Roman military Roman military expansionexpansion

The Conquest of ItalyThe Conquest of Italy

55thth century to 264 BCE century to 264 BCE

Part I Part I

Lecture OutlineLecture Outline

Sources for the period - Sources for the period - Political/Social Context Political/Social Context

Major historical sourcesMajor historical sources

For earliest period:For earliest period: LivyLivy (end of 1 (end of 1stst century BCE) century BCE) Dionysius of Halicarnassus, a Greek (end of 1st century

BCE) Both anachronistic – projecting army of of 3rd and 2nd centuries

BCE back onto regal period and 5th – 4th centuries BCE - Genre of historical writings focused on politics and military

affairs – but excluded technical details of early army organization and structure

No historical writings in Rome before ca. 200 BCE PolybiusPolybius – wrote in 2 – wrote in 2ndnd century BCE – had personal military century BCE – had personal military

experience, interest in technical details – has good experience, interest in technical details – has good understanding of evolution of tactics and weaponryunderstanding of evolution of tactics and weaponry

Polybius’ purpose to explain success of Rome’s army to a Polybius’ purpose to explain success of Rome’s army to a Greek audience; provides comparison of Roman tactical Greek audience; provides comparison of Roman tactical formations with Greek infantry phalanx formations with Greek infantry phalanx

Best account we have of Roman army in mid 2Best account we have of Roman army in mid 2ndnd century BCE century BCE

Our sources for this period: Our sources for this period: the antiquariansthe antiquarians

Varro (M. Terentius Varro) mid 1Varro (M. Terentius Varro) mid 1stst century BCE (only fragments century BCE (only fragments survived)survived)

Antiquarians had narrow focus: Antiquarians had narrow focus: interested in details: use of technical interested in details: use of technical terms and institutional developmentterms and institutional development

probably the sources for technical probably the sources for technical digressions (i.e. Servian army) by digressions (i.e. Servian army) by Livy and Dionysius Livy and Dionysius

Material sources for the periodMaterial sources for the periodsupporting written sources, etc.supporting written sources, etc.

Pictorial representations of equipment and combatPictorial representations of equipment and combat Weapons finds Weapons finds Archaeology (i.e. discovery of five 2Archaeology (i.e. discovery of five 2ndnd century Roman camps near century Roman camps near

Numantia in north central SpainNumantia in north central Spain Only few inscriptions exist for this periodOnly few inscriptions exist for this period FastiFasti – list of religious events, list of consuls including – list of religious events, list of consuls including

commanders who received a military triumph (list seems accurate commanders who received a military triumph (list seems accurate as far back as mid 4as far back as mid 4thth century BCE) century BCE)

FastiFasti form basis for chronological reconstruction of earlier periods form basis for chronological reconstruction of earlier periods Earliest campaigns our sources provide some idea of strategy in Earliest campaigns our sources provide some idea of strategy in

campaign – against the Samnites and Gauls after 300 BCE campaign – against the Samnites and Gauls after 300 BCE From that time on we are able to reconstruct with some degree of From that time on we are able to reconstruct with some degree of

accuracy at least general course of some individual battles, i.e. accuracy at least general course of some individual battles, i.e. the battle at Sentinum in 295 BCEthe battle at Sentinum in 295 BCE

Difficulty remains to match the troop and casualty numbersDifficulty remains to match the troop and casualty numbers Difficult to match topography of many battles with description of Difficult to match topography of many battles with description of

places in our sources, i.e. battle at Cannae in 216; places in our sources, i.e. battle at Cannae in 216;

Political and Social Political and Social ContextContext

Important social changes at the end of the Regal Important social changes at the end of the Regal Period:Period:

66thth century Greek Hoplite revolution century Greek Hoplite revolutionchanges in nature of Roman warfarechanges in nature of Roman warfare

Social changes in archaic Greece, 7Social changes in archaic Greece, 7thth and 6 and 6thth centuries associated centuries associated with rise of Greek city state (with rise of Greek city state (polispolis) – and so-called ) – and so-called hoplite hoplite revolutionrevolution - -

Increase in population, rise of polis, non-aristocrats demanded Increase in population, rise of polis, non-aristocrats demanded increased participation in political decisions and military affairs - increased participation in political decisions and military affairs - areas dominated by aristocrats areas dominated by aristocrats

Archaic (Homeric warfare) expensive equipment Archaic (Homeric warfare) expensive equipment Hoplite soldier– relative light and less expensive armor drawn Hoplite soldier– relative light and less expensive armor drawn

from mostly farmers who could afford this equipment from mostly farmers who could afford this equipment Resulted in higher proportion of population participating in warResulted in higher proportion of population participating in war Landowners/citizen of Landowners/citizen of polispolis had duty to fight for their state, see had duty to fight for their state, see

increase in political power, right to fight to protect their increase in political power, right to fight to protect their communitycommunity

Livy attributes a major reform of Rome’s political, social, and Livy attributes a major reform of Rome’s political, social, and military organization to 6military organization to 6thth king, Servius Tullius – 6 king, Servius Tullius – 6thth century, century, (Servian Constitution)(Servian Constitution)

Servian reform also linked to hoplite warfare, Servian reform also linked to hoplite warfare, Archaeology confirms hoplite equipment used in 6Archaeology confirms hoplite equipment used in 6thth century Rome century Rome

Servius Tullius Servius Tullius (578 – 534 BCE – the 6(578 – 534 BCE – the 6thth king king) )

Credited with most significant social reorganization Credited with most significant social reorganization that provided basis for Republican organizationthat provided basis for Republican organization

Important reorganization of the citizen body Important reorganization of the citizen body according to property value and the according to property value and the Comitia Comitia CenturiataCenturiata (Centuriate Assembly) (Centuriate Assembly)

Reorganization of the Reorganization of the Comitia TributaComitia Tributa (Tribal (Tribal Assembly) Assembly)

The Servian Constitution:The Servian Constitution: property classes and the property classes and the

Comitia CenturiataComitia Centuriata Division of population into classes based on their Division of population into classes based on their

property value (i.e. originally how many bushels property value (i.e. originally how many bushels of grain their land could produce) agrarian societyof grain their land could produce) agrarian society

Each class had to provide their own set of military Each class had to provide their own set of military equipment based on their income class equipment based on their income class

From full hoplite equipment for Class I to a simple From full hoplite equipment for Class I to a simple sling for Class Vsling for Class V

assembled on Campus Martius (plain of Mars) assembled on Campus Martius (plain of Mars) outside outside pomerium pomerium (sacred boundary of city – (sacred boundary of city – established by Romulus) – place where army established by Romulus) – place where army mustered and practiced (no arms allowed inside mustered and practiced (no arms allowed inside city boundaries)city boundaries)

The The Comitia CenturiataComitia Centuriata and the voting hierarchyvoting hierarchy

Citizen body who owned land (only those could afford to bear Citizen body who owned land (only those could afford to bear arms) were divided hierarchically according to wealth. arms) were divided hierarchically according to wealth.

I -I - Equites Equites (knights) = 18 Centuries = 18 votes (knights) = 18 Centuries = 18 votes 100,000 asses + = 82 Centuries = 82 votes100,000 asses + = 82 Centuries = 82 votes II - 75,000-100,000 asses = 20 Centuries = 20 votesII - 75,000-100,000 asses = 20 Centuries = 20 votes III - 50,000-75,000 asses = 20 Centuries = 20 votesIII - 50,000-75,000 asses = 20 Centuries = 20 votes IV - 25,000-50,000 asses = 20 Centuries = 20 votesIV - 25,000-50,000 asses = 20 Centuries = 20 votes V - 11,000-25,000 asses = 32 Centuries = 32 votesV - 11,000-25,000 asses = 32 Centuries = 32 votes Under 11,000 asses = 1 Century = 1 vote Under 11,000 asses = 1 Century = 1 vote Total 193 centuries – voting was completed when majority was Total 193 centuries – voting was completed when majority was

reached: 96reached: 96 Heavily in favour of the wealthyHeavily in favour of the wealthy Functions during monarchy not clear; in Republic: declarations of Functions during monarchy not clear; in Republic: declarations of

war and peace; as court for capital trials; elected consuls war and peace; as court for capital trials; elected consuls

Servian ConstitutionServian Constitutionthe the Comitia Tributa =Comitia Tributa = tribal

assembly The original 3 tribes created by Romulus were divided The original 3 tribes created by Romulus were divided

into new tribes into new tribes 4 urban tribes (named after districts of Rome); 17 4 urban tribes (named after districts of Rome); 17

rural tribes [named after rural tribes [named after gentes gentes =(clans) of patricians] =(clans) of patricians]

Later more tribes added to total of 35 (4 urban, 31 Later more tribes added to total of 35 (4 urban, 31 rural)rural)

Each Roman citizen enrolled in a tribe (name of tribe Each Roman citizen enrolled in a tribe (name of tribe part of full name of Roman citizen) part of full name of Roman citizen)

Slaves who were legally manumitted and became Slaves who were legally manumitted and became citizens also were enrolled in a tribecitizens also were enrolled in a tribe

Patricians and PlebeiansPatricians and Plebeians

Patrician-plebeian distinction originated in the Regal Period but continued into the Early Republic - where it led to the struggle of the orders followed by important social changes

Patricians Patricians = landed aristocracy by birth; dominated all = landed aristocracy by birth; dominated all public offices (senate, command of armies) and priestly public offices (senate, command of armies) and priestly offices; offices;

Originally warlords who were supported by bands of armed Originally warlords who were supported by bands of armed followers (followers (clientesclientes) ; patron-client system – extremely ) ; patron-client system – extremely important element of Roman social structure important element of Roman social structure

Kings needed their support to ruleKings needed their support to rule Plebeians Plebeians = everyone else - = everyone else -

Patricians and PlebeiansPatricians and Plebeiansthe ‘struggle of the orders’the ‘struggle of the orders’

494 BCE – 287 BCE:494 BCE – 287 BCE:

Political struggle between Patricians and Plebeians over inequities Political struggle between Patricians and Plebeians over inequities in Republican government.in Republican government.

Plebeians were barred from holding public office and sit in senatePlebeians were barred from holding public office and sit in senate barred from intermarriage with Patricians.barred from intermarriage with Patricians. All courts in hand of patricians – plebeians resented the unfair All courts in hand of patricians – plebeians resented the unfair

treatment by Patrician magistrates, especially concerning the law.treatment by Patrician magistrates, especially concerning the law. Many pleibeians were heavily indebted to the point of debt Many pleibeians were heavily indebted to the point of debt

bondage (bondage (nexumnexum) = debtor would give himself as surety (could be ) = debtor would give himself as surety (could be sold into slavery), sold into slavery),

Resented the unfair distribution of Resented the unfair distribution of Ager Publicus Ager Publicus (public land (public land confiscated from conquered neighbours.confiscated from conquered neighbours.

Resented increasing patricians’ monopoly of military commandsResented increasing patricians’ monopoly of military commands 494 Plebeian secession494 Plebeian secession Patricians yielded to demands: Major reforms: Patricians yielded to demands: Major reforms: Concilium PlebisConcilium Plebis = =

Plebeian Assembly. And Plebeian Assembly. And Tribune of the PlebsTribune of the Plebs = Plebeian = Plebeian magistracy.magistracy.

Plebeian Discontent Over The Plebeian Discontent Over The LawLaw

Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, 10.1.2-410.1.2-4 ““For there was not as yet among the Romans For there was not as yet among the Romans

equality either of laws or of rights, nor had their equality either of laws or of rights, nor had their rules of justice been put in writing; but initially, rules of justice been put in writing; but initially, their kings had laid down judgements for those their kings had laid down judgements for those who asked for it, and whatever they decreed was who asked for it, and whatever they decreed was law…A few decisions were kept in sacred books, law…A few decisions were kept in sacred books, and had the force of laws, but only the patricians and had the force of laws, but only the patricians were aware of these because they spent their were aware of these because they spent their time in the city, while the majority of the people time in the city, while the majority of the people were merchants or farmers and came to the were merchants or farmers and came to the capital to the markets at intervals of many days, capital to the markets at intervals of many days, and were still unacquainted with them.” (M. Dillon and were still unacquainted with them.” (M. Dillon & L. Garland, 2005)& L. Garland, 2005)

Struggle of the Orders: Struggle of the Orders: major reformsmajor reforms

Concilium PlebisConcilium Plebis = Plebeian Assembly. = Plebeian Assembly. Tribune of the PlebsTribune of the Plebs = Plebeian magistracy. = Plebeian magistracy. Access to law: Law of the XII Tables – 450s Access to law: Law of the XII Tables – 450s

BCEBCE Between 450 BCE and 287 BCE series of Between 450 BCE and 287 BCE series of

reforms/laws eliminated distinction between reforms/laws eliminated distinction between patricians and plebeianspatricians and plebeians

**Republican Government from 509 BCE to 287 **Republican Government from 509 BCE to 287 BCE: BCE:

General CharacteristicsGeneral Characteristics

Republican system evolved gradually Republican system evolved gradually between 509 and 287 BCE.between 509 and 287 BCE.

Government consisted of: 1.Elected Government consisted of: 1.Elected magistrates. 2. Senate. 3. Assemblies.magistrates. 2. Senate. 3. Assemblies.

Referred to as “Mixed” constitution; 3 Referred to as “Mixed” constitution; 3 elements: 1. monarchic (the 2 consuls elements: 1. monarchic (the 2 consuls who could veto each other), 2. oligarchic who could veto each other), 2. oligarchic (senate), and 3. democratic (voting (senate), and 3. democratic (voting assemblies).assemblies).

All magistrates elected for 1 year term and All magistrates elected for 1 year term and had colleagueshad colleagues

Roman Family and Roman Family and Household (Household (domusdomus))

Family, most important social unitFamily, most important social unit domusdomus = household that includes: all members of = household that includes: all members of

the family, slaves, other dependents (freed), as the family, slaves, other dependents (freed), as well as all property and reputation of the well as all property and reputation of the domusdomus (very important for members of elite – the (very important for members of elite – the accomplishments of ancestors and present accomplishments of ancestors and present members increased their prominence in society)members increased their prominence in society)

Head of household = Head of household = pater familiaspater familias According toAccording to Laws of the XII Tables –the pater Laws of the XII Tables –the pater

familias familias had the right of life and death over all in his patria potestas patria potestas (paternal power), i.e. children, slaves,

Marriage - main function to produce heirs, transmit property, produce Roman soldiers, form political alliances (among elite)

The Patron-Client SystemThe Patron-Client System Social relations provided basic fabric of Roman social Social relations provided basic fabric of Roman social

structurestructure Patron-clientPatron-client system most important social relationship in system most important social relationship in

Roman Republic Roman Republic Socially unequal relationship Socially unequal relationship PatronPatron = Wealthy elite, provided a client with loans, legal = Wealthy elite, provided a client with loans, legal

help, other opportunities and services. help, other opportunities and services. ClientClient = of lower social status, = of lower social status, supported his patron by voting for him in elections, supported his patron by voting for him in elections,

supported his legislative initiatives, other services including supported his legislative initiatives, other services including social display; social display;

Patrons carried out military levy in early RepublicPatrons carried out military levy in early Republic Patron-ClientPatron-Client relationship inheritable relationship inheritable Freedmen, individuals of lower status all could be patrons – Freedmen, individuals of lower status all could be patrons –

their clients would be of lower status than theytheir clients would be of lower status than they Clients also had the duty of assist the patron when in need, Clients also had the duty of assist the patron when in need,

i.e. if they met with economic disaster, etc.,i.e. if they met with economic disaster, etc.,

Dionysius of Halicarnassus (2.9-10)Dionysius of Halicarnassus (2.9-10)on Patricians, Plebeians, and the Patron-Client Systemon Patricians, Plebeians, and the Patron-Client System

““After Romulus distinguished the more powerful members of After Romulus distinguished the more powerful members of society from the less powerful, he then set up laws and society from the less powerful, he then set up laws and established what things were to be done by each of the two established what things were to be done by each of the two groups. The patricians were to serve as priests and groups. The patricians were to serve as priests and magistrates, lawyers and judges. The plebeians were to till magistrates, lawyers and judges. The plebeians were to till the land, herd livestock, and work for wages as craftsmen, the land, herd livestock, and work for wages as craftsmen, tradesmen, and labourers. Romulus entrusted the plebeians tradesmen, and labourers. Romulus entrusted the plebeians to the protection of the patricians, but permitted each to the protection of the patricians, but permitted each plebeian to choose for his patron any patrician whom he plebeian to choose for his patron any patrician whom he himself wished. This system is called patronage. Romulus himself wished. This system is called patronage. Romulus then established these rules about patronage. It was the duty then established these rules about patronage. It was the duty of the patricians to explain the laws to their clients, to bring of the patricians to explain the laws to their clients, to bring suits on their behalf if they were wronged or injured, and to suits on their behalf if they were wronged or injured, and to defend them against prosecutors….It was unlawful or unholy defend them against prosecutors….It was unlawful or unholy for patricians and clients to bring suit against one another, to for patricians and clients to bring suit against one another, to testify against one another in court, or to vote against the testify against one another in court, or to vote against the other. If anyone was convicted of some such misdeed, he other. If anyone was convicted of some such misdeed, he was guilty under the law of treason and could be executed.” was guilty under the law of treason and could be executed.” (J.A. Shelton, Doc. 7).(J.A. Shelton, Doc. 7).

The Sacred Bond of Patron and The Sacred Bond of Patron and ClientClient

(The Laws of the Twelve Tables – 450 BCE)(The Laws of the Twelve Tables – 450 BCE)

““If a patron shall have If a patron shall have defrauded his client, he must defrauded his client, he must be solemnly forfeited” be solemnly forfeited”

Forfeited (Latin = Forfeited (Latin = sacersacer) meant that he ) meant that he was outside the law and could be killed was outside the law and could be killed with impunity by anyone who finds himwith impunity by anyone who finds him

Attius Clausus / Appius Claudius and Attius Clausus / Appius Claudius and his his clientesclientes 504 BCE 504 BCE

““The new consuls were M. Valerius and P. Postumius. This year a The new consuls were M. Valerius and P. Postumius. This year a successful action was fought with the Sabines; the consuls successful action was fought with the Sabines; the consuls celebrated a triumph. Then the Sabines made preparations for war celebrated a triumph. Then the Sabines made preparations for war on a larger scale. To oppose them and also at the same time to on a larger scale. To oppose them and also at the same time to guard against danger in the direction of Tusculum, from which guard against danger in the direction of Tusculum, from which place war, though not openly declared, was still apprehended, the place war, though not openly declared, was still apprehended, the consuls elected were P. Valerius for the fourth time and T. consuls elected were P. Valerius for the fourth time and T. Lucretius for the second. A conflict which broke out amongst the Lucretius for the second. A conflict which broke out amongst the Sabines between the peace party and the war party brought an Sabines between the peace party and the war party brought an accession of strength to the Romans. Attius Clausus, who was accession of strength to the Romans. Attius Clausus, who was afterwards known in Rome as Appius Claudius, was an advocate for afterwards known in Rome as Appius Claudius, was an advocate for peace, but, unable to maintain his ground against the opposing peace, but, unable to maintain his ground against the opposing faction, who were stirring up war, faction, who were stirring up war, he fled to Rome with a large he fled to Rome with a large body of clientsbody of clients. They were admitted to the citizenship and received . They were admitted to the citizenship and received a grant of land lying beyond the Anio. They were called the Old a grant of land lying beyond the Anio. They were called the Old Claudian tribe, and their numbers were added to by fresh Claudian tribe, and their numbers were added to by fresh tribesmen from that district.” (Livy, 2.16.) tribesmen from that district.” (Livy, 2.16.)