting activity. Effective1100 UTC August 28, 2009, until furthernotice pursuant to 14 CFR Section91.137 (a)(1). Temporary flight restric-tions are in effect within a three mileradius of the 20 DME fix on the 223degree radial from Julian VOR at andbelow 4,000 feet MSL. San Diego FSS isthe FAA coordinating facility.

Spaced OutNow that we’ve charted the air-

space, it’s time to chart the charts.That means learning how to identifythe symbology on aeronautical chartsand use this information to help younavigate. Not knowing how to readan aeronautical chart is like havingyour limo driver show up wearing aneck brace—a very unsettling experi-ence. So, fasten your seatbelts as weset off to discover how to make senseof those squiggles, squirts and mark-ings on popular aviation charts.

I33

Fig. 53

Military training routes (MTR’s)as shown on a sectional chart.

Graphic depiction of TFRs onAOPA’s flight planning site.

Graphic depiction of TFRs mayalso be found on GPS displays.

Fig. 52

Fig. 51

A military operations area (MOA)shown on a sectional chart.

MOA information found on the sectional chart’s special use airspace tab.

MOA INFO ON THE SPECIAL USE AIRSPACE TAB



Floor ofat

1,200' AGLClass E

Floor ofat

1,200' AGLClass E

7,500 MSL

Floor ofat

7,500' MSLClass E

V 538 V12

HIGHER FLOORS OF CLASS E AIRSPACEThe blue serrated figure indicates that thebase of Class E (controlled) airspace has

changed. Within the borders of two or more serrated figures is an altitudevalue (shown in blue). This altitude (normally an MSL altitude) is the base ofcontrolled airspace for that area. In the area listed below, the Class E air-space under Victor airway 538, is a section with a base of 7,500' MSL. Alarge mountain is responsible for raising the base of this airspace since, be-low 7,500' MSL, it would be difficult to receive the airway on your VOR equip-ment.

Variable Floors OfClass E Airspace

The sectional chart excerpt (Figure 54)and its 3-D representation (Figure 55) depictseveral airways and their variable floors ofcontrolled airspace. These are calledFederal Low Altitude airways and are identi-fied by a V (standing for the word Victor) fol-lowed by a number (position 1 in Figure 54).These are the routes pilots typically file ontheir VFR flight plans.

Of course, you don’t have to fly these air-ways, just as you don’t have to take majorhighways when you travel. You can take sidestreets (travel off airways in a direction ofyour choosing). Nevertheless, airways areconvenient for flight planning. These low alti-tude airways are normally 8 nautical mileswide and begin at the base of the Class Eairspace, continuing up to but not including18,000 feet MSL.

Look at airways V-12 and V-538 (position1 in Figure 54). The blue line fading towardthe center of the airway indicates that con-trolled (Class E) airspace begins at 1,200feet AGL within these borders. The solid bluewavy (serrated) symbols at position 2 indicate that the floor of controlled airspace (Class E) has changed within these symbols.Position 3 shows 7,500 feet MSL as the new altitude for the floor of this airway. Thus, the Class E airspace, within the area bor-dered by blue faded and wavy symbols, begins at 7,500 feet MSL instead of 1,200 feet AGL. Why raise the floor of controlled (ClassE) airspace? Mountains in the local area may make VOR reception unreliable below 7,500 MSL within these borders. Therefore,Class G exists below 7,500 feet MSL at and around position 3. Compare Figure 54 with its 3-D representation in Figure 55.

Fig. 55

Fig. 54

Postflight Briefing #9-1

This sectional chart excerpt shows several airways having controlled airspace starting at some altitude other than the

typical 1,200 feet AGL. Compare this chart with its 3-D representation above.

12

3



Memorizing Visibility MinimumsIt was the best lucid dream a flight instructor could have. The

setting was ground school, the subject was FARs and I was theinstructor. Unrestricted by space, time and dimension, I wastedno time in satisfying a lifelong wish of being able to install FARknowledge by smacking the foreheads of my students with thepalm of my hand (just like those TV evangelists). “Feel the powerof the FARs,” I yelled. SMACK! They’d topple backwards and begently lowered to the ground by their previously anointed class-mates (double SMACK if the installation required the definitionslisted in the FARs.) Alas, it was only a dream.

Teaching the FARs isn’t that simple in the wide-awakeworld. If it were, students would have few problems remem-bering the visibility minimums in Part 91. With the memoryaid shown in Figure 56, however, this process becomesmuch simpler.

Before I explain how to use this mnemonic arti-fact, take a good look at it. In an oxygen richatmosphere, how long would it take you to com-mit it to memory? Perhaps 10 minutes? Maybe15 minutes? The short investment of timeinvolved in memorizing this illustration willserve you well. It provides you with therequired visibility and cloud clearancerequirement for every airspace classi-fication in which you’ll fly. Let’s seehow it works.

The bottom of the pyramidrepresents the Earth’s surface.Because pyramids werebuilt by people with dimin-ishing goals, they taperto a point at the top.The pyramid’s verti-cal dimension—from the surface to the apex—represents the altitudes flown byVFR pilots. In other words, the pyramid’s top extends up to, butnot including 18,000’ MSL (the upper limit of Class E—controlledairspace). Flight at and above 18,000’ MSL requires no VFR mini-mums since only instrument pilots on IFR flight plans should beup there (it’s all Class A airspace up there).

The larger pyramid contains a smaller, inverted pyramid withinitself. This smaller pyramid allows the larger pyramid to be divid-ed into four separate sections. Each of the four triangular sec-tions is marked with a letter representing one or more types ofairspace. We’ll refer to each of the four smaller triangular sectionas the top, bottom-left, bottom-right and middle (inverted) pyra-mid.

The top pyramid and its contents represent the VFR minimumsfor Class E or G airspace at and above 10,000’ MSL, extendingup to, but not including 18,000’ MSL (other classes of airspacedon’t usually extend above 10,000’ MSL). The cloud within thistriangle identifies a cloud-clearance requirement of 1,000’ above,

1 statute mile (sm) to the side and 1,000’ below. The number“five” is the required flight visibility in statute miles.

The middle pyramid represents Class B, C, D and E airspace(with one exception). The cloud bisected by the middle and thebottom-right pyramid represents the cloud-clearance require-ments for these two sections of airspace. Below 10,000’ MSL andextending to the surface, you’re required to remain 1,000’ above,2,000’ to the side and 500’ feet below any cloud formation in theabove mentioned classes of airspace. The one exception is ClassB airspace where you only need remain clear of clouds (remem-ber this as “Be Clear”).

A small line bisects the numbers 3 and 1 located in the cloud.The 3 on the left side of the bisecting line is the required flight vis-ibility in Class B, C, D and E airspace below 10,000’ MSL.

The bottom right pyramid represents Class G (uncontrolled)airspace from the surface up to, but not including 10,000’

MSL. A horizontal line one-third up this triangle identifiesthe altitude from the surface up to 1,200 feet above

ground level (AGL).

From the surface up to 1,200’ feet AGL, you’rerequired to have one mile visibility and remain

clear of all clouds. More than 1,200’ AGL but lessthan 10,000’ MSL, you’re required to remain

1,000’ above, 2,000’ to the side and 500’below any cloud formation (this is the same

cloud clearance requirement found in themiddle inverted pyramid). The number

“1,” located on the right side of thebisected cloud is the required flight

visibility in this area.

This leaves us with the bottomleft pyramid. It represents

Class G airspace from thesurface up to but not

including 10,000’ MSL.The moon and the

star in this sectionrepresent night-

t ime. The arrow points directly to the middle pyramid.Symbolically, this tells us that, in this section of Class G airspaceat night, the VFR requirements are the same as they are in themiddle pyramid. By default, the bottom-right triangle representsthe day VFR requirements for Class G airspace.

Here are a few additional tips for interpreting this memory aid.First, the lowest visibility and cloud clearance in which private pilotscan fly is 1 mile while remaining clear of clouds. Consequently, thisrepresents the minimums for special VFR flights. Second, if ClassB, C, D or E airspace touches the surface surrounding an airport,an additional cloud clearance requirement must be met. You musthave a 1,000’ ceiling in addition to the required 3 miles visibility forbasic VFR flight underneath that ceiling.

I remember my first karate class as a high school student. Theinstructor said, “Mr. Machado, in karate we use our feet insteadof our hands.” I replied, “That’s good, because I can run muchfaster on my feet.” The instructor mumbled a comment inChinese, then proceeded to chase me around the karate school.

I35


1,000'

1,000'

GG BCDE

EG

1,000'

500'

2,000'2,000'

1 & Clear of Clouds

1 Mile

10,000' MSL

1,200' AGL

3 1

5

*

*Class B airspace requires you to remain clear of cloudsFig. 56


OK, I was confused. I didn’t understand karate’s “big-picture.”Our visual mnemonic allows you to quickly capture a “big-pic-ture” understanding of the requi red VFR f l ight min imums.

I guarantee you’ll experience much less confusion over theseminimums if you take the time to memorize my memory artifact. Itwill serve you well throughout your piloting career.


Airspace: Dimension, Equipment and PilotEntry Requirements Memory Aid

Here’s a memory aid that allows you to memorize the pertinentequipment and entry requirements as well as the dimensions ofClass A, B, C and D airspace. (Class E and G airspace require nospecial equipment or entry requirement, so we won’t concernourselves with them.) Like many memory aids, this one initiallyappears rather complex. It’s not. After just 15 minutes of studyyou’ll have complete command of these airspace requirements.

This aid is based on the use of similar sounds and common-place items to help memorize these requirements for each of thefour different airspace types. In other words, forklift reminds youof the letter four and a dozen eggs reminds you of the number 12.

Draw a square approximately 4 inches on each side and divideit into four smaller squares. Label the top left hand corners ofeach square with the letters A,B,C and D (representing the fourtypes of airspace we’re concerned with) as shown in Figure 57.

Let the sound of each letter represent a similar sounding refer-ence noun for each square (nouns are easy to visualize sincethey are persons, places or things). The letter A sound like Hay; Bsounds like Bee; C sounds like Sea and D sounds like Deer asshown in figure 57. Draw these items in the upper middle part ofeach square (use stick figures and basic drawings. Remember,they only need be identifiable by you).

Starting clockwise from box A, let’s associate the specificitems to be memorized with the reference nouns in each square.

Square AA teenager jumps on the hay causing a cloud to pop out the

side of the bushel. The teenager is holding a missile that crossesinto square B as shown in Figure 58. (Any item that crosses theborders of a square, i.e., the missile” applies to both squares.)

Square BA bee stands on a tent as it holds onto the other end of the

missile. An army private runs out of the tent holding a clarinet ashis weapon.

Square DA comb is on the head of the deer. A leash runs from the

comb to a stable (crosses both squares). Under the stable is anoperation in progress (crosses both squares). The patient is on atable (crosses both squares) with 25 cents on his feet.

Square CThe patient’s five fingered hands rest on each side of a dozen

eggs. On top of the eggs is a forklift with two tennis rackets oneither side. Out of the patient’s mouth shoots a train with a pandathat pushes a little section of the sea with it as it moves up. It hitsthe hay and turns right into the tent (it also crosses squares A & B).

That’s it. Here’s what it means. Class A (hay) airspace startsat 18,000 (hay teen) thousand feet MSL (missile). It requires thatyou be qualified to fly IFR (in a cloud).

Class B (bee) airspace ascends to 10,000 feet (tent) MSL(missile). It requires a private (army private) pilot certificate anda clearance (clarinet) to enter.

Class D (deer) airspace requires that you have an operating(operation) control tower and that you establish (stable-leash)

communications (comb).This requirement alsoapplies to Class C air-space since the operationand stable crosses bothsquares. It ascends to2,500 (25 cents) feet(guy’s feet) AGL (table).The table crosses squaresC and D therefore, the AGLreference also applies tothe dimensions of Class Cairspace.

The dimensions of thelower section of Class C(sea) airspace ascends to 1,200 feet (12 eggs) AGL (table) and hasa radius of 5 miles (five fingers on each side egg carton’s center).The upper section ascends to 4,000 (for-k-lift, “K means 1000”) feetAGL (table) and has a radius of 10 miles (tennis on either side ofcenter). This airspace also requires a transponder (train panda)with mode C (sea) capability. Class A and B also require thetransponder with mode C since the train panda moves into thesetwo squares.

When you arrive for the knowledge exam, take out a piece ofpaper, draw the big square, the subsquares, the letters and thenoun reference items for each square. If you find it difficult todraw, simply write the names of the reference items in theirapproximate relative position. You’ll be surprised how easy it is torecall all of the airspace requirements using this aid.

Remember, as with all memory aids, this one allows you tomemorize items by brute force. Once you start using it, you’llneed it less and less as the information finds its way into yourlong term memory.


A B

C D

Hay

ClarinetMissile

Tennis

Leash

Train

Panda

Tent

12 Eggs

Deer

Sea

Bee

Forklift

Comb

Cloud

Operating

Feet

Private

Five

Fingers

25 Cents

Teen

Stable

Table

AIRSPACE EQUIPMENT, PILOT REQUIREMENTSAND DIMENSIONS MEMORY AID

A B

C D

Hay

Deer

Sea

Bee

Fig. 57

Fig. 58


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