Ross Muir Bachelor of Education/Arts · 2019. 4. 9. · Bachelor of Education/Arts Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Education (Research)

INVESTIGATING TEACHER WORK AND

OVERALL IMPACT ON WELLBEING: A

SECONDARY SCHOOL CASE STUDY

Ross Muir

Bachelor of Education/Arts

Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of

Master of Education (Research)

Faculty of Education

Queensland University of Technology

2019

Investigating Teacher Work and Overall Impact on Wellbeing: A Secondary School Case Study i

Keywords

Case study, flourishing, growth mindset, positive psychology, qualitative study,

role intensification, social-emotional, teacher wellbeing, wellbeing

Investigating Teacher Work and Overall Impact on Wellbeing: A Secondary School Case Study ii

Abstract

Wellbeing has gained critical momentum in recent decades in a variety of

professional spheres. Perhaps none more important than the health and education

sectors. However, investment in the area of education has primarily targeted student

welfare, while teachers, who are expected to implement support for their students, are

overlooked in terms of targeted wellbeing programmes. Teacher work in 21st century

contexts is subject to persistent reform and scrutiny. Role intensification and high-

stakes accountability impact negatively on teacher wellbeing. This qualitative case

study elicits authentic perceptions of eight teacher participants recruited within a single

site. Participants were interviewed at two distinct junctures in the school year. The

findings highlight how a school culture that promotes purposeful consultation and

collaboration among teachers, school leaders and their community facilitates teacher

wellbeing in that it can positively affect relatedness, autonomy and competence in their

environment. Within this paradigm, school leaders play a pivotal role in managing

reform implementation and establishing purpose and professional trust among their

teacher cohorts. The study further identifies a need for socio-ecological inquiry into

wellbeing by assessing factors impacting person-environmental congruence for

teachers. A key dimension within this socio-ecological model lies in the strength of

relationships fostered between teachers and their students, colleagues and leadership

teams. Importantly, this study describes how growing role intensification and

complexity have more pronounced impact among Early Career Teachers (ECT) and

Contract Teachers.

Investigating Teacher Work and Overall Impact on Wellbeing: A Secondary School Case Study iii

Table of Contents

Keywords ................................................................................................................................................. i

Abstract .................................................................................................................................................. ii

Table of Contents .................................................................................................................................. iii

List of Abbreviations .............................................................................................................................. vi

Statement of Original Authorship ........................................................................................................ vii

Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................................. viii

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Background: Wellbeing and Teachers ......................................................................................... 1

1.2 Defining wellbeing....................................................................................................................... 3

1.3 Context ......................................................................................................................................... 3

1.4 Purposes ....................................................................................................................................... 6

1.5 Significance and Scope of Study ................................................................................................. 7

1.6 Thesis Outline .............................................................................................................................. 7

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................... 9

2.1 21st Century Teacher Roles .......................................................................................................... 9 2.1.1 Workload Complexity and Intensification ...................................................................... 10 2.1.2 Teacher Work: Performativity and Accountability ......................................................... 11 2.1.3 Teacher Work-Life Balance............................................................................................ 15 2.1.4 Teacher Work: Role Autonomy, Competence and Relatedness ..................................... 16

2.2 School Culture, Teacher Congruence and Wellbeing ................................................................ 20 2.2.1 Early Career and Contract Teachers ............................................................................... 21 2.2.2 Teacher Quality and Performativity Standards ............................................................... 22

2.3 Teacher Wellbeing ..................................................................................................................... 25 2.3.1 Historical Journey of Wellbeing ..................................................................................... 25 2.3.2 The Need for Teacher Wellbeing .................................................................................... 29 2.3.3 Teacher Wellbeing and Student Outcomes ..................................................................... 33 2.3.4 Teacher Wellbeing and Leadership Practices ................................................................. 34 2.3.5 Teacher Wellbeing and Job Satisfaction ......................................................................... 37 2.3.6 Teacher Wellbeing and Relationships ............................................................................ 38

2.4 Teacher Relationships ................................................................................................................ 39 2.4.1 Teacher-Teacher and Teacher-Leader relationships ....................................................... 39 2.4.2 Teacher-Student Relationships ....................................................................................... 40

2.5 Teacher Wellbeing Interventions ............................................................................................... 41 2.5.1 Geelong Grammar School .............................................................................................. 42 2.5.2 Leafy State High School ................................................................................................. 43 2.5.3 Research Questions ......................................................................................................... 45

2.6 Summary and Implications ........................................................................................................ 45

CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH DESIGN ............................................................................................... 47

3.1 Methodology .............................................................................................................................. 47 3.1.1 Research Design ............................................................................................................. 48 3.1.2 Case Study ...................................................................................................................... 49 3.1.3 Descriptive Case Study ................................................................................................... 50 3.1.4 Research Questions ......................................................................................................... 50

3.2 Research Setting ........................................................................................................................ 51

Investigating Teacher Work and Overall Impact on Wellbeing: A Secondary School Case Study iv

3.3 Participant Selection .................................................................................................................. 51

3.4 Participants................................................................................................................................. 52 3.4.1 Role of the researcher at Leafy State High School ......................................................... 53 3.4.2 Data Collection ............................................................................................................... 54 3.4.3 Instrument: Semi-Structured Interviews ......................................................................... 54

3.5 Data Analysis ............................................................................................................................. 57 3.5.1 Analysis Methods ........................................................................................................... 58 3.5.2 Ethical Considerations .................................................................................................... 60 3.5.3 Trustworthiness of Data .................................................................................................. 61 3.5.4 Limitations and Potential Problems ................................................................................ 62

3.6 Summary .................................................................................................................................... 63

CHAPTER 4: RESULTS ................................................................................................................... 65

4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 65

4.2 Findings ..................................................................................................................................... 65 4.2.1 Themes: School Culture ................................................................................................. 67 4.2.2 School Leadership: Whole-School Vision and Teacher-Focused Imperative ................. 70 4.2.3 Early Career Teacher Support ......................................................................................... 79 4.2.4 Institutional Processes and Factors ................................................................................. 81 4.2.5 Teacher Relationships and Wellbeing ............................................................................ 85

4.3 Summary .................................................................................................................................... 89

CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION ............................................................................................................. 91

5.1 Revisiting the Theoretical Framework ....................................................................................... 91

5.2 School Culture ........................................................................................................................... 92

5.3 School leadership ....................................................................................................................... 98 5.3.1 School Leadership: Institutional Factors ........................................................................ 98 5.3.2 School Leadership: ECT and Contract Teacher Wellbeing .......................................... 104

5.4 Institutional processes and factors ........................................................................................... 108 5.4.1 School and Teacher Accountability Models ................................................................. 108

5.5 Teacher Relationships .............................................................................................................. 112 5.5.1 Teacher-teacher relationships ....................................................................................... 113 5.5.2 Teacher-school leader relationships .............................................................................. 115 5.5.3 Teacher-student relationships ....................................................................................... 117

5.6 Summary .................................................................................................................................. 118

CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSIONS ...................................................................................................... 119

6.1 Summary .................................................................................................................................. 119

6.2 Aim, Scope and Research Questions ....................................................................................... 119

6.3 Conclusions from Study ........................................................................................................... 120

6.4 Significance of Study ............................................................................................................... 125

6.5 Limitations ............................................................................................................................... 127

6.6 Recommendations .................................................................................................................... 128

6.7 Suggestions for Future Research .............................................................................................. 131

REFERENCE LIST .......................................................................................................................... 133

APPENDIX A Title: Participant Email Recruitment Document ...................................................................... 156

APPENDIX B Title: Interview Questions ........................................................................................................ 158

APPENDIX C

Investigating Teacher Work and Overall Impact on Wellbeing: A Secondary School Case Study v

Title: Department of Education and Training Hierarchy ......................................................... 160

Investigating Teacher Work and Overall Impact on Wellbeing: A Secondary School Case Study vi

List of Abbreviations

ACARA Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority

AITSL Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership

APST Australian Professional Standards for Teachers

CASEL Collaborative for Social and Emotional Learning

DET Department of Education and Training

ECT Early Career Teaching

GGS Geelong Grammar School

MAPP Masters of Positive Psychology

HPSM Health Promoting Schools Model

NAPLAN National Assessment Program Literacy and Numeracy

OECD Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development

PESA Positive Education Schools Association

PLC Professional Learning Community

QCAA Queensland Curriculum and Assessment Authority

Investigating Teacher Work and Overall Impact on Wellbeing: A Secondary School Case Study vii

Statement of Original Authorship

The work contained in this thesis has not been previously submitted to meet

requirements for an award at this or any other higher education institution. To the best

of my knowledge and belief, the thesis contains no material previously published or

written by another person except where due reference is made.

Signature: QUT Verified Signature

Date: February 2019

Investigating Teacher Work and Overall Impact on Wellbeing: A Secondary School Case Study viii

Acknowledgements

I acknowledge the support provided by both supervisors in assisting me to

complete this study. Wellbeing is a particular field that I have been intrinsically drawn

to since attending a Positive Education training course at Geelong Grammar School in

2014. While my internal fortitude was certainly tested throughout my engagement with

this study – and, rather ironically, my own personal wellbeing challenged as well – I

am greatly satisfied with the opportunity to contribute this piece of research to this

pertinent and rapidly growing field in education. I am ever-thankful for the continuous

guidance and patience of Dr Elizabeth Curtis and Associate Professor Denise Beutel

who assisted me in conceptualising, developing, implementing, collating and, finally,

finalising the research involved in this study.

To my work colleagues and administrative team that I work closely with, thank

you for allowing me this opportunity to engage in a personal passion. Without your

access and support the richness of this study would certainly be diminished.

Finally, to my wife Kate and son Hugo, thank you for earnestly supporting me

throughout the journey. I am indebted to you both for buoying me with love and

patience.

Chapter 1: Introduction 1

Chapter 1: Introduction

The purpose of this study was to investigate teacher perceptions of factors that

inhibit or contribute to their wellbeing within a secondary school setting. This chapter

will outline key sections of the study. Section 1.1 frames the study by providing a

background to wellbeing and its personal relevance to the researcher. Section 1.2

provides context surrounding the phenomenon of wellbeing and its recent emergence

in educational research. Section 1.3 discusses the purpose underpinning the research

before significance and scope are outlined in Section 1.4. Finally, Section 1.5 includes

an outline of the remaining chapters of the thesis.

1.1 BACKGROUND: WELLBEING AND TEACHERS

I have always been inspired by the potential influence teachers have on their

learners. I fondly recall the impact various teachers had on my own social, emotional

and academic development. Whether it was an ever-dependable enthusiasm for the

content of their area, or professional aptitude in guiding adolescent learners in best

practices for their growth, they appeared to have the perfect mix of passion and

professionalism. They had mastered their craft and were the individuals who inspired

me to become a teacher. Conversely, I can unflatteringly remember the teachers whose

demeanour, professional ethic and content knowledge negatively affected my

perceptions of teachers. They had created environments where teacher-student respect

was low, student learning languished and negative mindsets among students prevented

the potential for true growth. The work of Hattie (2013) in his Visible Learning study

reminds us as educators - experienced and emerging - of the potential potency

harnessed by an effective teacher.

During my twelve-year career thus far as a secondary school teacher, I have

become aware of the changing dynamic, intensity and accountability associated with

the profession. I am cognisant of media and public scrutiny and perceptions in the

community about the value of teachers and schools as commodities. Growing external

pressures have had noticeable impact on teachers’ attitudes, perceptions and wellbeing.

Teachers are frequently slotted into roles that they are unqualified for, including social


worker, counsellor, administrator or disability support person, which impacts their

perceptions of competence, autonomy and confidence in delivering their craft. The

related impact in terms of classroom climate and pedagogy is a further concern. As a

teacher, Head of Department and Deputy Principal, I have witnessed first-hand the

extent to which teachers can languish in the current educational environment.

In March 2014, I was invited to attend a four-day Positive Education training

course at the prestigious Geelong Grammar School. At the time, my understanding of

wellbeing, positive psychology and their practical role within the field of education

was limited. With no pre-reading or research, I simply immersed myself in the

intensive programme. It was an empowering experience. The intrinsic compatibility

of wellbeing and positive psychology for students and teachers alike is a powerful tool

in education. A framework of psychology applied in schools, underpinned by

evidence-based science, which teachers can incorporate into their professional

practice, is invaluable.

In recent years I have observed movements – in accordance with regional

pressures toward holistic wellbeing schools – being made to promote wellbeing and

wellness across the school and community. I realised, though, that a critical linchpin

in any systemic change lay in teachers themselves. Strong increases in teacher

professional learning and development, however, have predominately favoured a focus

on the benefits for student learning and welfare. Minimal attention has been invested

in the welfare and wellness of teachers themselves, who are charged with the

responsibility of facilitating wellbeing to the betterment of their learners. Literature in

the field has articulated the associated merits of individual and collegial wellbeing in

school contexts in terms of student social, emotional and academic learning, yet -

surprisingly - deliberate attempts to target teacher wellbeing in a structured way are

conspicuously lacking. While the internal and external resources drawn upon to

combat these challenges will differ, there appears real value in gaining authentic

understandings from teachers themselves to better access concrete strategies that could

be utilised to improve their professional wellbeing. In this sense, approaches for

improving teacher wellbeing in schools could be articulated across a whole-school

context.


1.2 DEFINING WELLBEING

Research into wellbeing has gained particular momentum in recent decades

within education. However, defining wellbeing remains a challenge; its intangible and

multifaceted nature as a phenomenon renders it too complex for a single construction.

Essentially, there are two schools of thought when defining wellbeing: firstly, the

hedonic construct which explores notions of happiness, positive and negative affect as

well as life satisfaction (Dodge, Daly, Huyton & Sanders, 2012; Lyubomirsky &

Lepper, 1999); and, secondly, eudaimonic constructs that highlight human functioning

and human development. This particular study adopted a hedonic construct in its

investigation of teacher perceptions of wellbeing. Teachers in professional contexts

derive happiness and fulfilment from a range of different factors that are

individualised. Resilience and wellbeing are closely linked in the literature. Resilience

can be described as a dynamic construct linked with individuals’ ability to maintain

their vocational commitment amidst strong adversity and setbacks in their social,

relational and professional world (Brunetti, 2006), whereas wellbeing refers to

psychological, social and physical phenomena associated with individuals’ happiness

and fulfilment in their professional context at a point in time (Maslow, 1954; Spilt,

Koomen & Thijs, 2011). Teacher perceptions offer a valuable, individualised lens into

wellbeing. This study highlights factors that contribute and undermine feelings of

happiness, fulfilment and role satisfaction.

1.3 CONTEXT

In schools, heightened teacher role intensification and heavily outcomes-driven

departmental policies have prompted the need for support mechanisms for those at the

coalface: teachers themselves. Research has confirmed the detrimental impacts of role

intensification for teachers in the 21st century, especially with respect to stress, mental

health and retention (Valli & Beuse, 2007). Increased workloads affect teachers

directly on a professional and personal level (Lasky, 2005). The current climate

surrounding education has brought to particular attention the need for a whole-school

development of positive school culture (Apple, 2001; Beaudoin, 2013). A systematic

focus on wellbeing within schools requires a synergy between students, teachers,

administrators and their local community. Essentially, wellbeing ought to extend


across student curriculum learning platforms to also include targeted professional

development programmes for teachers and further provide opportunities for

community engagement. Considerable attention has been invested in equipping

schools with frameworks to support student welfare across school operations and

culture, including Positive Education Schools Association (PESA, 2017),

MindMatters (Wyn, Cahill, Rowling & Carson, 1999) and the Learning and Wellbeing

Framework (DET, 2012). A critical element often overlooked is support for teachers

themselves who are ultimately responsible for delivering school-based wellbeing at

the curriculum as well as pastoral level.

Some theorists have posited the associated impacts of ‘role intensification’ for

teachers as being driven by policy or reform agendas that foreground accountability,

outcomes and quality teaching (Ballet & Kelchtermans, 2009; Easthope & Easthope,

2000). Within such a complex and challenging environment, the wellbeing of teachers

is impacted in a variety of ways. A report pertaining to the demands and supply of

teachers in Australia forecasted significant shortages over the ensuing decade and

potentially beyond (Ministerial Council on Educational Training and Youth Affairs,

2004). Where teachers are experiencing stress and anxiety due to workload

intensification, public scrutiny, accountability or lack of administrative support,

literature suggests that interactions with students and colleagues can suffer as teachers

socially and emotionally disconnect (Mearns & Cain, 2003). In education, this has

been linked with diminishing wellbeing and burnout (Mei-lion, 2009). Thus, teachers

must develop the necessary resilience to combat the growing pressures, anxiety and

retention issues commonly associated with the profession (Day & Gu, 2014). This

study investigates teacher perceptions of their wellbeing within a high school context.

It explores social, emotional and psychological aspects in the professional work of

teachers that can contribute or undermine individuals’ sense of wellbeing.

The field of wellbeing is a burgeoning one, both internationally and

domestically, permeating a range of professional sectors including business, health,

policing, and most notably over the last decade, education. In education, nations such

as Canada, China, the United Kingdom, the United States, Singapore and Israel are

among a list of domains actively promoting the merits of wellbeing in terms of the

social-emotional and academic gains predominantly at the student level (Frampton, Li,

Ramirez, Mohamad & DeMorrow, 2010; Jennings & Greenberg, 2009; Marzano,


Marzano & Pickering, 2003). While early approaches in the field have highlighted

deficit areas such as stress, anxiety and burnout (Blase, 1982; Farber, 1984; Lazarus,

1966), current pathology models overlap with positive psychology principles. In recent

decades, there has been a growing trend that focuses on positive constructs such as

flourishing (Seligman, 2012), growth mindsets (Dweck, 2012), character strengths

(Seligman, 2012) and resilience (Day & Gu, 2014). Insights into factors affecting the

professional as well as social-emotional experiences of teachers in their work contexts

can contribute valuable evidence to the field. The context for this research is Leafy

State High School (a pseudonym) located within a mid to high socio-economic urban

area. In recent years, the school has committed to a range of deliberate, supportive staff

professional development opportunities – both mandatory and voluntary – targeting

teacher wellbeing. While Leafy State High School has received recognition as a

Positive Education school, the notion of staff wellbeing programmes is a relatively

new concept and representative of broader departmental goals around holistic learner

wellbeing frameworks involving teachers, students and families. An ongoing

relationship with Geelong GeelongGrammar School has provided the platform for a

holistic delivery within the school site. Over the past four years, a group of targeted

staff members have attended a four day Positive Education Hub in an effort to provide

further impetus to wellbeing programme development within the school. The

development of a specialised advisory committee in 2014 which consisted of a

chaplain, Guidance Officer, faculty Heads of Departments and identified lead teachers

to oversee the implementation of Positive Education in both curriculum and staff

professional development experiences is further testament to the school’s intentions to

embed a holistic approach.

Leafy State High School has undergone gradual transformation over a five-year

period towards becoming a Positive Education school. However, while a curriculum-

based wellbeing programme exists for students, the absence of an identifiable

framework inclusive of teachers themselves poses limitations in terms of a genuinely

whole-school approach to wellbeing. The teacher wellbeing programme at the school

site is in its infancy but is gaining particular credence in recent years. Experiences

shared during the study are unique to this context and offer insight into factors and

processes occurring within schools that can impact teacher professional wellbeing.


Importantly, the researcher performs a role as both teacher and Head of

Department within the school. The researcher has previously been a member of the

Wellbeing Committee which was subsumed into the Occupational Health, Safety and

Wellbeing Committee from 2015 onwards. During the period of 2014-2017, the

researcher has been a facilitator in mandatory wellbeing workshops covering growth

mindsets and positive relationships as well as a participant in other related workshops

including character strengths and mindfulness. The researcher occupied a role as Head

of Department while conducting the research in 2016.

1.4 PURPOSES

The purpose of this qualitative case study is to investigate teacher perceptions of

wellbeing in a high school context. This research can inform future programme

development in the area of teacher wellbeing. It particularly highlights school practices

that have the capacity to affect teacher wellbeing. The following research questions

guided the study:

To what extent, if any, does the work of teachers within a school system influence

wellbeing?

What work-related factors undermine teachers’ sense of

wellbeing?

What work-related factors support teachers’ sense of wellbeing?

Emergent themes within the study regarding teachers’ perceptions of personal

wellbeing can inform and articulate directions for future teacher professional and

personal support programmes. To date, the growing body of evidence in the field of

wellbeing has primarily focused on a student-centred position with respect to student

social-emotional and academic development rather than from the perspectives of

teachers. Consequently, voices of teachers themselves, who chiefly implement

wellbeing initiatives in the school context, are virtually non-existent. Thus, the intent

of this case study was to better understand factors that can impact wellbeing across a

broad range of disciplines and experience.


1.5 SIGNIFICANCE AND SCOPE OF STUDY

It is well understood that the welfare of teachers in current educational contexts

is an area that requires ongoing support. In recent years an increase in expectations

and accountability around school performativity has been linked to a rise in physical

health, mental health and retention issues within the field (Fisher, 2011). This study

investigates perceptions of teacher wellbeing through participant experiences. In

particular, environmental factors and personal factors – such as perceived fulfilment

of needs - are explored through participant narratives gained through the study

(Aelterman, Engels, Van Petegem & Verhaeghe, 2007). While it is recognised that the

climate surrounding teaching has intensified in recent years, it is acknowledged that

there has been minimal investment in the developing of teacher wellbeing programmes

in school contexts.

A 2014 Safe work Australia report identified that occupational mental health

claim for male teachers represented 6 per cent of the total workforce claims. For female

teachers, the figure is almost double with 10 per cent of occupational mental health

claims being attributed (Safe Work Australia, 2014). Pearson and Moomaw (2005)

identify a key focus to combat stress and anxiety is to orient any support approaches

toward increasing a sense of efficacy, satisfaction and engagement among teachers. A

challenge facing school leaders in current contexts is prioritising support mechanisms

– such as targeted wellbeing programmes for teachers – amid other wider systemic

priorities including developing literacy and numeracy for students as well as adherence

to professional standards.

1.6 THESIS OUTLINE

The literature review in Chapter Two frames teacher work in the 21st century to

establish key antecedent factors that undermine and contribute to teacher wellbeing.

The multi-faceted nature of wellbeing as a phenomenon is outlined before evidence of

targeted teacher wellbeing programmes underpinned by socio-ecological school

designs are discussed in terms of their effectiveness and weakness. The chapter closes

by linking the research in work practices with the guiding research questions

underpinning the study.


Following this, Chapter Three identifies and justifies the proposed research

methodology. Additionally, this chapter identifies the research purpose, setting,

design, delivery and measurement instruments. Further to this, this section also

identifies data collection procedures, data management and analysis techniques.

Chapter Four details the study’s findings overall, while Chapter Five presents a

discussion of the study’s findings in relation to the body of research. Chapter Six

acknowledges limitations of the study, commenting on the potential significance

overall and possible future direction for research in the field.

Chapter 2: Literature Review 9

Chapter 2: Literature Review

This chapter begins by framing teacher work in the context of the 21st century.

In section 2.1, the nature of teacher work is discussed in terms of workload intensity,

workload complexity, performativity, accountability and provision of preparation

time. Teachers’ sense of role autonomy, competence and relatedness is then explored.

In Section 2.2, the importance of school culture is outlined in its establishing of person-

environmental congruence for individuals and their wellbeing. Factors such as role

intensification, role complexity and retention are examined in relation to Early Career

and Contract Teachers. Perceptions of teacher quality and performativity are then

discussed with reference to curriculum and teacher practice. Section 2.3 outlines

various interpretations of individual wellbeing before providing the definition

underpinning this study: a psychological, social and physical phenomenon associated

with workplace satisfaction and fulfilment. Teacher wellbeing with respect to student

outcomes, effective leadership practices and role satisfaction are then outlined before

Section 2.4 highlights the importance of relationships in a socio-ecological model.

Following this, section 2.5 explores the need for teacher wellbeing programmes in

education. Two examples of positive psychology-based interventions for teachers are

presented, Geelong Grammar School and Leafy State High School (the school site for

this study). Section 2.6 highlights the implications of the literature and develops the

conceptual framework underpinning the study.

2.1 21ST CENTURY TEACHER ROLES

The nature of teacher work is impacted by educational reform and policy at the

federal, state and regional level. Today, demands imposed upon teachers appear to be

ever-increasing. Along with coordinating effective, multi-dimensional learning

environments, teachers are further pressured by increasing accountability and

performativity measures enacted upon schools through the guise of reform and policy.

This section will explore the impact of workload complexity and intensification for

teachers and the nature of their work. It examines examples of performativity and

accountability reform before drawing links in the literature with diminished


preparation time as well as associated challenges to role autonomy, competence and

relatedness.

2.1.1 Workload Complexity and Intensification

The complexity surrounding the nature of teacher work is evident at the social,

cultural and systemic levels and commonly aligned with educational reform (Fullan,

2007; Hargreaves, 1994). For the purpose of this study, role complexity refers to the

increasing change, rigour and diversity imposed on teachers by policy-makers and

leaders in school contexts (Luke & McArdle, 2009; Roeser, Skinner, Beers &

Jennings, 2012). Intensification refers to the routinised and administration-laden

nature of teacher work where bureaucratic influence is linked with diminished teacher

autonomy (Weiss, 1999). These definitions are drawn from the body of literature in

role complexity and intensification. For most teachers, their choice to enter the

profession is one built on a sense of vocation with the intent of contributing to society

by strengthening outcomes for the pupils they educate (Manuel & Hughes, 2006).

Teachers are further expected to undertake a variety of roles that challenge their

professional and personal capabilities.

In Australia, the status of teachers is described in much of the research as being

in a state of decline (Louden, 2008; Moon 2007; Moore, 2012; Parker, Martin, Colmar

& Liem, 2012; Plunkett & Dyson, 2011). In 2013, findings from The Teaching and

Learning International Survey, including 2,000 Australian participants, revealed that

only 39 per cent believed that society valued teaching as a profession (OECD, 2014).

A devaluing of the role publicly combined with unreasonable societal expectations is

linked with increased teacher attrition levels (Ashiedu & Scott-Lad, 2012). Key

contributing factors to the decline of teacher wellbeing include expectations

surrounding meeting the needs of special education students in mainstream

classrooms, continuously changing curriculum programmes, diverse assessment

strategies and increasing consultation with parents (Hargreaves, 1994; Rowling,

2007). Teachers in current contexts are expected not only to be leaders of curriculum

and high quality pedagogy; they are often called upon to provide other duties of

support often outside their professional expertise (McKenzie, Weldon, Rowley,

Murphy & McMillan, 2014). It is a role that encompasses additional duties including

curriculum design curriculum development, school planning, school


marketing,community relations, information technology, workplace health and safety,

student welfare and extra-curricular sports supervision (Dempster, Sim, Beere &

Logan, 2000). The teaching workforce in Australia operates in a constant state of

change whereby Federal and State Governments issue various controls of curriculum,

teacher accreditation and certification requirements (Kearney, 2014). The constantly

changing landscape of education and its impact on teacher work has led some theorists

to argue that teacher work today is more complex, challenging and difficult than in

any other era (Johnson, Down, Le Cornu, Peters, Sullivan, Pearce & Hunter, 2015; Le

Cornu, 2013). Consequently, teacher pre-service preparatory programmes have

undergone continuous revision in recent decades in an effort to provide an adequate

platform to perform this complex assortment of varied responsibilities. However,

heightened investment in pre-service and beginning teacher mentorship programmes

has not successfully addressed the retention issues surrounding education. While

beginning teachers are expected to model character in a world where family

breakdown (Mance & Yu, 2010) and youth mental health (Patel, Flisher, Hetrick &

McGorry, 2007) are growing concerns, they are further striving to build a professional

identity. A study of beginning teachers in the U.S. identified two main reasons for

leaving the profession: lack of on-the-job support; and work conditions including

student discipline problems, lack of administrative support and poor underlying school

culture (Boser, 2000). Given the increasingly complex and demanding nature of

teacher work, gaining further insight into factors that contribute to their personal

engagement and commitment has become an important focus in educational research.

This is especially the case for teacher wellbeing and exploring the related impacts of

expectations around performativity and accountability associated..

2.1.2 Teacher Work: Performativity and Accountability

The era of high stakes testing and scrutiny surrounding Australian education has

come at the cost of individual and collective responsibility, the nature of teacher work

changing due to the preoccupation with academic outcomes (Polesol, Rice & Duffer,

2014). Since 2008, The National Assessment Program for Literacy (NAPLAN) has

been a standardised tool that students across Australia in Years 3, 5, 7 and 9 are

assessed against areas of numeracy and literacy. Results for schools can be used as an

improvement tool to determine which internal programmes are effective in improving


student literacy and numeracy, affirming the work of teachers and their leaders (Ozga,

2008). The creation of the ‘My School’ website provides an avenue for school results

to be made accessible to the wider Australian public for transparency and

accountability purposes (ACARA, 2015). The reality, however, is that the publication

of this data has led to a competitive culture across schools and states where ‘teaching

to the test’ (Polesol et al, 2014) has come at the cost of the core business of teaching

and learning as is strives to showcase predestined literacy and numeracy indicators

(Hardy, 2015; Klenowski, 2011). Teachers’ modification of curriculum toward

addressing tests in a teacher-centred approach has meant diminished opportunities to

engage with creativity and individuality in subjects (West, 2012).Resultantly,

narrowing of the curriculum has meant teacher roles have increasingly become more

depersonalised (Ju, Lan, Li, Feng & You, 2015). Constant scrutiny at the public,

government and departmental level can negatively impact teachers’ sense of

relatedness and competence in their role (Ballet, Kelchtermans, Loughran, 2006;

Bottery, 2003;Ruzek, Hafen, Allen, Gregory, Mikami & Pianta, 2016). Where teachers

consider that systemic change is bureaucratically driven (Hargreaves, 1994;

Kelchtermans, 2007; Valli & Beuse, 2007) and perceived as unnecessarily adding to

their load (Brennan, 2011; Luke, 2010), the degree of commitment and investment is

reduced. A joint West Australian and South Australian study into perceptions of the

impact of NAPLAN on curriculum and pedagogy in the classroom identified a

narrowing of curriculum and diminishing of diversity and creativity in it as key

concerns voiced by teachers (Thompson & Harbaugh, 2013).

A variety of studies have attested to the overall negative impact upon teacher,

parent and student wellbeing associated with NAPLAN since its inception a decade

ago (Polesol, et al, 2014; Wyn, Turnbull & Grimshaw 2014). The potentially adverse

impacts for teachers include resentment and disengagement from the profession

(Brosky, 2011), which inevitably can lead to retention concerns (Gallant & Riley,

2014). Companion to this is the influence of socio-economic factors surrounding

school sites and the relationship with staff turnover (Ingersoll & May, 2011 John-

Akinola, 2015). The diminished teacher confidence that ensues affects teacher

autonomy and sense of competence in their work. Recently published figures from the

Australian Bureau of Statistics suggest that 53 per cent of people who possess a

teaching degree are in fact not working within education (Gallant & Riley, 2017). For


experienced teachers, research suggests they are more likely to avoid negative stimuli

and emotions in their interactions as well as report higher levels of wellbeing compared

with younger teachers (Erskine, Kvavilashvili, Conway & Myers, 2007). While

speculative in nature, it may be contended that, given the ageing workforce and

imminent retirement of baby boomer teachers combined with the poor retention figures

for Early Career Teachers (ECT), a short to medium term teacher shortage will pose

serious concerns for schools (Aaronson & Meckel, 2008; Ashiedu & Scott-Lad, 2012).

A 2016 survey in England highlighted the negative impact centralised

curriculum and constant educational reform can have on teachers (Precey, 2015). Of

the 4,450 teachers surveyed, 83 per cent reported they found their workload

unmanageable, while 67 per cent reported their mental health had been adversely

affected by factors relating to their work environment (Precey, 2015). Almost half of

respondents reported their intention to leave the profession within the following five

years, while only 12 per cent reported experiencing a ‘healthy’ life-work balance

(Precey, 2015). Discussions concerning teacher attrition tend to highlight

environmental factors such as burnout, workload and employment context and omit

other factors such as short-term contracts, school employment capacity, individual

sickness or alternative career choices (Mansfield, Beltman & Price, 2014). The current

educational climate in Australia suggests a need to review performativity and

accountability models in schools where issues related to workload, role satisfaction

and retention permeate at the cultural level (Clarke, 2012).

An effective school culture is typified in the literature by the quality of

relationships between individuals at a school, the teaching and learning that takes

place, collaboration between teachers and administrative staff, and the local support

present in a particular school (Cohen, McCabe, Michelli & Pickeral, 2009). Although,

in recent years professional development has tended to focus on the delivery of key

information to teachers in an effort to strengthen or influence practice. Aspects such

as curriculum instruction, staff management and general administration requirements

in accordance with policy or reform form a considerable representation of professional

development for teachers in schools (Wright & da Costa, 2016). In addition, teacher

registration in many Australian schools is tied with their annual completion of requisite

hours across a range of dimensions guided by the AITSL standards. In Scotland, where

professional standards has been a part of the educational landscape for almost three


decades, a 2011 review into the impact of professional standards raised questions

regarding the impact of continuous annual professional development enacted in

schools and the actual raising of student achievement and attainment (Donaldson,

2011). Research suggests that for professional development programs to be authentic

they should attempt to capture interactions between teachers and their students, content

as well as contexts for it to effectively influence learning (Darling-Hammond, 1999).

Furthermore, it is encouraged that school professional development approaches allow

opportunities for teachers to reflect, individually and collectively, on their enactment

of key teaching and learning strategies in their classrooms for authentic growth and

engagement (Van Driel & Berry, 2012). While professional development programs

have been criticised for their inability to produce long-term, authentic impacts on

teaching and learning, professional learning is an approach that places students at the

forefront whereby requisite knowledge and skills, along with associated inquiry of

theory, is attended to in a collaborative manner. The research highlights positive,

affective gains for individuals engaged in focused discussion and collaboration with

colleagues around the educational theory and its application in teaching and learning

(Hattie, 2013). To purvey this successfully, a sharpened or narrowed approach to the

learning focus is paramount. Teachers provided joint responsibility in the decision-

making around teaching and learning under the guidance of school leadership teams

are suggested as being more positively engaged in their learning (Dudley, 2013: Rock

& Wilson, 2005; Sibbald, 2009). One of the challenges for school leaders appears to

be their capacity to strike the correct balance between delivering authentic professional

learning, building teacher capacity while maintaining an evaluative mindset in the

discussion and interrogation of performance capabilities across the school context.

Heavy public scrutiny of teachers and their work has seen a range of negative

outcomes including increases in feelings of vulnerability, anxiety and perceived

incompetence (Fernet, Guay, Senecal & Austin, 2012; Yousef, 2002). Where teachers

perceive their views are in conflict with reform agendas being imposed in their work

environment, their sense of shared decision-making and relatedness is impacted

(Overton, 2009). Paradoxically, it could be argued that teachers today are more

accountable for the ‘quality’ of their work than ever before under performativity and

accountability models imposed in schools, yet possess a diminished voice or control

within school contexts due to prescriptive curriculum models and measurable goals


(Connell, 2009). In essence, their role can be devalued under the auspices of current

educational policy and reform models. The fact that teachers feel empowered when

they are engaged with decision-making in schooling contexts suggests a need for

school leaders to consider systemic changes to allow for stronger teacher voice (Davis

& Wilson, 2000), collaboration and consideration of effective use of resourcing toward

improving student and school outcomes for a sustainable future.

2.1.3 Teacher Work-Life Balance

One of the greatest challenges for teachers lies in managing their workload amid

constant social, cultural and academic change. Regarded as a stressful occupation

(Montgomery & Rupp, 2005), teachers are categorised as being at times under-

prepared for the stressful and emotional demands of their work (Woolfolk Hoy, 2013).

This lack of preparedness for the demands of teaching may lead to an inability to

maintain a healthy work-life balance (Bubb & Earley, 2004; Easthope & Easthope,

2000). Williamson and Myhill (2008) articulate a symbiotic relationship existing in

terms of work balance, the quality of teachers’ work and the resultant impact on their

students’ learning experiences.

A 2015 Queensland study, which surveyed 535 teachers across Catholic,

Government and Independent sectors identified four of the highest stressors

confronting teachers within the current environment: time spent marking;

administrative paperwork demanded by school leaders; overloaded curriculum; and

lack of time for lesson preparation (Feltoe, Beamish & Davies, 2016). The 2018

International Summit on the Teaching Profession brought to attention the fact that high

levels of stress, anxiety and depression affect 41 per cent of Australian teachers, 46

per cent of U.S. teachers and 81 per cent of teachers in the United Kingdom

(Schleicher, 2018). A New Zealand study exploring workload manageability for

teachers across 20 schools found that 48 per cent of respondents reported feeling their

workload was unmanageable, 57 per cent reported concerns regarding the balance

between home and work life, and 71 per cent reported the volume of workload as

affecting the quality of their teaching overall (Ingvarson, Kleinhenz, Beavis, Barwick,

Carthy & Wilkinson, 2005). It further found that 43 per cent of teachers felt that

workload was affecting their health and 28 per cent of respondents indicated a desire

to leave the profession as a result of an unmanageable workload. Potential stressors


aligned with workload management identified in the study include paperwork, student

behaviour and non-contact time. Interestingly, potential stressors such as

accountability reviews of teachers, assessment and introduction of new curricula were

not identified as negatively affecting teacher workload. The study confirms the need

for school leaders to reflect on what role they can play in aiding teachers to effectively

manage their workload and maintain a healthy state of wellbeing.

Research suggests that first and foremost for consideration should be the

provision of time for teachers to reflect on their work, lessons, newly developed skills

and knowledge, and level of purposeful collaboration with colleagues (Bubb & Earley,

2004). Identifying the need for leaders to consider their practices around use of human

resources in their contexts and to increase time available for teachers to plan or prepare

for their classes is linked in the literature with an improvement in teacher engagement

and sense of connectedness to their environment (Burchielli & Bartram, 2003; Gonski,

Boston, Greiner, Lawrence, Scales & Tannock, 2011).

2.1.4 Teacher Work: Role Autonomy, Competence and Relatedness

In order for individuals to experience positive wellbeing states, it is critical that

three psychological needs be met in their environment: competence, relatedness and

autonomy. Indeed, Ryan and Deci (2008) posit that teachers’ intrinsic motivation and

self-regulation are underpinned by each of these psychological needs. At the crux of

this view is the theory of self-determination. The research in motivation theory

suggests that, where teachers experience a personal alignment or congruence with the

vision or culture of a school, their engagement, performance and wellbeing are

positively affected (Bloch, 2006; Edwards & Rothbard, 1999; Orsini, Evans & Jarez,

2015; Sagiv & Schwartz, 2000).

Teacher autonomy is defined as “the degree of control teachers have over the

decision making relevant to their professional activities” (Kalin, Steh & Juljan, 2005:

p.158). Imposed external pressures inevitably reduce teacher autonomy (Adoniou,

2012) and this can in turn affect role satisfaction and motivation (Apple, 2001;

Muchinsky & Mohahan, 1987). A teacher’s sense of autonomy, competence and

relatedness can be critical agents that buffer against adversity (Gouda, Luong, Schmidt

& Bauer, 2016; Klassen, Perry & Frenzel, 2011; O’Donoghue, 1994). Teachers’ sense


of professional and personal identity is a key variable guiding their motivation, job

fulfilment and efficacy (Bucelli, 2017; Day, 2002). A lack of teacher autonomy can

lead to increased stress and declining levels of motivation, satisfaction,

professionalism and empowerment (Brunetti, 2006; Pearson & Moomaw, 2005). One

challenge facing teachers in the current environment of reform and accountability is

the potential influence that micro-management at the state and federal level poses for

their core business of teaching and learning. School leaders become important conduits

in the sense that they are responsible for overseeing the implementation of reform

while simultaneously supporting the wellbeing of the teacher cohorts they lead.

School leaders are charged with supporting the overall psychological needs of

their teachers (Klassen, Perry & Frenzel, 2012). They play an important role in guiding

their teachers through the myriad of challenges connoted in educational reform such

as resource development, pedagogical changes and provision of time. In the context of

schools, this can have ramifications for teacher autonomy, especially their sense of

control over the curriculum they teach and the way it is to be taught. Continued

emphasis on national testing, school performativity and more prescriptive curriculum

models embodied within the P-10 Australian Curriculum (ACARA) and the advent of

the new Senior Assessment and Tertiary Entrance systems in Queensland in 2019 have

the capacity to stifle the ability of teachers to experience ownership and autonomy

within their work. While the previous adjustment to the senior phase of learning in

Queensland occurred in 1992 with the introduction of the Overall Position as a method

of gaining tertiary admission, the new Senior Assessment and Tertiary Entrance

systems will mean significant adjustments in curriculum, pedagogy and practice.

Teachers – who are at the coalface of implementation – will engage with a range of

mandatory professional learning and additional professional learning depending on

school-based decisions. Although the fidelity required in delivering the new system

will mean diminished decision-making for secondary schools around curriculum and

assessment design (QCAA, 2018), it is recognised that the transition to a new system

has ramifications for teachers. In effect, they are charged with the responsibility of

preparing curriculum, designing assessment and delivering outcomes that are essential

for preparing their learners for tertiary pathways, Training and Further Education

Environment (TAFE) or work at the conclusion of their schooling.


Competence is defined as a condition or quality of effectiveness, ability,

sufficiency or success (Elliot & Dweck, 2005). In education, teachers experience levels

of competence through effective use of preparation time, classroom management,

engaging in professional dialogue with leaders as well as role clarity in school contexts

(Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2007). Within their work environment, teachers innately

desire opportunities to exercise and express their professional capacities (Deci & Ryan,

2011; Ryan & Deci, 2000; Ryan & Deci, 2017). In order for this to be achieved, it is

important that teachers have avenues provided to develop, practice and share

professional practice with their peers. Where teachers feel ineffective in their practice

of teaching and learning, naturally their sense of competence is negatively affected.

Their sense of proficiency is thus tied with affirmation from school leaders, mentors

or other external sources, that their work is of a particular standard and delivering

outcomes for their students. The notion that teacher competence can be measured

arbitrarily through the Australian Professional Standards for Teachers (APST) has

been met with mixed feelings among the teacher fraternity.

While accreditation toward strengthening the workforce through explicit

benchmarks of professional capacity has largely been received positively by teachers

and leaders the notion of an externally defined standard that enumerates and lists the

work of teachers to meet effective teaching and teacher benchmarks has attracted some

criticism for its neo-liberal underpinning (Clarke & Moore, 2013). Undoubtedly, the

standards offer transparency for pre-service teachers, a certain explicitness within

assigned criteria as well as language to discuss teacher practice, and importantly

highlight the complexity of teacher roles today. However, it could be argued that the

use of a set of professional standards as a measurement tool for accountability in fact

reduces teacher work to exercises of technical competence and efficiency for

compliance (Clarke & Moore, 2013; Connell, 2009). The impact for the individual

teachers is significant in that their perceived agency within the role can be obstructed

by reduction approaches engendered within a standards model. Furthermore, the

potential for blaming and holding teachers to account for not meeting these ascribed

benchmarks in effect can challenge teachers’ conceptions of competence in their work.

In an ethical sense, the nature of mentorship and professional development in

education is seemingly challenged under arbitrary models such as the APST whereby

the level of connectedness of teachers to their roles effectively diminishes.


Relatedness refers to teachers’ perceived need to feel connected to others, to

be a group member, and to develop close and intimate relationships with others (Deci

& Ryan, 2011; Ryan & Deci, 2000; Ryan & Deci, 2017). Teacher relatedness to their

role, colleagues, leaders and students can contribute to or undermine individual

wellbeing. Their sense of belonging is tied to the establishing and sustaining of long-

term meaningful connections with students and colleagues (Klassen et al, 2012).

Unfortunately, the changing and intensifying nature of teacher work in recent decades

has challenged teachers’ relatedness to the role. In recent years, a range of studies have

brought to the fore some of the inhibiting factors impacting teacher connectedness to

their environment in current contexts (Caprara, Barbaranelli, Steca & Malone, 2006;

Chang, 2009). A key psychological need within relatedness is an apparent experience

of care or nurture among colleagues and leadership teams (Deci & Ryan, 2011). For

teachers, there are a plethora of human interactions with students, colleagues, leaders,

parents and external stakeholders each day. The quality of these interactions has the

capacity to contribute to teacher wellbeing in positive and negative ways. According

to Holmes (2005), teacher relatedness stems from the following: high expectations

around creating strong community identity; treatment with professional respect and

dignity; capacity of teachers to influence decision making in their contexts;

opportunities for collaboration with colleagues; and, recognition and gratitude for their

effort and outcomes. A Canadian study of 409 elementary and high school teachers

explored the relationship between teacher relatedness and teacher emotions and work

engagement using a questionnaire as an instrument (Klassen, et al, 2012).

Interestingly, the study found that elementary teachers’ relatedness with students was

higher than that of secondary teachers. Whether this can be attributed to the changing

nature of secondary school teacher work, the higher propensity of relational

engagement with students at the elementary school level, or other factors, is difficult

to determine. However, the study linked the provision of autonomy support by

principals and leaders for teachers to a strengthening of relatedness with both

colleagues and students respectively. For teachers this sense of heightened

professional relatedness can translate to positive outcomes in terms of classroom

climate and student outcomes (Briner & Dewberry, 2007; Jennings & Greenberg,

2009).


Research highlights how well teachers foster well classrooms (Schonert-Reichl

& Lawler, 2010). Autonomy, competence and relatedness are positively associated

with a sense of accomplishment and have been linked with students’ autonomous

motivation for learning (Roth, Assor, Kanat-Maymon & Kaplan, 2007). However, the

depersonalisation and deskilling of teacher work has seen a diminishing of teacher

control over their professional domains (Ballet & Kelchtermans, 2009). While links

between teacher efficacy and wellbeing can support strong student outcomes, it is

similarly possible that teachers’ diminished sense of efficacy can negatively impact

student outcomes. For teachers to experience autonomy, competence and relatedness

in their role amid an increasingly demanding work environment, a culture of nurture

and support for teacher wellbeing is needed to complement reform models. Therefore,

developing stronger understandings around best practices to support and cultivate

teacher wellbeing within school contexts is critical going forward as the educational

landscape continues to shift toward increases in performativity measures.

2.2 SCHOOL CULTURE, TEACHER CONGRUENCE AND WELLBEING

Effective school cultures can assist teachers in coping with various challenges in

their work environment. School culture is linked with values, teacher commitment and

policy management (Ball, Maguire & Braun, 2012; Deal & Peterson, 1998). Culture

in schools is very complex, idiosyncratic and espouses the values, norms and values

of an organisation. It is suggested that when the complex patterns of beliefs, values,

attitudes, expectations, ideas and behaviours in an organisation are not appropriate or

incongruent to the culture then the capacity for schools to work effectively and

harmoniously is greatly diminished (MacNeil & Busch, 2009).

In a study in the United States investigating characteristics of effective school

cultures, researchers interviewed parents, students, teachers and school leaders across

twelve schools in nine states – both public and private – in a sample which varied in

socio-economic privilege levels (Carter, 2011). The study identified four key factors

underpinning successful school cultures: 1) a strong belief that culture determines

outcomes; 2) a nurturing but demanding culture; 3) a culture committed to student

success and; 4) a culture of people, principles and purpose deeply entrenched rather

than on the surface (Carter, 2011). Research suggests that the climate and culture of


schools affect student achievement (Witziers, Bosker & Kruger, 2003). Therefore

school principals, who are directly involved in shaping these factors, play an important

role in nurturing the correct practices in schools. In this sense, effective school culture

models are those that drive the motivation and engagement of teachers. Feedback and

shared decision-making are critical areas that can build positive culture in school

contexts. Regarding teacher performance, where administrative or school leaders

provide constructive feedback as well as encourage their participation in school issues

the result for teachers can be personally gratifying and potentially increase teachers’

willingness to stay in the field (Canio, Albrecht & Johns, 2013). This is important to

note given high teacher turnover rates across education in Australia (Liu &

Onwuegbuzie, 2014).

The literature identifies school culture as an important focus point in terms of

expectations, motivations and values (Peterson & Deal, 2011). Where teachers are

engaged in a nurturing and academically aspirational environment they are committed

to improving outcomes and taking shared responsibility for learning. Invariably,

school leaders and administrators are key linchpins in positively moving reform and

shaping school culture. They are charged with the responsibility of promoting healthy

workload balance and the development of positive relationships, yet are conflicted by

external mandates in terms of meeting performance indicators, standards and

benchmarks set at the regional and state level. Additionally, they oversee the hiring

and releasing of staff in schools for employment purposes and this can have a range of

ramifications for teacher wellbeing.

2.2.1 Early Career and Contract Teachers

The multi-faceted nature and extensive workload surrounding teacher roles is

particularly challenging for ECT and Contract Teachers (Friedman, 2000; Johnson et

al, 2015). Contract Teachers can be defined as those who are appointed contractually

to a school for an agreed period. While short term, renewable contract arrangements

have the capacity to generate stronger incentives for individual teachers to meet and

perhaps extend beyond performance goals established within school contexts, a

potential corollary can be burnout or low retention. The tenure of a contract agreement

in education can range from five days to a maximum of 12 months and, within this

model, teachers can be dismissed at any time with no apparent legal obligation for


employers to give notice of dismissal (QTU, 2018). It is reported that over 16 per cent

of all primary teachers and 10 per cent of all high school teachers are employed in

Australia in contractual arrangements of less than one year in duration (McKenzie,

Rowley, Weldon & Murphy, 2011). In public schools across Queensland in 2013, only

197 graduates attained permanent positions whilst 348 received temporary or

contractual employment (Chilcott, 2013). The over-representation of beginning

teachers within these statistics is of particular concern. The apparent vulnerability of

Contract Teachers has led to a revolving door model which can destabilise teachers

and their personal welfare as they can be abruptly disconnected from their workplace.

Factors such as lack of confidence in role continuity, poor parental perceptions, limited

role flexibility, high cognitive load and managing demanding student behaviour can

burden Contract Teachers’ wellbeing in schools (McCallum & Price, 2010).

Up to 50 per cent of Early Career Teachers (ECT) in Australia leave the

profession in the first years of teaching (Gallant & Riley, 2014). ECT are defined as

teachers who have been in the profession for less than five years. There are a variety

of variables and factors outside of the control of school leaders that may impact early

departure of ECT from the profession (Burke, Schuck, Aubusson, Buchanan, Louviere

& Prescott, 2013). Poor retention figures among ECT are linked with a variety of

factors. Firstly, despite an extensive workload in their first years of teaching, ECT are

less likely to request support from school leaders given the perceived professional

impact to their continued employment within a school context (Krueger, 2000; Stuart

& Thurlow, 2000). Potential threats to ECT confidence include teaching outside of

subject expertise, intensified planning workload as well as expectations around extra-

curricular engagement (mentor programmes, school camps, coaching). Secondly, for

ECT and Contract teachers the challenge of attaining permanency within metropolitan

school regions has led to stronger competition and pressure among graduates and

potentially increased leverage from a school perspective (Bluett, 2007). In this sense,

the need for ECT and Contract Teachers to exceed expectations can impact their

wellbeing.

2.2.2 Teacher Quality and Performativity Standards

The implementation of professional standards for teachers toward building

teacher quality and performativity has impacted teacher wellbeing in a variety of ways.


It is argued that the sheer complexity and multi-dimensional nature of teaching cannot

simply be accounted for in prescribed outcomes variables (Lavy, 2015). In Section

2.1.4 of this literature review, the APST were discussed as providing transparency in

language and benchmarks while simultaneously affecting the nature of teacher work

by reducing it technically to one that is hindered by compliance. It suggested that the

resultant impact was that teacher connectedness or relatedness to their roles can

diminish in these models. Where autonomy, competence and relatedness are

challenged in reform models the wellbeing of teachers is negatively impacted.

The societal and economic flux that has permeated education has led to mounting

pressure on schools to meet heightened expectations and goals imposed upon them by

the community, political sector and departmental sector (Tschannen-Moran, 2014).

Current benchmarks surrounding teacher practice and performance such as the

defining of curriculum (Bach, Kessler & Heron, 2006; Bottery & Wright, 1996),

implementation of the Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership

(AITSL) Australian Professional Standards for Teachers (APST) (AITSL, 2011) and

other evaluative measures for compliance have been linked with a deskilling of the

workforce. This inherent paradox could be aligned with an ‘economic rationalism’

where diminished technology, planning time, work organisation and skill utilisation

(Easthope & Easthope, 2000; Hargreaves, Lieberman, Fullan & Hopkins, 2014;

Rumschlag, 2017) are replaced with a more routinised and administration-laden

environment. Where imposed reform aims to provide professional autonomy over

effective practice as well as stipulate how the outcomes are to be achieved, a

fundamental emphasis on means rather than an educational end is inherent (Bucelli,

2017). Under this approach, notions of care, connectedness, nurture and personal

growth - traditionally altruistic attributes that defined the role - are devalued (Ballet et

al, 2006). The literature suggests that the possibility of creating and sustaining

productive learning for students over time is greatly hindered by the reality that the

same conditions do not exist for teachers themselves (Sarason, 1990).

The APST is a set of standards “that articulate what teachers are expected to

know and be able to do over four career stages: Graduate, Proficient, Highly

Accomplished and Lead” (AITSL, 2011, p.1). Teachers engage with self-reflection

and self-assessment around professional knowledge, professional practice and

professional engagement in an effort to improve educational outcomes across school


contexts. In addition to meeting the professional expectations that surround each of

these standards, teachers are to further negotiate the myriad of other challenges evident

in current reform such as managing a ‘crowded curriculum’ (McCallum & Price, 2012)

and increased accountability around student outcomes. The emotional rigour

associated with teaching is critical in teacher education and formation of identity in

the workforce (Yin & Lee, 2011). In school contexts, there is great risk in relying on

performance-based tools to measure quality in teachers. Professional standards ought

to hold promise for implementing reforms in the careers of teachers as well as to

structure the learning opportunities to reflect the complex, reciprocal and dynamic

nature of the work of teachers (Darling-Hammond, 1999). While aspirational outcome

variables for teachers identified in the APST can be beneficial in developing teacher

quality or performance, any effective model should complement this design with a

consideration of wellbeing support at the social and emotional level to truly capture

the complexity of the role today.

The influence of effective or quality teaching on student performance is

documented in educational research (Borman & Kimball, 2005; Gonski et al, 2011). It

is contended that current definitions of quality teachers are less concerned with

teachers’ character traits or technical proficiency and more concerned with their ability

to engage students in rigorous, meaningful activities that foster learning for all students

(Miller & Olson, 1994; Stronge, 2018). In his meta-analysis of 15 years of research

into pedagogy and learning, Hattie (2013) attributed teacher quality as being

responsible for 30 per cent of variance in terms of student engagement and

achievement. Studies of teacher effects at the classroom level have confirmed

differential teacher effectiveness as a strong determinant of differences in student

learning (Darling-Hammond, 2000), greatly outweighing the effects of class sizes and

heterogeneity in grouping (Hattie, 2013; Wright, Horn & Sanders, 1997). Effective

teachers must be dynamic and unwavering in their commitment to teaching amid

growing environmental, social and mental adversity (Mansfield et al, 2014). One of

the inherent challenges associated with this climate of adversity is the maintaining of

strong levels of morale among teachers. It is therefore critical that efforts be dedicated

toward ensuring teachers experience a sense of autonomy, relatedness and competence

in their roles.


Education reform’s agenda to promote quality education and outcomes can

paradoxically come at the cost of teacher motivation and role satisfaction. A clash

between external and internal expectations around ‘effective’ or ‘quality’ teachers is

seemingly prevalent. What is defined as ‘quality’ learning and development for

teachers is aligned with effective and efficient addressing of standards (Atweh &

Singh, 2011; Bullough, 2011). Alternatively, conceptions of quality teachers outline a

constant striving for excellence, keenness to build fascination and growth and a deep

commitment to providing the best opportunities for students as key characteristics

(Day, 2017). What is clear from the literature is that an excessive emphasis on

standards, performance measures and accountability can adversely affect teacher

professional engagement over a prolonged period of time (O’Donoghue, 1994; Vallie

& Beuse, 2007). There is a sense that personal and professional skills of teachers have

gradually become redundant in an era of reform bombardment and high stakes

accountability (Comber & Nixon, 2009). Commonly, teachers who experience

feelings of discouragement and role ambiguity choose to only superficially engage

with such administrative goals.

2.3 TEACHER WELLBEING

The previous section provided an outline of the environmental factors affecting

the nature of teacher work in the current context. This section moves the discussion

more broadly to notions of wellbeing. Firstly, the evolution of the notion of wellbeing

is outlined and then links are drawn with the recent emergence of positive psychology

and its range of applications in terms of supporting individual wellbeing. The need to

address teacher wellbeing amid growing health concerns nationally and internationally

for teachers is established before existing models of wellbeing programmes in school

contexts are outlined and critically evaluated.

2.3.1 Historical Journey of Wellbeing

Early references to wellbeing focus on definitive ties between the early

philosophy of Socrates, Plato and Aristotle in their exploration of self, goodness,

fulfilment and wellbeing (Stonehouse, Allison & Carr, 2011). However,

interpretations that are more recent include a combination of variables that impact on


wellbeing such as the individual, organisation, home and community. Differing

interpretations emphasise the fulfilment of goals (Emmons, 1996; Emmons &

McCullagh, 2003; Deci & Ryan, 2011; Ryan & Deci, 2000; Ryan & Deci, 2017),

experience of happiness (Bullough Jr, 2011) and life satisfaction (Seligman, 2004).

Ryan and Deci (2008) identify that individual development, fulfilment and intrinsic

community contribution are essential elements. Others contend that wellbeing is

inextricably related to an individual’s psychological, social and physical resources and

their inherent ability to meet life’s challenges in a stable and constant manner (Dodge,

et al, 2012). One lens into teacher wellbeing suggests teacher autonomy, positive

relationships and perceptions of competence as being strong indicators of individual

wellbeing (Ryff, 1989). While a multitude of definitions for wellbeing exist, this study

observes individual wellbeing as a psychological, social and physical phenomenon

associated with workplace satisfaction and fulfilment. In education, wellbeing for

teachers relates to positive functioning whereby a state of balance or equilibrium exists

as they engage with various events and challenges in their working lives (Dodge et al,

2012).

Since the turn of the 21st century, educational psychology has evolved and

adapted to suit human, cultural and environmental contexts (Bandura, 2006). While

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (1954) provided a theoretical platform to aid

understanding of individuals’ innate desire to fulfil their potential, the 1960s saw the

emergence of humanistic psychology which focused on ‘healthy’ and ‘growth-

oriented’ approaches rather than behavioural and psycho-analytic dimensions of

psychology. Individuals’ perceived sense of belonging in their work contexts impacts

their wellbeing in a variety of ways, including personal engagement, morale and

perceptions of self-competence (Brunetto, Teo, Shacklock & Farr-Wharton, 2012;

Deci & Ryan, 2011). For teachers, their engagement is positively linked with

establishing a sense of agency, relatedness and professional autonomy (Woodman,

Davis, Hardy, Callow, Glasscock, Yuill-Proctor, 2009). They seek stronger control

and ownership over the teaching and learning amidst an every-increasing environment

of controlled curricula and standardised teaching practices.

Positive psychology theorists discuss the building of strengths and positive

experience among individuals or organisations as an approach that supports optimal

functioning (Lovett & Lovett, 2016; Seligman & Csikszentimihalyi, 2014). The role


of positive psychology in the 21st century is to support humans in their optimal

functioning; promoting those factors that allow for individual and community thriving

at the biological, experiential, relational, institutional, cultural and global level of

inquiry (Sheldon, Kashdan & Steger, 2011). For teachers, it is particularly pertinent

that person-environment congruency be considered within any perspective as a

mechanism capable of assisting the cultivation of positivity at the organisational level

(Sagiv & Schwartz, 2000). Where shared values exist between teachers and their work

context, a sense of purpose and satisfaction permeates the environment and in a sense

can act to bolster teacher wellbeing (Sagiv & Schwartz, 2000). This can reciprocally

impact their sense of role autonomy (Reis, Sheldon, Gable, Roscoe & Ryan, 2000),

relatedness and competence (Mansfield et al, 2014) and potentially curb the potential

for psychological distress, burnout and low satisfaction among teachers (Day, 2008;

Gold & Roth, 2013).

Seligman’s work in the field of positive psychology, human functioning and

wellbeing has received varied critical reception over recent decades. Critics have

described its emphasis on positive rather than deficit models of thinking as potentially

ignoring the reality and benefits associated with negative emotions and experiences

(Wong, 2011). Held (2002) questioned the proliferation of positive psychology as a

“tyranny of the positive attitude.” He argues that the accentuating of positive aspects

such as individual happiness and optimism can potentially contribute to forms of

unhappiness as a consequence (p.965). The assumption that emotions such as stress,

anxiety and disappointment are inhibiting factors is challenged in the literature. Both

Fineman (2006) and Cianci, Klein & Sijits (2010) describe the affective nature of

tension, anxiety and stress as having the capacity to facilitate stronger individual

performance in workplaces. Therefore, positive change presented through negative

experience is not necessarily deficit as a model of thinking. Positive psychology has

traditionally viewed tension, anxiety and stress as detrimental feelings rather than

acknowledging their potential to assist individuals in building wellbeing and

resilience. Teachers management of adversity wavers back and forth as they

experience negative and positive emotions in the workplace (Dodge et al, 2012)

Chaplain (2008) describes the complex relationship existing between job satisfaction

and stress in that a stressful role can often present opportunities for personal

satisfaction. Teachers feeling professional challenge or discomfort can be valuable as


an experience. In particular, where competing possibilities or differing voices facilitate

challenge or discomfort, a link with positive growth in workplace coherence is

discussed in the literature (Fineman, 2006).

Teachers operate within a multi-dimensional, dynamic setting that can present

a variety of professional and personal challenges. Within education, the engagement

of teachers’ arousal through suitably challenging scenarios can be a critical element in

ensuring positive subjective experiences and buffering potential adversity (Beard, Hoy

& Hoy, 2010). In a positive sense, these subjective experiences for teachers can

provide them with a sense of control, happiness, creativity, excitement and desire to

continue activities at hand (Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2014). Where professional

satisfaction is experienced at both the individual and collegial levels, systemic and

sustainable improvements in wellbeing are possible. Conversely, factors that

depersonalise, deskill or reduce the professional engagement of teachers can be

inhibiting in terms of teacher wellbeing.

Workload, lack of resources, poor collegial relationships, low salary,

undesirable student behaviour and heightened parental expectations contribute to

teacher stress (Van Petegem, Creemers, Rossel, & Aelterman, 2005; Yang, Gu, Chi &

Wang, 2009). While these factors are common in education from a historical

standpoint, current research suggest that issues today are more intense and acutely

impacting teachers’ wellbeing (Darling-Hammond, 2006). A recent study surveying

the perceptions of 500 Queensland teachers found work-related stress as being

particularly aligned with diminished preparation time to effectively deliver expected

outcomes (Feltoe et al, 2016). For teachers, an increase in demand to complete

mandated paperwork and administrative tasks - amid a culture of higher accountability

– is aligned in the literature with stress (Van Droogenbroeck, Spruyt & Vanroelen,

2014).

Similarly, the wellbeing of school leaders is impacted by heavy workload

commitments and a variety of other stressors unique to leadership positions in school

contexts. Broadly, educational research suggests that increases in role responsibilities

among school leaders involves certain breadth and complexity that has led to a

decrease in role satisfaction (Markow, Macia & Lee, 2013). Growing emphasis on

accountability and high-stakes testing add further demand and complexity to the role

of school leaders (Darmody & Smyth, 2016). In Department of Education and Training


(DET) schools, certain hierarchical structures influence and govern the work of school

leaders (e.g. Principals and Deputy Principals) in their enacting of policy, reform and

accountability (see Appendix C). A 2017 Australian Principal Occupational Health,

Safety and Wellbeing Survey reported that on average 53 per cent of principals worked

over 56 hours per week, 27 per cent of these participants reported working upwards of

61-65 hours per week during scheduled school terms. For school holiday periods, 31

per cent of participants reported working more than 25 hours per week (Riley, 2017).

The related health impacts are important considerations. Consequently, 10 per cent of

participants working 50-60 hours and 30 per cent of those working more than 60 hours

reported experiencing relationship problems. Research suggests the ramifications of

not sustaining a healthy work-life balance can further lead to increased risk of

cardiovascular disease (Kivimaki & Kawachi, 2015). Environmental factors such as

workload quantity and lack of time to focus on teaching and learning were reported as

the highest stressors for school leaders. Stressors such as student mental health and

staff mental health also were reported to impact the wellbeing and health of school

leaders. Overall, the report highlighted a concerning fact that school leaders’ collective

wellbeing measured below the general population average. The literature regarding

teachers and school leaders suggests the need for a systemic approach to be adopted

in schools to combat the related wellbeing effects of intensified workload in school

contexts.

2.3.2 The Need for Teacher Wellbeing

As a profession, teaching demands strong emotional involvement from teachers

in their managing of workload and student needs. Surprisingly, at the systemic level

there exists a paucity of deliberate investment in supporting or cultivating teacher

wellbeing (Spilt et al, 2011). The emotional demands of the teaching role can affect

individuals’ wellbeing. It is suggested that teacher emotional wellbeing is connected

to the experience of positive feelings and enthusiasm towards life (Meyers, Sweeney

and Witmer, 2000; Parker & Martin, 2009). In this respect, gauging teachers’

emotional wellbeing can act as a predictor to their overall wellbeing (Adams, Bezner

& Steinhardt, 1997) and professional engagement (Deci & Ryan, 2011; Ryan & Deci,

2000; Ryan & Deci, 2017).


External and internal pressures directly affect teachers’ social, emotional and

academic wellbeing and, in turn, the students they educate (Ballet & Kelchtermans,

2009; Spillane, Halverson & Diamond, 2004; Valli & Buese, 2007). Daniels and

Strauss (2010) assert, “Teachers and their mental health and wellbeing should be of

great importance given that they educate the nation” (p. 1385). Therefore, the

designing of professional development targeting the cultivation of teacher morale,

engagement and role satisfaction among teacher cohorts can potentially aid in the

building of positive school culture and professional satisfaction among teachers

(Apple, 2001; Lauerman & Konig 2016).

The ever-changing and intensifying nature of the role of teachers has brought to

the fore the need to better understand teachers’ connectedness with their work

environment. Martin Seligman (2012) posits that this relationship is central to

individuals’ wellbeing and underpinned by five key elements: positive emotion,

positive engagement; positive meaning; positive relationships; and positive

accomplishment. These elements represent central tenets that are linked in the

literature with improved wellbeing (Dodge et al, 2012). Where person-environmental

congruence exists, teachers experience each of these tenets or dimensions within their

school contexts. In an environment where individuals experience strong arousal and

engagement naturally the potential to minimise stressors and activate states of ‘flow’

is increased (Csikszentmihalyi, 2002; Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2014). Flow is

defined as a state of complete immersion in an activity where, mentally, individuals

challenge themselves by extending beyond their ability (Cszikszentmihalyi, 1997;

Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2014). For teachers, flow can be experienced when

they are energised in a task or activity - one that they would normally deliver

confidently – and while in an absorbed state of being their sense of time appears to

temporarily disappear. The effect of this can positively impact their wellbeing states

as their arousal levels and positive emotions are stimulated, allowing for satisfaction

and happiness to be experienced. Conversely, individuals who are engaged in arousal

states when experiencing challenge are prone to states of languishment that negatively

impact wellbeing (Keyes & Simoes, 2012). With respect to the engagement of

individuals within each of these spheres, it is necessary that a sense of purpose in the

work environment prevails. Teachers experience a range of psychological (value, self-

efficacy, emotional stability, confidence), social (relationships with students,


colleagues, leaders, parents) and cultural (performativity, accountability) challenges

within their environments and it is important that they have the necessary extrinsic and

intrinsic resources to meet these challenges (Cummins, 2003).

To build further on Maslow’s ‘Hierarchy of Needs’ referenced earlier in this

chapter, teachers draw upon a range of intrinsic and extrinsic resources when faced

with challenge in their work environment. The balance of intrinsic and extrinsic

motivating factors is linked in the research with increased job satisfaction

(Perrachione, Rosser, & Petersen, 2008). Intrinsic resources stem from the emotional

security that individuals possess within their work environment (Thomas, 2010). They

relate to the extent to which activities they engage in professionally stimulate

enjoyment or interest. A strong influence on their motivation lies in their perception

that they are meaningfully enhancing student outcomes and that the achievement of

this is a reflection of their own personal qualities and potential (Hughes, 2012).

Engendered in this understanding is the notion of control; individuals who perceive

they have a sense of autonomy over the teaching and learning experience a

connectedness or belonging within the context of the school.

Extrinsic resources are influenced by the following factors for teachers: financial

security; relationships with administrative leadership teams; school climate; and

human and physical resourcing. According to Hughes (2012) these factors directly

impact teacher retention in education today. Professional development in schools can

be an effective tool where innovative and diverse approaches are considered to

meaningfully develop teacher practice and potential. Where these experiences meet

objectives such as offering specific tools to improve teaching and learning the result

can be increased self-confidence in their capacity as teachers (Lauermann &

Karabernick, 2011). Environments that espouse sharing and collaboration among

teachers and administrative leaders in their professional development models are able

to build a stronger sense of community within their context (Fitzgerald & Theilheimer,

2013). In contrast, professional development models that propagate accountability, a

competitive climate among teachers and a lack of positive feedback can create

unhealthy cultural models (Wahlstrom & Louis, 2008; McElroy, 2013; Wyatt, 2013).

In short, teachers desire a degree of control over teaching and learning and positive

feedback on their professional efforts to help position their self-image and perception

of competence (Schunk, 2005). They expect to have a shared voice and to feel they are


participating in the cultivation of a positive culture in their schools. It is suggested that

the extent to which teachers are intrinsically and/or extrinsically motivated can affect

the motivation and learning of the students they teach (Kreishan & Al-Dhaimat, 2015).

Along with meeting expectations around outcomes, teachers are expected to lead,

design and cater for the wellbeing of their students (Estabrooks, Dzewaltowski,

Glasgow & Klesges, 2003). Interestingly, the growing body of research in the field of

positive psychology and wellbeing has highlighted the relationship between a systemic

focus and qualitative and quantitative gains within school contexts. It is contended that

the success of school culture is inextricably tied with the relationships existing

internally (teachers, leaders, students) and externally (parents, community) in school

contexts (Baumeister & Leary, 1995). In their review of employee wellbeing in school

contexts, Kern, Waters, Adler and White (2014) articulate a link between systemic

embedding in school contexts and significant improvement in student wellbeing,

relationships and academic performance. This is further corroborated by Pushor (2007),

who emphasises the importance of collaboration between community, parents,

teachers and school leaders to allow for true enacting of ‘whole school’ plans.

School culture, organisation and ethos are important overarching factors that can

drive the success of wellbeing initiatives within schools. While culture in schools is

primarily linked with school leadership in the literature (Carpenter, 2015) it is

important that any initiative such as wellbeing be linked with the school’s unique

identity or culture (Peterson & Deal, 2011). Interestingly, the literature confirms how

entrenched school culture can act as either a contributing or inhibiting factor in terms

of supporting teacher wellbeing (Day & Gu, 2009; Wong & Zhang, 2014). In an ever-

changing landscape such as teaching, investing in programmes that deliberately target

supporting individuals’ wellbeing appears a paramount consideration for any whole-

school outcomes to be realised. Research has highlighted the negative impact that ill-

informed, punitive public scrutiny has on perceptions of teacher work and the

integrity of teaching as a profession (Johnson et al, 2015). This further underscores the

need for parental engagement in a partnership capacity rather than observer only. A

key challenge within secondary school settings, given the prevalent climate of scrutiny

and accountability surrounding teacher work, is to establish a culture through policies,

practices and traditions where teachers, parents and school administrators work

collaboratively (Bernard, 2004; Epstein & Van Voorhis, 2010). Teachers feel valued


and empowered in contexts in which shared collaboration is visible between parents,

schools and local community (Salle, Meyers, Varjas & Roach, 2015). However, the

success of any whole-school model is somewhat limited in current contexts by both

funding and competing systemic agendas surrounding schools.

Gaining insight into teacher wellbeing can assist with furthering understandings

of teacher careers in the 21st century context. It has the capacity to illuminate particular

school contexts that foster appropriate levels of job commitment and, potentially,

inform future directions in terms of preventing stress and burnout (Spilt et al., 2011).

Addditionally, more considered perspectives on school reform, intervention

programmes and impact on classroom climate can also be associated with stronger

insight into teacher wellbeing (Guskey, 2002; Jennings & Greenberg, 2009). In

education, a core tenet of wellbeing lies in teacher role satisfaction. Where teachers

perceive they are competent in their engagement (Darling-Hammond, Chung &

Frelow, 2002), autonomous in their control over curriculum as well as strongly aligned

to the culture underpinning a school environment (Bandura, 2000; Cohen, 2006), their

ability to cope with ongoing heavy reform and scrutiny over their own professional

practice is strengthened.

2.3.3 Teacher Wellbeing and Student Outcomes

The core business of teachers in their shaping of teaching and learning lies in

improving student outcomes. Individuals’ sense of professional morale, engagement

and satisfaction are important factors potentially influencing classroom climate.

Research suggests that teacher perceptions and evaluation of self-competence have the

potential to affect motivation and satisfaction in a positive manner (Caprara et al,

2006). Dweck (2012) suggests that cultivating socially and emotionally competent

teachers can have a variety of positive outcomes. This can be seen in the development

of supportive and encouraging relationships with students; lesson design emphasis on

strengths and abilities; establishing behavioural guidelines that promote intrinsic

motivation; coaching students through conflict situations; encouraging classroom

cooperation; and acting as a role model for appropriate communication and pro-social

behaviours (Jenning & Greenberg, 2009). Their role is thus inherently multi-

dimensional. Schools play a critical role in the lives of young people where the


promotion of social and emotional functioning has been at the forefront of policy

especially given the growing body of evidence confirming the merits of mental health

and wellbeing programmes for adolescents (Penedo & Dahn, 2005). Where teachers

lack the skills to model and manage social and emotional challenges within their work

environment, lower levels of student on-task behaviour and performance are achieved

(Marzano et al, 2003; Bricheno, Brown & Lubansky, 2009). Challenges posed by

student behaviour management are identified in the literature as having the capacity to

inhibit teacher wellbeing (Hagenauer, Hascher & Volet, 2015).

In contrast, where teacher wellbeing levels are strong and they possess the

capacity to manage social and emotional challenges in their environment, it is argued

that student learning is positively affected (Seligman, 2012). Research confirms that

self-awareness and self-management are critical dimensions for teachers and their

ability to cope with the demands of teaching (Jennings & Greenberg, 2009). Where

positivity is regularly experienced, improvements in motivation and coping capacity

can be evident (Fredrickson & Joiner, 2002). However, articulating the relationship

between teacher wellbeing and student academic achievement continues to be a

difficult endeavour given the ambiguous nature of findings and multitude of variables

outside of a teacher’s locus of control (Caprara et al, 2006). It is contended that a strong

sense of teacher self-efficacy and wellbeing is likely to exert a positive influence on

students’ achievements and their own sense of self-efficacy (Bandura, 2006; Mujis &

Reynolds, 2002; Podell & Soodak, 1993) and, naturally, where strong school

collegiality and efficacy permeates within such contexts, higher job satisfaction is

linked with stronger collective wellbeing (Day & Gu, 2009). While it is the

responsibility of principals and their school leaders to empower teachers through the

provision of purposeful professional development, a key challenge lies in the lack of

control principals and school leaders often possess when it comes to implementing

mandatory reform.

2.3.4 Teacher Wellbeing and Leadership Practices

School leaders may impact the wellbeing of teachers for whom they are

responsible. They assist teachers to advance their self-worth by promoting shared

decision-making and developing teacher empowerment in a culture of inquiry (Scott


& Dinham, 2003; Sheppard, Hurley & Dibbon, 2010). Further to this, they are

responsible for micro-systemic factors in schools such as processes and procedures

that have the capacity to facilitate or inhibit teacher wellbeing (McCallum & Price,

2010). Literature in the field points to strong and positive associations between school

leaders’ administrative support and lower retention rates in the profession (Boyd,

Lankford, Loeb, Ronfeldt, Wyckoff, 2011). In a relational sense, school leaders can

provide critical tools for the professional development of their teacher cohorts,

increasing their efficacy and related outcomes (Scribner, 1999; Wagner & French,

2010). Similarly, school leaders can cultivate mistrust among teacher cohorts where

personal relatedness, competence, autonomy and environmental congruence are

diminished (Louis, 2007). For leaders, creating the necessary conditions for trust to be

fostered among teacher cohorts and communities within their context can be especially

challenging given the subjectively diverse nature of each group’s wants and needs.

Teacher experiences of autonomy and competence in their role, especially in

the realm of teaching and learning, can be directly linked with decisions made at the

leadership level within schools. Multiple sources of support for teachers have been

identified regarding teacher management of complexity in their roles. These include

their inner sense of moral purpose, professionalism, professional identity, motivation,

commitment and resilience and ‘professional nourishment’ through the provision of a

quality work environment. While the former need can be tied with individual and

school leaders in school contexts, the latter resides strongly with the principals

themselves (Cranston & Ehrich, 2009; Yang, Ge, Hu, Chi & Wang, 2009). The need

to investigate approaches that build positive, hopeful states in teachers as well as

school leaders may provide a lens into addressing rising stress and burnout levels

within the field of teaching for teachers and school leaders alike (Calabrese, Hester,

Friesen & Burkhalter, 2010).

Dinham and Scott (1998) posit that teacher satisfaction and school leadership

are linked. They contend that within the domain of school leadership, teacher

perceptions of administrative and educational support combined with school

reputation are factors that align with the successful management of schools. Where

teachers experience relatedness to their role and satisfaction within the school contexts

their wellbeing is positively impacted (Niemiec & Ryan, 2009). Relatedness for

teachers aligns with the level of ownership they possess in terms of curriculum,


collegiality and shared engagement with decision-making in school contexts. School

leaders play a critical role in determining the relatedness of teachers to their roles. The

quality of leader-follower relationships can be linked with improved teacher morale

and professional engagement behaviours (Handford & Leithwood, 2013; Podsakoff,

Mackenzie, Moorman & Fetter, 1990; Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2007). Griffith (2004)

highlights the systemic value of principals’ relationships with teachers in terms of

communication, cooperation and collaboration, mutual trust and understanding, as

well as engagement of teachers in individual and group tasks. By establishing

deliberate opportunities for teachers to engage in shared communication, collaboration

and understanding, school leaders effectively establish trust, build capacity and buoy

the wellbeing of the teachers they lead. Duke and Leithwood (1994) identify five

dimensions of strong leadership in educational contexts: 1) building school vision

(Marzano, Waters & McNulty, 2005); 2) offering individualised support; 3)

symbolising professional practices and values; 4) demonstrating high performance

expectations; and 5) developing structures to foster participation in school decisions

(Griffith, 2004; Kirk & Jones, 2004; Sarason, 1990). In contrast, a lack of consultative

process among teachers has been aligned in the literature with disempowerment and

increased attrition levels within schools (Burnard & White, 2008; Krueger, 2000;

Nelson, Caldarella, Adams & Schatzer, 2013). Indeed, the relationship between school

leaders and teacher cohorts is critical to the successful management of schools.

Building and maintaining trusting relationships is a critical foundation for a

positive organisational culture within school contexts (Flores, 2004; Preston, Samford

& Connors 2002). Currently, it is common that school leaders are viewed by teachers

as having some responsibility for the increasing complexity and administrative

workload associated with the role (Cranston & Ehrich, 2009). Therein a point of

tension exists between school leaders and their teacher cohorts. It is important that

teachers are able to align their values and beliefs with the dominant school culture as

this can lead to perceived relatednesswithin the environment (Salanova, Llorens &

Schaufeli, 2011). Teachers’ interactions with their social context are based on their

ability to adopt the external values and regulations contained within the management

of the school as a setting (Vermeulen, Castelijns, Kools & Koster, 2012). Teachers

have a basic, intrinsic need to perceive themselves as competent and autonomous

(Vansteenkiste, Lens & Deci, 2006). Their engagement, relatedness, satisfaction and


personal wellbeing are inextricably linked with the underlying culture of their school

context.

2.3.5 Teacher Wellbeing and Job Satisfaction

When teachers operate in an environment of collegiality, perceived curriculum

and pedagogical autonomy, transparent leadership structures, intrinsic and extrinsic

motivations, positive gains in self-efficacy and wellbeing are evident (Pearson &

Moomaw, 2005). The literature posits a relationship between optimism - namely, the

ability to expect positive outcomes in the face of obstacles - and role satisfaction in

that it serves as an indicator of wellbeing (Karademas, 2006). Societal and systemic

role expectations continue to mediate and impact on teachers’ levels of satisfaction

and, therein, subjective wellbeing.

It is suggested that a variety of sources contribute to teacher stress. These

stressors can include work overload, student behaviour, limited promotional

opportunities, unsatisfactory working conditions, poor relationships with colleagues,

students and administrators, along with a multitude of other factors (Travers & Cooper,

2007). Increased levels of stress and anxiety among teachers can correlate to high

levels of absenteeism, dissatisfaction and attrition (Dee, Henkin & Singleton, 2006;

Hughes, 1990). A 2013 Teaching and Learning International Survey indicated that

Australia ranks fifth worldwide in terms of absenteeism (ACER, 2014). While teachers

are generally satisfied with aspects of their role that pertain to the core business of

teaching and learning, research suggests they are less attracted to issues relating to

work conditions, interpersonal relations and salary, which can affect their sense of role

satisfaction (Crossman & Harris, 2006). Travers and Cooper (2007), in a UK study

surveying 1790 teachers from a cross-section of school types, sectors and teaching

grades, found that the top four sources of pressure that teachers experience in modern

contexts include: lack of government support; environment of constant change; poor

transparency surrounding intended changes; and societies' diminishing respect for the

profession itself. In the current climate, heavy scrutiny and constant change catalysed

in educational reform and policy has the capacity to inhibit teachers’ ability to perform

their ‘best work’ in the classroom, especially if perceptions of a lack of support or role

identification resonate (Lasky, 2005). Furthermore, the need to review who controls


the field of judgment in terms of school and teacher performativity is identified as

having the potential to better encapsulate school and teacher output and potentially

stifle the climate of economic rationalism that appears to underpin the current

education climate (Ball, 2017; Ozga, 2008). Ball (2017) suggests that decisions around

what is judged as well as what criteria of measurement are used to construct targets

will be important in delivering authentic cultures in schools around performance

management and creating teacher confidence in a child-centred approach to reform

and policy implementation.

In a systemic sense, organisations or schools play a critical role in supporting

teachers’ sense of collective efficacy, which can considerably increase teacher job

satisfaction (Caprara, Barbaranelli, Borgogni, & Steca, 2003), and teacher perceptions

of competence. However, much of the research has targeted negative indicators such

as stress, burnout and anxiety that offer little in terms of extending positive growth in

the field. Since 2007, the National Schools Chaplaincy Program has been incepted

across Australian schools. The chaplains in the program are involved in pastorally

caring for the whole school community and building positive relationships with

students, teachers, parents and community (Wright, 2009). As well as offering spiritual

guidance, chaplains can assist in supporting wellbeing across the school context in

conjunction with school leaders or teacher cohorts.

The research of Kreishan and Al-Dhaimat (2015) highlight key links between

teachers’ desire for fulfilment and role satisfaction in educational settings as well as

the positive bearing this can have on student outcomes. When individuals have secure

relationships, they are more likely to explore their environment with confidence and

security, thus enhancing their feelings of competence and autonomy (Moye, Henkin

& Egley, 2005) (Ryan & Patrick, 2001; Soares, Lemos & Almeida, 2005). Teacher

relatedness with their leaders, colleagues and curriculum they teach can provide a

sense of congruence between individuals and their work environment.

2.3.6 Teacher Wellbeing and Relationships

The notion of teacher wellbeing has been commonly associated with deficit

models of support for factors such as stress, burnout and retention. Holmes (2005)

indicates that the thousands of interpersonal experiences teachers are involved with in


their everyday work have the capacity to either foster a sense of wellbeing or sustain

an unhealthy work environment which can have systemic ramifications. While

situational or socio-economic factors surrounding school contexts can impact teacher

wellbeing and retention (Ingersoll & May, 2011), it is also worth noting that individual

characteristics of teachers influence their decisions to remain or leave their workplace

(Boe, Bobbitt & Cook, 1997; Weiss, 1999). In Section 2.2.2 of this chapter, the need

for individuals to experience a sense of connectedness or belonging in their work

context was identified as having positive wellbeing outcomes. Importantly,

perceptions of pressure and support within work environments can be a predictor of

motivation, sense of accomplishment and emotional states (Taylor, Ntoumanis &

Standage, 2008). This in turn affects teacher levels of competence, relatedness to role,

teaching quality and student support (Yoon, 2002). Exploring relatedness means in this

sense to investigate the impact that relationships with colleagues, school leaders and

students can have on teachers’ perceived efficacy.

2.4 TEACHER RELATIONSHIPS

Teachers cultivate relationships with a variety of groups with their school

setting: peers, leaders, students, parents, community and regional stakeholders. This

section of the literature review explores three particular relational dynamics in teacher

to teacher, teacher to leader and teacher to student relationships, drawing links between

improvement of wellbeing in the context of schools.

2.4.1 Teacher-Teacher and Teacher-Leader relationships

Wellbeing is heavily dependent on positive relationships within school settings

with peers, students and local community (Evans & Prillstensky, 2007; Prillstensky,

2005). For school leaders, failure to attend to the relational dimension of high school

interactions can threaten agency and solidarity among teacher cohorts (Edwards-

Groves, Brennan Kemmis, Hardy & Ponte, 2010). Therefore, ensuring that ‘relational

trust’ is something cultivated at the collegial level between teachers and their leaders

is discussed in the literature as vital for sustainable change, achieved through


professional learning cultures exhibiting a shared, reciprocal approach (McLaughlin

& Talbert, 2006).

In a study of six Australian schools and the impact of the implementation of

teacher wellbeing programmes, Roffey (2012) confirmed that relational quality

impacts on resilience and wellbeing within schooling contexts. Teacher perceptions of

quality in their relationships with peers and administrators can impact their wellbeing,

especially when they are challenged with adversity. Relationships among peers and

administrators operate as external resources that can assist with buffering various

challenges. Roffey (2012) suggested that where teachers perceive that their peers are

willing to assist or support in a purposeful manner - whether it is professional or

personal - they too are able to reciprocate. Therefore, collaborative and meaningful

relationships affect teacher relatedness to their roles in schools, eliciting feelings of

satisfaction and self-efficacy (Mitchell & Sackney, 2000; Taylor et al, 2008). The

strength of these relationships can positively affect teacher morale, professional

engagement and wellbeing. Given the constant state of reform and accountability

surrounding education today, relationships with colleagues and school leaders are an

important dimension in change integration and professional adaptation (Langley,

2012) These relationships can be further consolidated through the expression of

gratitude among school leaders and teachers alike (Chan, 2013; Seligman, Steen, Park

& Peterson, 2005).

2.4.2 Teacher-Student Relationships

It is unrealistic to expect students in schools to possess adequate coping skills if

their teachers do not demonstrate and model the same qualities they are demanding of

their students (Henderson & Milstein, 2003). Research in the field of emotion

regulation has primarily focused on students and the need for school and teachers to

implement support programmes to help mitigate or buffer adversity (Tough, 2012;

Durlak, Weissberg, Dymnicki, Taylor & Schellinger, 2011). In a study exploring

emotion regulation and labour management as predictors of teacher burnout, it was

found that teachers’ expression of emotions in the context of classrooms influenced

their instructional manner, classroom management as well as impacting on learner

behaviours (Ghanizadeh & Royaei, 2015).


The following section will outline two teacher wellbeing interventions

highlighting the critical interrelated roles that school leaders, teachers, students,

parents and local community play in driving a successful socio-ecological model.

2.5 TEACHER WELLBEING INTERVENTIONS

With respect to the implementation of proactive wellbeing programmes within

school contexts, the literature identified social-emotional benefits at the school,

teacher, student and community level (McCallum & Price, 2012). For teachers, 46 per

cent of illness is reported as stress-related, a figure well above the national workforce

average (Schleicher, 2018). The expectations that surround the nature of teacher work

in current contexts, such as the multi-faceted role of educator, differentiator, nurturer,

social worker even at times psychologist, further reinforce the need for targeted

wellbeing investments inclusive of teacher welfare (Booth & Samdal, 1997). Teacher

welfare is a critical domain in any whole-school model where curriculum, pastoral care

programmes and behavioural management policies are underpinned by principles of

wellbeing and positive psychology for students, teachers and administrators.

Positive psychology’s emphasis on individual wellbeing and organisational

flourishing has the potential to yield strong outcomes. External factors such as socio-

political contexts, pressures around outcomes and public scrutiny affect the change

process within school contexts and their communities in terms of promoting positive

change (Aubusson, Ewing & Hoban, 2009). Internally within schools, there are two

recognised approaches adopted by school leaders to promote change – ‘bottom-up’

and ‘top-down’. Hallinger (2003) describes this dual intervention approach as being

critical in that schools are to identify whether their identified need is improving

psychological wellbeing of staff or changing the organisational identity.

In a top-down or unilateral model, school leaders lead their teacher cohorts

toward desired organisational goals by establishing time frames, success criteria and,

often, rapid change (Beer, Eisenstat & Spector, 1990). However, proposed change

from top-down has certain inherent limitations. Firstly, it can impact teacher

environmental congruence where change or reform being proposed clashes with

teacher attitudes, values and beliefs. Commitment and investment from teacher cohorts

can therefore be decidedly lower; this is amplified by low transparency or insufficient


breadth of knowledge across teacher cohorts to help sustain proposed models of

change in schools (Beer et al, 1990). Alternatively, bottom-up models are designed to

engage teacher participation in professional learning communities to assist with

moving forward strategic direction in school contexts. School leaders provide time,

funding and opportunities for teacher cohorts to collaborate in a shared decision-

making process. By adopting teacher empowerment as a change management strategy,

school leaders can enhance the intrinsic motivation and professional commitment of

their teacher cohorts (Sagnak, 2012). While organic approaches such as this connote

teacher engagement and are vital in delivering instructional improvement and reform

in schools (Little, 2002), they can similarly lose impetus if the breadth of knowledge

and expertise is limited within the teacher cohorts or vision and direction underpinning

intended policies and decisions are not transparent (Hallinger & Heck, 2002).

2.5.1 Geelong Grammar School

In recent years Geelong Grammar School (GGS) , situated in Melbourne,

Victoria invited 15 Master of Positive Psychology (MAPP) graduates and scholars

from Pennsylvania State University to teach positive psychology skills to 100 faculty

members. The nine-day course – led by Martin Seligman - emphasised resilience,

character strengths, gratitude, positive communication, optimism and practical

application of each of the skills in the teachers’ lives – at the personal and professional

level (Seligman, Ernst, Gillham, Reivich & Linkins, 2009). Staff initially engaged with

professional development training in positive psychology targeted at supporting

teacher wellbeing. Following this, curriculum was developed within ‘Positive

Education’ as a specific subject area that students engaged with at GGS. Seligman and

other specialists affiliated with the area of positive psychology include: Roy

Baumeister and Diana Tice (self-control experts); Raymond Fowler (Chief Executive

of American Psychological Association); Stephen Post (medical ethics expert); Frank

Mosca; Felicia Huppert (Director of The Wellbeing Institute at the University of

Cambridge, UK); Barbara Fredrickson (positive emotions); Christopher Peterson and

Nansoon Park (co-authors of Character Strengths and Virtues); and George Vaillant

(Psychologist and Harvard Professor). They remained in residence to support both

teacher and student programme delivery at the school during its initial year of

implementation.


In recent years, following international recognition, the school has become a

site for professional learning in the field of wellbeing and many schools access the

Positive Education training courses offered annually. The programme now extends

further than teacher and student education to ancillary staff, parents and the local

community itself (Geelong Grammar School Website, 2017). This allows for a more

collaborative, purposeful and sustainable whole-school model. New staff mandatorily

participate in a three-day residential course delivered on site. As well as this, to

continue their engagement and support, each term all staff attend a one-hour session

focused around wellbeing. Teachers complement their curriculum teaching with

intermittent explicit teaching of positive education principles (character strengths,

virtues, growth mindsets, resilience, PERMA), either weekly or fortnightly depending

on the year level. A longitudinal study which surveyed 239 members of GGS teaching

staff (60 per cent male, 40 per cent female) and 175 non-teaching staff (64 per cent

female, 46 per cent male) determined that over a 15-month period participants

possessed more hopeful and positive expectations about future outcomes and had an

increased confidence in their ability to deal with environmental challenges within their

roles (Williams, Kern & Waters, 2015). The study further reported a correlation

between individuals’ perceptions of the virtuous culture operating within the school

site and the happiness of employees. Its recommendation that schools, in a concerted

manner, develop both individual resources (supporting staff) and organisational level

resources (structured programmes) to support employee wellbeing offers a two-

pronged approach in a combined top-down and bottom-up model.

2.5.2 Leafy State High School

Within the proposed site for this research study, Leafy State High School, the

gradual adoption of wellbeing and positive psychology across the school has been a

key endeavour since 2013. Its constantly developing programme is largely informed

by critical theory discussed earlier in the literature review pertaining to wellbeing,

positive psychology and the associated social, emotional, cognitive and academic

outcomes. Another critical influence underpinning its whole-school wellbeing

programme has been the relationship between GGS and Leafy State High School with

respect to the development of a framework, resources and delivery of content. A

notable school with respect to its delivery of holistic positive psychology, GGS has


become internationally recognised in the field and has offered various professional

learning in wellbeing and positive psychology. Approximately 12 staff members from

Leafy State High School have attended the hub over the past five years. While it has

effectively trialled elements of wellbeing and positive psychology within a curriculum

subject area from Years 7-12 and in a pastoral sense among Year Level Coordinators,

a recent push toward delivering like programmes targeted at staff was identified as a

whole-school strategic priority.

To cultivate deliberate support for staff, a Wellbeing Committee was established

in 2014 comprising teachers, the school chaplain, Year Level Coordinators, Heads of

Department and Deputy Principals. Members from the committee along with the

chaplain have been responsible for delivering plenary sessions to the whole staff as

part of the school’s strategic plan. Additionally, a volunteer wellbeing unit on character

strengths, resilience and growth mindsets was conducted with staff over a three-week

period in 2014. In 2015, a focus on mindfulness sought to bolster staff professional

and personal development in the area of wellbeing. Voluntary ‘morning mindfulness’

sessions have been offered on Monday mornings before school since 2016 for teaching

and non-teaching staff, although the participation in this program diminished to just a

handful of participants in 2017. It is difficult to speculate the specific reasons behind

this decline in engagement.

In 2016, Carol Dweck’s (2012) growth mindsets were unpacked with teachers

to foster healthy mindsets when engaging with environmental challenge such as policy

implementation and relationships with students. This was followed by a professional

development session on positive relationships in 2017 where collegial, student and

leadership relationships were explored. A key emphasis for each of the sessions was

the impact for teacher development are a precursor to encouraging the translation of

knowledge and skills to classroom practice. Each workshop delivered spanned

between approximately 60-90 minutes and contributed to the annual Queensland

College of Teachers professional development hours that teachers in Queensland

schools are required to undertake.


2.5.3 Research Questions

While the body of literature relating to wellbeing and positive psychology in

education is targeted primarily at students and curriculum, a gap exists with respect to

targeted wellbeing programmes to support teachers themselves. Given the heightened

pressure around performativity and accountability in current educational contexts, it is

critical that teachers are provided with necessary support to maintain their own

wellbeing as well as model appropriate practice for the students they teach. This study

seeks to investigate the capacity of schools to affect wellbeing by providing teachers

with necessary psychological, social and physical resources to meet internal and

external challenges. Czikszmentihalyi (2002) and Williams et al (2015) attest to the

success of such programmes to support teachers when exposed to various levels of

challenge in their work context. The onus for teachers is to engage with suitable

challenge levels that allow for arousal. Ideally, where there is perceived intrinsic or

extrinsic gain, individuals are able to experience states of ‘flow’ and stable, sustained

wellbeing within their environment.

This study addressed the following research questions to gain stronger insight

into teacher work:


wellbeing?


wellbeing?


2.6 SUMMARY AND IMPLICATIONS

The literature review has outlined the changing nature of teachers’ work in the

21st century. It identified antecedent factors such as workload intensification, workload

complexity, accountability, performativity, school culture and relationships as

affecting the nature of teacher work. A lack of studies that have investigated teacher

perceptions of factors impacting their wellbeing was highlighted as a perceived gap in

the body of literature. It discussed how the intensifying nature of teacher work has

impacted teacher wellbeing and, in many respects, prompted the need for targeted


support programmes to be implemented. The proposed school site for the study is a

unique one in terms of its engagement with positive psychology and wellbeing

development. The capacity of this study to draw upon the views of teachers through

semi-structured interviews can offer significant and relevant data within the field.

These valuable, personal narratives have the ability to inform future directions framing

teacher wellbeing programmes that complement other professional development

agendas.

The next chapter will outline the research design adopted in the study.

Methodology underpinning the study is discussed before case study design, sampling

approaches, data collection procedures and research instruments are then discussed in

relation to the study. Subsequently, data analysis approaches utilised in the study are

outlined with respect to collection procedures, analytical methods, trustworthiness and

potential limitations associated with the data obtained.

Chapter 3: Research Design 47

Chapter 3: Research Design

The purpose of this research was to investigate teachers’ perceptions of factors

affecting their wellbeing within the context of a secondary school setting. This chapter

outlines the qualitative research methodology underpinning this study and provides a

clear rationale with regard to research design. Section 3.1 frames the reasons behind

the adoption of the case study methodology for this study. Firstly, it outlines the

paradigms that inform the research design and relates them to the phenomena

investigated. Next, the reasoning behind the adoption of qualitative designs to address

the research questions is discussed. Section 3.2 outlines the sampling techniques

adopted, detailing participant demographic information, before discussing the setting

for the study. Section 3.3 identifies data collection practices, outlines the semi-

structured interviews as the primary research instrument of the study, and the analysis

methods which were adopted by the researcher when interrogating the data. Section

3.4 discusses ethical considerations relating to the research, trustworthiness of data

obtained and, finally, potential problems and limitations associated with the study

3.1 METHODOLOGY

The methodology underpinning this research was informed by both

interpretivist and constructivist paradigms. The former assumes that reality presented

by participants is inherently subjective and socially constructed (Merriam, 1998),

whilst the latter identifies that participant meaning is derived from current

assumptions about themselves and the world, conflicting assumptions they are

confronted with, and, finally, the context in which an experience occurs (Magolda,

2004). The interactive process in which participants construct their world is

influenced by local contexts and circumstances which, over time, differ and are

subject to change (MacLure, 1993). Therefore, within the constructivist paradigm,

multiple realities are possible and these are context-bound as well as mutually shaped

by the interaction of the knower and known (Lincoln & Guba, 2000). In this study,

the researcher drew upon his own empathy, experience and intuition to build


understanding of the perspectives of a range of participants who shared varied

subjective experiences relating to wellbeing as a phenomenon.

3.1.1 Research Design

This study utilised qualitative rather than quantitative methods to obtain socio-

cultural insight into teacher experiences of work and factors impacting their wellbeing.

Aligning with both constructivist and interpretevist approaches, it sought to gain

natural and realistic insight from participants through an open-ended approach,

contextualised in one specific setting. While qualitative data focuses on smaller

participant samples than quantitative data, the data in the former approach tends to be

detailed and rich (Cohen, Manion & Morison, 2011). Rather than seeking to generalise

findings to a wider population, qualitative research instead attempts to clarify the

thoughts and feelings of participants and to interpret participants’ experiences in the

phenomena of interest in an effort to find explanations for human behaviour (Austin

& Sutton, 2014).

Previous research exploring teacher wellbeing has predominantly adopted

quantitative research instruments to measure the phenomena. An Adelaide study used

survey instruments to gain insight into a large sample of 153 participants (Kern et al,

2014). In Canada, one particular study (Vesely, Saklofske & Nordstokke, 2014) used

a survey instrument in a sample of 49 undergraduate teachers to obtain data around

the correlational impact of deliberate Emotional Intelligence training and individual

wellbeing. Inherently, quantitative research designs have a tendency to miss rich and

thick descriptions or pose constraints to the direction of research (Holloway & Biley,

2011).

Rather than measuring elements such as frequency, causation, correlation or

regression, qualitative research adopts techniques such as description, decoding and

translation to gain an understanding of phenomena. The way in which people interpret

their experiences, construct their worlds, and what meaning they attribute to these

unique experiences are central tenets of qualitative research designs (Cresswell, 2013).

The capacity of qualitative research to offer rich descriptions of events, which could

then be blended and interpreted from multiple positions within the bounded setting of

a school, was particularly suited to the purposes of this study (Cohen et al, 2011;


Corbin and Strauss, 2008). It allows researchers to question and probe participant

experiences to describe problems and factors relevant to the case.

3.1.2 Case Study

The study adopted a case study approach retrieving the personal experiences of

eight secondary school teachers from a single, bounded site. Yin (1998) suggests that

this type of approach allows researchers to address research questions relating to a

phenomenon, especially in terms of how and why it is occurring. It allows for rich and

vivid descriptions of events and enacted experience from the perspective of

participants.

Case study design was a suitable approach for investigating a single entity, thing

or unit bounded to a specific location (Merriam, 1998). In qualitative case study

designs, the role of the researcher makes explicit the patterns of cultural and social

relationships as well as positioning them in an understandable context (Holloway,

1997). For this study, ‘thick descriptions’ regarding wellbeing are viewed from an

experience-based position. Thus, experience, memory and perceptions are seen to be

constructions shaped by various external factors such as teaching experience, age,

gender, level of engagement with professional learning, family and health in general.

In this way, the data offer rich descriptions of perceived multiple realities given that

interpretations are based on participant views and exact words documented during the

study (Shenton, 2004). Participant perspectives provide a situated account that is

specific to their contextual understanding. The interrelationship between the

phenomenon and its contexts is suggested to be an effective, holistic approach to

interpreting data (Stake, 1995). Interpretive research acknowledges that

understanding individual lived experience is a subjective process and, as such, no

single, observable realities exist (Merriam, 1998). Therefore, the goal of this

qualitative research study was to consider participant views of the phenomenon of

teacher wellbeing as being a construction of their social world. To gain deeper

understandings of the phenomenon and teacher perceptions, the investigation closely

attended to patterns and themes that emerged during semi-structured interviews. As

the case is bounded to one location, data yielded are considered representative of this

unique environment.


3.1.3 Descriptive Case Study

To investigate wellbeing as a phenomenon in a real-world context it is important

that the researcher draw upon the unique accounts of participants’ shared experiences.

A descriptive case study seeks to reveal emergent patterns and connections in the

participant data to allow for generalisation and interpretation (Gerring & Cokjocaru,

2016). For this research, descriptive case-study design aided in yielding descriptive

information by extracting the ‘how’ and ‘why’ in participant accounts regarding work-

related practices and systems within the site. Descriptive approaches allowed for

open-ended and in-depth responses during interviews. This was vital given the intent

of this study was to obtain rich, diverse and descriptive accounts of the nature of

teacher work and its related impact on individual professional wellbeing.

3.1.4 Research Questions

The literature review discussed how closer scrutiny and accountability

surrounding the nature of teacher work has correlated with adverse outcomes for

teachers who are at the coalface of reform and policy implementation (Vallie & Buese,

2017). As teachers’ roles continue to increase in workload and intensification, the

need to strengthen understandings around environmental factors that impact on

teacher wellbeing is pertinent. Questions posed in this descriptive case study sought

to focus on participant perception of work-related factors within their context. The

research questions guiding the study were:


wellbeing?


wellbeing?



3.2 RESEARCH SETTING

Leafy State High School is a school with approximately 1460 students across

years 7-12 and a cohort of approximately 108 teaching staff. Situated in a metropolitan

district in Australia, it is a school which, during the period of 2013-2016, increased

its teaching cohort size by 24 per cent. Since 2012, the student ICSEA (Index of

Community Socio-Educational Advantage) distribution in the top quarter is reported

as being above 50 per cent. The ICSEA is a tool used to measure the socio-economic

advantage surrounding school contexts. The school is located in a mid-high socio-

economic region. It can be characterised as possessing sparsely landscaped grounds,

extensive sporting facilities and a number of signature cultural, academic and

citizenship programmes.

3.3 PARTICIPANT SELECTION

Purposive sampling is a non-probability approach used to select participants for

the study (Teddlie & Yu, 2007). Participants were selected based on the meeting of

criteria deemed appropriate for this research. Prior to conducting the study, the

researcher determined the need for the sample to represent a diverse range in terms of

age, gender, years of experience and area of expertise. As a technique, this allowed

the researcher to identify individuals who were not only willing to engage with the

phenomenon relating to the study but who also possessed a range of knowledge and

experience with respect to this area given their varied engagement with in-service

professional development within the school site (Cresswell & Plano Clark, 2011).

These criteria allowed the researcher to delineate respondents according to their

suitability.

Given the changing nature of teacher work, especially over recent decades, for

there to be integrity in the representativeness of the sample, participants selected

needed to embody scope from ‘early career’ to ‘experienced’ to ‘veteran’ teachers.

Age as a determinant for managing workload factors was a further factor in participant

selection. In this sense, the participant group was grouped into Baby Boomer and

Millennial generations that ranged from 25 to 65 years in age. To gain perspectives

across a variety of subject areas, the selected participant group encompassed Maths,

Science, English, Arts, Physical Education and Social Science faculty areas. Variation


in descriptions of the phenomena can therefore be exhibited given the scope of this

wider reaching participant sample. While the percentage breakdown of male and

female teachers in Australian secondary schools heavily favours females over males

(ratio 3:2), the gender breakdown at the school site represented a closer divide

between the two groups. It was entirely by coincidence that the final participant group

selected for the study who met the requisite age, years of experience, area of expertise

represented a five male and three female fraction in terms of its composition. De-

identified lists of potential volunteers highlighting age, teaching experience and

subject expertise were provided to the researcher’s supervisors for assistance in the

sample selection to negate the propensity for potential bias. The finalised selections

of participants met the pre-planned criteria and did not work directly under the

researcher’s supervision.

3.4 PARTICIPANTS

Prior to the study’s commencement, permission was sought from the Principal

to email teaching staff before a recruitment document (Appendix A) was distributed

providing contextual information, likely span of study, sample questions and an

opportunity to nominate to participate. Patton (2002) explains that the devising of

sample size should align with what the researcher wants to know, the purpose of the

inquiry itself, what will be useful, what will have credibility and, finally, what can be

achieved with available time and resources. These valid considerations underpinned

the construction of the sample size for this study.

The purpose of the inquiry was to gain understandings into teacher wellbeing

by interviewing a cross-section of participants to allow breadth and credibility in the

findings. Participants in this study were drawn from teaching staff at Leafy State High

School who were all invited to participate. The small size of the selected participant

group is accounted for in techniques adopted in purposive sampling. Of the 16

teachers who volunteered to participate, eight were selected after applying purposive

sampling. They were selected according to set criteria: gender, years of experience

and teaching expertise. In case study designs, it is the cross-section of participant

range which is most valuable rather than volume of participants. Pertinent

demographic information for each participant is provided in Table 3.1.


Table 3.1 Participant Demographics

NAME GENDER AGE EXPERIENCE

Gerald M 25-35 years 8-13 years

Ronald

Talan

M

M

25-35 years

25-35 years

8-13 years

5-8 years

Jasmine F 55-65 years 30-40 years

Faith F 55-65 years 30-40 years

Marcia F 20-30 years 5-8 years

Harry M 35-45 years 15-20 years

Dante M 25-35 years 5-8 years

For the purposes of ensuring anonymity of the school site where the study was

conducted, age brackets have been broadened and specific teaching areas are omitted.

3.4.1 Role of the researcher at Leafy State High School

The researcher, who has been a teacher within this context for seven years,

engaged in certain strategies to maintain his distance from influencing data. For

example, one strategy undertaken over the course of the study was to not attend

meetings of the Wellbeing Committee. Given that the researcher had been a member

of this committee prior to the study and occupies a leadership position as a HOD at

the school, this influence was mitigated where possible to ensure integrity in data

obtained. Participants volunteered to participate in the study and staff members who

fell directly under the line of management of the researcher were excluded from the

selection group pool. To strengthen this process, steps were taken to encourage

participants to engage in interviews off campus.


3.4.2 Data Collection

This study employed semi-structured interviews as the primary data collection

method. Participants were interviewed twice. Allowing for two separate junctures for

interview scheduling meant the researcher could transcribe and commence

preliminary analysis of emerging patterns and themes before revising and constructing

the focus for the second interview. Furthermore, this approach enabled the revealing

of nuanced and in-depth descriptions of participants’ real world experiences

associated (Cohen et al, 2011). The capacity for data sets from each to allow for

comparability as well as assess teacher wellbeing over different junctures in the school

calendar year was also a motivating factor behind this decision.

Data collection took place during the four-month period between July and

November in 2016. Both interviews (Term 2, July and Term 4, November) took place

over a two-week period within the school term and followed an identical process.

Each participant was asked questions that were standard across all interviews. In

addition, supplementary questions for individual participants were posed depending

on the content direction of the interview, at the discretion of the researcher. In

preparation for the second phase of interviews, the researcher was able to construct

supplementary questions - in addition to the standard range - for each participant based

on unique data that emerged during their first interview.

3.4.3 Instrument: Semi-Structured Interviews

The study adopted individual semi-structured interviews as an instrument rather

than focus groups for a variety of reasons. While a degree of convenience, propensity

for discussion and wider range of responses can be associated with the latter approach,

it can also be a forum where certain individuals can dominate proceedings (Arksey &

Knight, 1999). Further, antagonism and reticence can be present among colleagues

involved depending on the group dynamic (Cohen et al, 2011) and this can diminish

the rich descriptions intended to be captured within the study. Importantly, it is noted

that the topic of wellbeing can be surrounded by various sensitivities for teachers,

therefore individual interviews were appropriate vehicles to adopt in this study.

The researcher should observe, listen, direct and redirect the flow of participant

content as it emerges during the interview; this is a strength of the process. The


security, flexibility and personalisation synonymous with individual semi-structured

interviews has the ability to yield more authentic and open accounts from participants

(Galletta & Cross, 2013). The researcher was able to gain further insight into the world

of the participant through posing additional and open questions where necessary.

Moreover, researchers through this instrument method are able to clarify statements

made with participants as well as probe for further content at their own discretion

(Bloomberg & Volpe, 2012). Participants’ frame of reference regarding their world

and what they believe to be true is captured within interviews; however, these

perceptions are not to be construed as facts. Yin (1998) affirms that responses

provided by participants in flexible environments such as individual semi-structured

interviews offer more definitive insight into attitudes and perceptions compared with

other research instruments.

Two semi-structured interviews were conducted with each participant between

June and November 2016. Semi-structured interview approaches allowed broader

stories to be elicited, allowing for a balance of content that participants and researcher

perceive as relevant to the research inquiry (Magolda, 2004). The first interview –

conducted in weeks 2 and 3 of Term 2 - enquired broadly into teacher understanding

and perceptions of wellbeing, with a particular emphasis on school culture and

practices. Research articulates that wellbeing for teachers fluctuates at various stages

of the year and this can be dependent on a multitude of factors impinging on their

world at any point in time (McCallum & Price, 2010). While other research

approaches may have interviewed participants more regularly over the course of the

year, this particular study sought to capture participant perceptions during the second

half of the school year in two distinct junctures. Regardless, data obtained through

two separate interviews had the capacity to reflect divergence; comparability

represented in each snapshot would inform the data analysis which followed. Data

from the first interviews informed the development of questions for the second

interviews.

The researcher posed a range of standard questions as well as additional

questions across each interview to elicit both comparability and authenticity in the

data (Minichiello, Aroni & Hays, 2008). According to Rowley (2012), question design

in interviews must avoid: leading or implicit assumptions; including two questions in

one; inviting yes/no answers; vagueness or generalised views and, finally,


invasiveness for participants in any way. Questions that are developed must be

grounded in the literature and open-ended in their nature to elicit authentic, lived

experience (Jacob & Furgerson, 2012). This technique allows participants to best

voice their experiences unconstrained by any perspectives of the researcher or past

research findings (Cresswell, 2014). The framework used with respect to semi-

structured interviews is identified in Appendix B. Questions posed within the

interviews required broad scope in their approach. The initial interview questions

were designed to prompt participants to comment on their general understanding of

wellbeing and its role within the school site. Some examples of the types of questions

posed at the first interview include:

1. What factors within your own environment have the capacity to enhance

your sense of wellbeing?

2. In your years of teaching experience, how has the role changed in terms of

workload?

3. To what extent do you feel a sense of accomplishment at your work?

Once the first interviews were transcribed they were sent to participants for member

checking. No adjustments were required in any of the transcription data. Each

interview was transcribed by the researcher in the first phase to allow for complete

immersion in the data. The researcher was then able to gauge preliminary themes

emerging in the data as well as compose further questions for the second interview

later during the year in November. The purpose of this second interview was to build

on, compare and contrast data pertaining to changes in participants’ wellbeing at a

different juncture of the school year. Additionally, key sub-categories which had

emerged during the first interview such as school culture, teacher preparation time,

job security and performativity were targeted during the second interview. The

following are examples of questions posed during the second interview with

participants:

1. How does your classroom performance impact your wellbeing?

2. In your own work life, do you have the opportunity to express gratitude?

3. Is the climate of expectation around teacher work today different to when

you began teaching?


Unique to qualitative studies is the capacity to engage participants in reflection

about meanings, emotions, experiences and relationships (Weiss, 1994). The

researcher actively engaged in supportive listening, probing and developing rapport

to encourage in-depth discussion (Baxter & Babbie, 2003) while simultaneously

ensuring that the environment, confidentiality, non-judgment and appropriate external

support opportunities were accessible for participants should discomfort be caused

through the sharing of experience or evocation of emotions. The researcher conducted

interviews at a mutually agreed location to diminish any associated discomfort of

sharing within the physical environment of the school site. Topics were selected in

advance and questions were drafted prior to the first and second interview phase

(Appendix B).

It is acknowledged that in flexible interview approaches the interaction between

the interviewer and interviewee influences data obtained given that interviewers

subjectively pose supplementary questions based on content direction while

interviewees are faced with the professional dynamic of sharing personal information

with a researcher who is also a colleague. Importantly, the openness and eliciting of

experience with the individual semi-structured interview can also catalyse cathartic

reactions from participants due to its therapeutic nature (Hutchinson, Wilson &

Wilson, 1994). Further, these methods have the capacity to raise self-awareness

among participants, strengthen their understanding of their context, attain a sense of

purpose and even affect their thinking patterns (Rosetto, 2014). Following each

interview, participants were provided with a copy of the transcript and had the

opportunity to confirm or add detail to any statements as well as request changes to

be made to the transcript. Over the course of the study no changes were requested by

participants.

3.5 DATA ANALYSIS

Data collected over the 16 (8 x 2) individual interviews provided detailed, rich

content that was analysed largely through inductive reasoning. After the first phase of

transcription of the interview data was complete, each participant was provided with

the transcription documents to confirm accuracy in recorded data. Maykut and

Morehouse (1994) suggest that the recognisable reality of data obtained from


interviews importantly rests upon participant confirmation of validity in this stage of

the research process. Following this, an open coding approach was applied (Cohen et

al, 2011). This involved the researcher immersing himself in the data by breaking

down segments of text, comparing and categorising words, phrases, sentences and

chunks of paragraphs to allow grouping of content from patterns and the frequency of

certain linguistic elements that emerged in the data. Content analysis allowed the

researcher to ascribe themes and sub-themes based on the emergent groupings of

content and make generalisations regarding the frequency of certain codes and

conclusions that could be drawn.

This technique influenced the composition of the second phase interview

questions both broadly and uniquely to each participant. This inductive approach to

categorising data to inform the conceptual framework of the study was replicated after

each phase of the interviews. For validity purposes, observed patterns and themes

emerging in the data and shared judgments (Bloomberg & Volpe, 2012) made

regarding their inter-relatability underwent a ‘peer debriefing’ process with both the

Principal and Associate Supervisors. To gauge the fidelity of processes adopted

during the first phase of content analysis, the researcher met face-to-face with both

the Principal and Associate Supervisors to share identified patterns, themes and

inductions made in the coding process to confirm accuracy of process and strengthen

understandings of data. The following sections outline the analytical approaches

adopted during this process.

3.5.1 Analysis Methods

Following the transcription phases, the researcher applied thematic analysis to

determine key themes emerging in the data. The transcription phase allowed the

researcher to intimately familiarise himself with the data; the subsequent

classification, coding and analysis meant that rich and detailed accounts of the data

were articulated (Braun & Clarke, 2006; Merriam, 2009). For convenience and time,

the researcher outsourced the transcription of the second phase of interviews.

Initially, the researcher read each of the transcriptions before generating

preliminary lists of ideas, notions and broad categories of content evident in the data.

This allowed the researcher to gain a general sense of the data accrued through

identification of categories and themes that would influence question design for the


second phase of the interviews (Cresswell, 2014). Accordingly, key content that

emerged was segmented, labelled and colour-coded with highlighter to indicate

potential patterns (Braun & Clarke, 2006). During this phase, the researcher

considered the prevalence of references to specific categories and themes so that an

accurate picture of the data set could be determined.

According to Morse (2015), coding systems are a desirable technique for

researchers using semi-structured interviews. It assists researchers to make sense of

the data through segmenting and labelling text that allows the formation of

descriptions and makes visible broad themes in the data (Cresswell, 2014; Coffey &

Atkinson, 1996). Given the research questions aimed to identify contributing and

inhibiting factors affecting teacher wellbeing, key words, phrases, anecdotes and other

evidence relevant to the research questions were highlighted and segmented during

this phase of the data analysis. Thematic analysis focuses on the content, patterns and

relationships between patterns or themes that emerge, with a particular emphasis on

links between participant accounts (Chabi, Khoubi & Ahmed, 2011; Merriam, 2009).

Participant responses were compared question by question to identify patterns and

themes in participant accounts. Braun and Clark (2006) suggest that this type of

semantic or explicit level of inquiry means data is organised to show patterns in

content, interpretation and a theorising of these patterns in relation to their broader

meaning and implications according to the literature in the field.

Content analysis allowed for the following: a condensing of extensive and

varied data; the establishing of clear links between research objectives and findings;

and developing of a model or theory that underpins the experiences prevalent in the

data (Thomas, 2006). By identifying, analysing and reporting patterns that emerged

within data (Braun & Clarke, 2006), generalised links were made between teachers’

perceptions and related processes or practices affecting wellbeing within the school

site to ensure alignment with the research questions. Participant perspectives obtained

represented a diverse range of teaching experience, which enhanced the richness of

the data (Williams & Morrow, 2009). Categories and themes were then refined to

allow for clearer demarcations and heterogeneity. The researcher then attempted to

present the story of the data by presenting each theme and sub-theme clearly and

complementing this material with vivid examples of participant experiences (Braun


& Clarke, 2006). This assisted in building the argument around school practices and

teacher wellbeing that is analysed in Chapter 5.

3.5.2 Ethical Considerations

Prior to the commencement of the study, ethics approval was granted from the

University Human Research Ethics Committee of the Queensland University of

Technology (Appendix C) under Ethics Approval Number 63970. Before the first

phase of interviews was conducted, steps were undertaken by the researcher to provide

transparency and opportunity to staff members within Leafy State High School. First,

approval was sought from the school principal before sending a recruitment email to

all teaching staff providing contextual information regarding the study and inviting

voluntary participation. The 16 volunteer responses were de-identified and placed in

a table indicating age bracket, gender and teaching expertise before mitigating

potential bias in selections by sharing with the researcher’s supervisors. Consent

forms were then issued containing key information pertinent to confirming their

engagement in the study, including:

1. Description of intended purpose of project;

2. Outline of anticipated expectations surrounding participant engagement in

study;

3. Expected benefits individually and as a whole school;

4. Potential risks; and

5. Privacy and confidentiality protocols to be upheld over the course of the

study.

It was important that transparency in information be provided to participants during

the recruitment stage, consent stage and indeed throughout the study to ensure

trustworthiness and integrity in process as well as data through the study. Participants

were provided with the option of removing themselves from participation at any time

prior to publication. Inconvenience, discomfort and potential anxiety may have been

caused through engagement with the interviews, so it was deemed important that the

researcher ensured he listened closely and read non-verbal cues during the process of

interviews. Further, participants were offered external support through QUT services

throughout the study should they experience harm in any way, shape or form.


It is important to note that the researcher’s position as a fellow teacher and

Head of Department within Leafy State High School may have affected the range of

volunteer participants. While the researcher sought, during the purposive sampling

stage, to eliminate participants that were directly under his leadership, there was still

potential for caution in revealing personal information and experiences among the

participants who were engaged in the study. All participants were notified from the

outset that their experiences shared would be de-identified by fictionalising their

names, broadening their age bracket and omitting their subject discipline areas to

protect their identities.

3.5.3 Trustworthiness of Data

The researcher inevitably discerns what will be included in the case study’s

report knowing that it will be compared with others (Stake, 1995). A significant

challenge for any qualitative researcher lies in ensuring the highest possible quality

when conducting and reporting research, especially with respect to credibility and

trustworthiness (Baxter & Jack, 2008). The length of engagement with the phenomena

during the study spanned a four-month period from July-November 2016. During this

period, the researcher had extensive contact with participants through conducting 16

interviews which were assessed for possible areas of distortion and identification of

saliences (Schwandt, Lincoln & Guba, 2007). While it is difficult to ascertain credible

sample sizes given the nature of the phenomenon and paucity of information relating

to teacher wellbeing, the selection of eight participants over two interviews allowed

for sufficient variation, depth and representation of wellbeing within participants’

experiences (Morse, 2015). Time spent on data collection by the researcher within the

setting established stronger trust with participants and was further strengthened

through the application of member-checking process and a sense of intimacy in the

data.

The researcher ensured that all transcriptions following interviews were

provided to participants to confirm their legitimacy as a reconstruction of their

accounts during the interviews. Data obtained through the study were extensive and

representative of a cross-section of age, gender, teaching experience and subject

discipline within the context of the school site. This type of approach allowed for the

context to be more fully understood based on a range of participant data and, as well


as this, underlying patterns and overlapping content were identified, providing thick,

rich descriptions to inform the research questions posed. In reporting the findings of

the qualitative study, the researcher described how interpretations and conclusions

were drawn by demonstrating explicit links in participant quotes in the data as well as

thematic patterns of agreeance across participant narratives (Bazeley, 2009).

Authentic representations of participant emotions, experiences, attitudes and

perceptions are therefore made accessible to readers through a descriptive approach,

adding further validity to the reporting and interpretations of findings.

Importantly, while steps were taken to ensure the anonymity of participants

involved in the study it is understood that due to the small sample size and possible

associations of research content with the school name this risk has not been

completely mitigated. Specific information regarding teacher areas of expertise as

well as broad age and experience categories do serve to de-identify participants.

Furthermore, the school is referred to pseudonymously as being situated in an east

Australian metropolitan high school and thus various identifiable elements are

omitted. Finally, risk has been further mitigated by the fact that, during the period of

time the researcher has been writing this particular thesis, he has been employed in

two different schools.

The literature review revealed a paucity of literature currently exists in the field

of teacher wellbeing. Results from this particular study highlight unique experiences

of teachers within a single high school context, allowing for generalisations to be

made by the researcher regarding wellbeing as a phenomena (Sandelowski, 1986).

Similar research intent is transferrable to other contexts, including - but not limited to

- Independent and Catholic sectors of high school education or even within remote

Queensland secondary schools. Further longitudinal studies may track teacher

wellbeing over extended periods of time, such as beginning teachers in their first five

years of service, to induce salient environmental factors that are unique to this

particular group in education.

3.5.4 Limitations and Potential Problems

Qualitative case study design was the most appropriate method when

considering the research questions posed in this study. While planning and

preventative measures were taken where possible to minimise problems, it is


acknowledged that certain limitations were evident within the study that have

potentially impacted the research findings. Given that the case was within a single

bounded site, the range in terms of comparability of findings is suitably restricted to

experiences in this context. However, the rich data obtained from the study can be

translated to other school sites should further research adopt a similar research design

approach. The scheduling of interviews outside of classroom practice posed an

additional concern in terms of inconvenience for participants involved. They were

twice engaged in one-on-one interviews that spanned between 45-50 minutes during

busy periods of the year in the beginning of Term 3 and late Term 4 of 2016. Finally,

while it is acknowledged that findings obtained through this study provide unique

insight into the context of the school site, these findings, however, cannot be

generalised to other school settings.

3.6 SUMMARY

This chapter has outlined the qualitative research design that underpinned this

study. It articulated that the research was situated within interpretivist and

constructivist paradigms and therein conveyed the reasoning behind the selection of

case study research. Methods adopted regarding participant selection, data collection,

instrument design and analysis were described clearly before ethical considerations

and potential limitations were explained. The descriptive nature of this type of case

study combined with the adoption of semi-structured interviews allowed for open,

authentic and rich data to emerge. Overall, the intent of the study to capture teacher

perception of factors affecting their wellbeing within the context of high schools was

achieved through this descriptive yet relatively small-scale research approach.

Chapter 4: Results 65

Chapter 4: Results

4.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter presents the findings arising from the participant teachers’ perceptions

of factors impacting upon their work wellbeing. The findings from the data reveal

several key areas affecting teacher wellbeing within the context of a secondary school

setting that are relevant for consideration as well as further investigation in different

school contexts. The study aimed to address the following research questions:


wellbeing?


wellbeing?


Section 4.2 focuses on identifying themes that emerged during the study. Section 4.3

focuses on school culture, in particular school processes and school leadership, and

suggests how these factors can impact teacher wellbeing states. Section 4.4 focuses

on institutional policies, school accountability and the potential to impact teacher

wellbeing states. Finally, 4.5 explores the critical role of positive relationships in

school contexts to support teacher wellbeing and the related impact on their wellbeing

states.

4.2 FINDINGS

Three overarching themes emerged from the data. These themes are: school

culture, institutional processes and teacher relationships. School culture relates to

rituals and practices that exist within the school context, including: teacher wellbeing

support approaches; school leadership; and teacher workload. Institutional processes

refer to the impact of educational reform, performativity and accountability for school

and the changing role of teacher work as a consequence of ongoing change within the

field. Teacher relationships refers to teacher perceptions of the value of their


relationships with students and colleagues, as well as their perceived sense of

belonging within the context of a secondary school setting.

Table 4.1: Sub-Themes and Themes relating to Teacher Wellbeing

Sub-Themes Themes

School Leadership

Whole-school vision for wellbeing

Structural leadership (top-down

and bottom-up models)

Cultural, political and economic

imperative

Role autonomy

Early Career Teacher (ECT)support

Job security; workload; coping

School Culture

This theme refers to the unique work-

related cultural practices underpinning the

school. School leaders as well as teachers

are responsible for the propagation and

cultivation of the vision and values of a

school. Participants identified key

challenges such as poor transparency,

diminished role autonomy, workload

intensity and workload complexity as

negatively impacting wellbeing.

Institutional Processes/Factors

Changing nature of teaching role

(sense of competence)

Administrative workload

School accountability

Institutional Processes

This theme relates to the changing

landscape of performativity, accountability

and the inherent issues for teachers’ sense

of competence where accountability

platforms such as NAPLAN and APST

could lead to a reduction in technical

control and resultant deskilling of the

workforce.

Teacher Relationships

Teacher - Teacher

Teacher – Student

Teacher - Leader

Sense of Belonging

Teacher Relationships

This theme refers to the multi-dimensional

nature of teacher relationships in their work

environments. The integrity of these

relationship dynamics was linked with

supporting teacher relatedness to their role

and meeting the variety of challenges to

their wellbeing.


4.2.1 Themes: School Culture

School culture was a key theme that emerged in the data. In a broad sense,

school culture is linked with values, teacher commitment and policy management

(Ball et al, 2012). Participants related school culture to the effectiveness of school

leaders to provide support for their teachers against growing complexities surrounding

their roles. Complexities described by participants include the use of data to support

teachers, management of teacher support programmes, increase in administrative

workload, professional development direction and employment security for Early

Career Teacher and Contract Teacher roles within the school. Categorically, each of

these work-related factors aligned with at least one of the concepts of relatedness,

autonomy and competence. For example, references made by participants to “admin”,

“being judged”, “audits”, “public scrutiny”, “short-term fixes”, “doing this role for

the benefit of students” and “departmental” structures in schools reflect teacher

relatedness to their professional roles. References such as “a deputy who had 25 other

jobs”, “[accessing] resources or whatever you need to do your job properly”,

“deadlines”, “housekeeping”, “administrative processes”, “write down that

differentiation strategy”, “[people] keen to take leadership roles within it

[implementation of Australian Curriculum]” are aligned with perceptions of

autonomy in teaching and learning dimensions of teacher work. Finally, participant

references to “feeling that I’m contributing”, “gratitude”, “preparedness for class” as

well as “structures of decision that are in put in place that contradict basic [teacher]

values” can be aligned with perceptions of competence in the role.

Ronald described how a significant amount of professional development during

his eight years at the school had felt essentially “meaningless” in that he seldom felt

he came away with something of significance to introduce into his professional

practice (Interview 2). He related the following perceived intent of the leadership team

within the school:

I think PD [professional development] is driven by admin [administration/senior leadership group] to achieve better data because while I don’t think I’m being judged on my data I know they are… (Ronald, Interview 2).

External pressures placed upon school leaders to deliver quality performance

outcomes inevitably impact their professional development approach in school

contexts. Most participants indicated a nexus between the intent of certain mandated


professional development and its relevance to core business of teaching and learning.

Gerald suggested that the intent of leaders can become “blurry” very quickly in

schools given the “expectations”, structures and “different competing interests” that

surround their roles (Interview 2). The capacity of leadership teams to effectively

articulate whole school vision around wellbeing, while at the same time pushing back

on other reform imperatives, were further findings that emerged from the study.

Overarching political and economic imperatives - personified in neo-liberal

performativity reform models - affect the leadership, management and culture within

schools. Importantly, teachers perceive this economic rationalism as serving to

depersonalise the role and diminish the quality of their work. While school leaders are

seen as key conduits, buffering against the intensification of teacher roles embodied

within reform and policy, this study highlighted inherent weaknesses in top-down

approaches adopted within the site school. Top-down refers to the establishing of

workforce expectations around outcomes, performativity and teacher practice.

Jasmine in particular cautioned against accountability measures adopted by school

leaders comparing teacher performance through what she perceived as narrow data in

achievement reporting. Jasmine describes the impact of approaches to teacher

performativity in the following statement:

I remember clearly …that week …getting that piece of paper [regarding teacher comparison performance data] when it became public … classroom teachers were distressed because the way it was delivered… People's wellbeing was not considered… (Jasmine, Interview 2).

Harry, Talan, Jasmine, Ronald and Gerald described how a lack of clarity from

school leaders in their top-down approach to embedding wellbeing across the school

was similarly flawed in its delivery. Gerald, Ronald and Faith acknowledged in

particular the conflicting role that faces school leaders whereby they are incremental

forces in shaping school culture but their accountability to ascribed performance

indicators, standards and benchmarks can be disruptive in terms of promoting a

positive professional environment for teachers. Gerald, a former primary school

teacher himself, described the secondary environment as “data-driven” or

“achievement-driven” where easily measurable data sets such as ‘A’ and ‘B’

improvements are emphasised at the expense of other indicators of outcomes

(Interview 2). Factors such as student engagement, attitude and perceptions of school

elicited stronger value and impact on teacher wellbeing than “arbitrary achievement”


data (Gerald, Interview 2). For Ronald, it appeared that while the agenda underpinning

these leadership approaches was “to achieve better data” the reality was that the result

was to “implement short-term fixes, get good data and then forget about it” from a

teacher point of view (Interview 2).

Teachers’ perception of competence, role relatedness and autonomy is

affected by decisions made at the school leadership level. This study brought to the

fore the value of strong relationships between colleagues as well as with leaders.

Interestingly, for one group in particular – Early Career Teachers – notions such as

job security and workload management were described as critical factors that can

impact their wellbeing. The role of leadership teams to develop and cultivate school

culture will be outlined in the following section.

4.2.1.1 Teacher Wellbeing in High School Contexts

Participants identified positive elements within the culture of the school such

as outdoor camps, collegial relationships, community relationships and student

relationships that were unique to its context and positively affecting their wellbeing.

However, many participants felt overwhelmed at times by the continuing extension of

duties expected of teachers outside of their classroom practice. Over the course of the

year participants described their wellbeing levels as fluctuating. Faith described the

feeling of being on “parallel paths” which “detract from wellbeing in the way” that

“is not productive” (Interview 1). Most of the participants cited contributing factors

such as assessing, planning and administrative compliance as causing their fluctuating

state of wellbeing (Jasmine, Interview 1, Faith, Interview 1, Ronald, Interview 1,

Marcia, Interview 1, Gerald, Interview 1). In particular, Gerald described the feeling

of not being in control at times due to “outside structures” in the school environment

affecting “preparedness” for classes which can snowball into a variety of other issues

such as the “level of engagement of students”, “behaviour management problems”

and feeling of a lack of efficacy in terms of teacher practice (Gerald, Interview 1).

While assessment and planning were described as necessary or even fundamental

aspects of the role, all participants described administrative duties associated with

their roles as negatively affecting their wellbeing. Frustration was allotted to both

school leaders and systemic processes within the discourse of education that governed

their role.


Although the school has begun establishing a reputation for delivering whole-

school wellbeing, some participants (Faith, Gerald, Talan, Harry and Ronald)

perceived a lack of real nurture toward staff being prevalent in the context of the

school which was at odds with the public narrative articulated to the external

community. For Jasmine, a teacher who has spent a considerable part of her career

within Leafy State High School, inconsistencies in the public narrative espoused were

described as “frustrating” and aligned misrepresentation and “institutional lie” with

the leadership of wellbeing within the school (Interview 2). In this study, participants

described institutional factors around outcomes, performativity and accountability for

teachers as affecting their workload balance as well as perceptions of role relatedness,

autonomy and competence. For Jasmine, it appeared important that the message to the

community be an authentic one – namely, teachers’ wellbeing in the current climate

can be challenged by aspects of educational reform and policy. Her long-term tenure

at the school suggests she has experienced a range of differing cultural and systemic

change and therefore her reflections on the current educational climate are important

to consider. Relating to the need for a nurturing environment, Gerald acknowledged

his experience in a “culture of care” at a primary school previously as facilitating

strong collegiality and positive school culture. He went on to compare his previous

experience at the primary school with the culture within Leafy State High School

where “competing interests” and “blurry” approaches adopted by school leaders

appeared to “contradict …basic values” of what schools should “try to achieve within

the work environment” and this in turn impacted upon teacher “wellbeing heavily”

(Gerald, Interview 1). For participants such as Gerald, Ronald, Faith, Harry, Talan

and Jasmine, this perceived contradiction challenged their understanding of the

overarching school vision regarding the support of teacher wellbeing. Importantly,

most of the participants sympathised in some respects with the increasingly complex

and seemingly compromised position of school leaders to provide clarity in direction

given external pressures outside of school contexts that impact local decision-making.

4.2.2 School Leadership: Whole-School Vision and Teacher-Focused Imperative

Participants highlighted concerns regarding the need for teachers to meet

external priorities imposed by school leaders – under the auspices of policy makers -


such as performativity and professional standards. Marcia highlights how the two

systems work in a complex way within the high school environment:

I …feel it comes and goes [heightened workload]… there always seems to be some sort of change, whether it comes from the department that there’s been a new syllabus written, or just at the school ‘we’re going to take this approach instead’ …you always seem to feel like you’re having to rewrite things so that makes it difficult …there is a lot of administration processes just to prove you’re doing your job …write down what differentiation you are doing …write really detailed overview …I don’t know if it is making a difference necessarily to your job (Marcia, Interview 1).

With the nature of teaching and expectations surrounding their work intensifying,

efforts to support teacher welfare within the school were identified by some as lacking

in execution and priority. With respect to teaching and learning, some participants

identified a “lack of preparation time” (Ronald, Interview 2, Jasmine, Interview 1 and

Gerald, Interview 2) as affecting classroom practice and teacher wellbeing. Overall,

participants ascribed value to previous engagement with wellbeing in-services at the

school. They conveyed the need for school leaders to consider a clearer approach to

professional development tied with agreed strategic focus areas among staff, school

leader and community alike.

Further concerns were identified regarding current approaches by school leaders

to applying quantitative data measures to assess teacher performance. One particular

example referred to the practice of Heads of Department being provided with

comparative data regarding teachers within their faculties to highlight the similarities

and differences in student achievement. Jasmine viewed this approach as an

ineffective method of forcing underperforming teachers to reflect on practice based

on narrow data sets. She linked the competitive nature behind these practices as

devaluing the role and nature of teaching.

I have a Masters. I know a little bit about data, and I know quantitative data is one category of data. I have never won the battle in this school arguing that beside the quantitative we must put the qualitative, because the quantitative is easy, obviously, to deal with. The qualitative is so much more complex, but we are in the business of people, we are not in the business of numbers. Then and now, and all the period between, I do not believe we have ever given enough, placed enough importance on the backstories behind the quantitative data (Jasmine, Interview 1).

It appears that the challenging nature of teacher work can be intensified by constant

scrutiny of teacher performance where arbitrary quantitative measuring tools largely


dominate educational enquiry. Participants suggest it is important that a range of

measuring tools are utilised – both quantitative and qualitative – in order to gain the

full picture of teacher performance. Further to this, Harry and Jasmine presented a

belief that leaders and policy makers need to focus more on the ‘human element’

behind the data from a strengths-based standpoint rather than identifying deficits and

requesting rectification from teachers. Both Harry and Jasmine are in positions of

leadership within the context of the school and therefore their reflections regarding

best practice in managing or leading staff in positive developments is valuable in the

context of this discussion.

Interestingly, Faith positively embraced the need for heightened “parental

expectations” and “accountability” associated with school culture (Interview 1),

whereas Jasmine asserted that this particular demand had “increased” whereby parents’

“expectation of what will happen” has in some regards “intensified” the role for

teachers (Interview 1). Jasmine described the school as having a “critical mass” of

“parents who value education” and a “critical mass of good teachers” that should lead

“to a positive culture” (Jasmine, Interview 2). Feelings of disenchantment voiced by

Jasmine suggest a need for school leaders, teachers and parents to work

collaboratively and toward shared purposes. For teachers, a key variable lies in their

perception of heightened public scrutiny. In this study, participants aligned public

scrutiny with the overall pressures surrounding the role of school leaders in a micro-

political sense as opposed to directly impacting the nature of teacher work and their

wellbeing.

The ability of school leaders to articulate clearly the role of wellbeing in the

school context was a limitation identified by many of the participants. Faith, Jasmine,

Ronald, Marcia and Talan described a need for school leaders to review the load of

administration-laden responsibilities imposed upon teachers. They suggested that

these “box ticking” (Ronald, Interview 2; Gerald, Interview 1; Marcia, Interview 1)

or “housekeeping” (Jasmine, Interview 1) practices adopted by school leaders toward

meeting departmental expectations acted to further inhibit teacher wellbeing. School

leaders were perceived as “continually adding to the load” (Dante, Interview 1; Marcia,

Interview 1) without clear direction, purpose or identification of how other aspects of

the role should be reduced to counterbalance.


All participants identified a need for a clear approach/framework to be adopted

within the school with respect to supporting teacher wellbeing. Change of this

magnitude requires clear direction from school leaders and a concerted collaboration

with staff, students, parents and community. Jasmine, Ronald, Gerald, Talan and

Marcia indicated a need for positive education professional development sessions to

be more consistent, its purpose transparent, as well as identifying the need for an over-

arching framework. Some suggested a key limitation engendered within the

framework currently adopted at the school was the reliance on the initiative of select

trained staff members in the field of positive education to build wellbeing into the

identity of the school. In this sense, wellbeing was intended to underpin the teaching

and learning for students through professional development of teaching staff. Gerald

describes limitations in the execution of wellbeing among the teacher cohort at Leafy

State High School:

I think in the early days a lot of people [school leaders]…were focused on getting the teachers on board so there was a lot of information disseminated to teachers about wellbeing and a little staff meeting here and there, pop up at the start of the year…mindsets, character strengths…delivered by people within the school…people found that really valuable. But that’s where it all ended in a way…staff were told to…reinforce it or …drive it throughout the school and that wider community …while the theory and reasons behind wellbeing…the actual doing of it…was just lost (Gerald, Interview 1).

To complement the professional development sessions on wellbeing, school leaders

in 2016 provided access to workshops in yoga and mindfulness that were delivered

by external bodies. Participants identified these workshops as being a positive step in

that teachers were provided with the choice to engage with the programme at their

own discretion. Further to this, the employment of professional bodies to deliver the

sessions appeared to carry more credibility than those appointed who were internal

staff members within the advisory committee.

Seven participants identified a perceived sense of ambiguity at the leadership

level in terms of whole-school vision, purpose and delivery. This resultantly impacted

their perception of school leaders’ capacity to effectively provide support for

wellbeing for its staff. These organisational factors were perceived by all participants

as deficiencies in the school framework and potential stressors for each at the personal

level. Previous investment from school leaders since 2012 included: professional

development for selected staff across the school within the four day programme; and

isolated mandatory whole-staff sessions in positive psychology (e.g. character


strengths, growth mindsets, mindfulness, resilience). Two participants – Harry and

Gerald - had attended the four-day positive education hub at GGS. They each

positively identified the value of the experience with respect to its impact directly on

their teaching practice and relationships with colleagues and students. Ronald, Gerald,

Faith, and Harry identified the whole-school mandatory sessions in positive

psychology as being valuable, however, they noted a key challenge lay in the

theoretical relevance to teachers’ existing practice and a less ‘ad hoc’ approach in

terms of its delivery. Gerald described a need for stronger continuity, transparency

and consistency in language to be adopted in terms of supporting teacher wellbeing

before teachers themselves could confidently deliver support for student welfare.

…wellbeing …was not something …that could just be bandied around. It needed a significant amount of work to get in real …change within a school or community to happen so you needed to first influence probably the staff, and they all needed to buy in to it …you also needed a level of parental involvement or support because you needed to be speaking the same language at home as you were at school, then …non-teaching staff …to be tooled with the same theories and all the same resources and the same philosophies underpinning this wellbeing programme. Then …finally …you could finally start feeding it down to the students. The student would see hopefully some of those features of wellbeing emulated in the teachers teaching them and they would buy into it as well (Gerald, Interview 1).

Ronald, Faith, Dante and Jasmine indicated that while efforts to drive wellbeing from

school leaders were evident at the commencement of each year during ‘Staff Free

Days’, in conjunction with other requisite professional development, the extent of this

had been reduced from a whole day in 2014, a half day in 2015 and then an estimated

one hour session in 2016. The reduction in allocated time appeared, to Ronald, Faith,

Dante and Jasmine to indicate a lack of commitment and value shown by the school

leadership group. Talan communicated feeling a sense of frustration at the lack of

follow-through at other vital stages of the year where staff wellbeing in particular may

be languishing.

It is the school's responsibility to kind of be perceptive and know when staff well-being is perhaps at a low at different stages of the year, and that could be because of departmental expectations, public scrutiny, or ‘you've got to do this’, ‘you've got to do that,’ we're differentiating and we've got data placemats (Talan, Interview 1).

School leaders were described as driving departmental agendas while overlooking the

potential impact that the current climate may be having on teachers. Moreover, Dante


commented on how the inconsistency school leaders overseeing teacher wellbeing

support within the school as a key impediment:

I think it [wellbeing] gets thrown around quite a lot. But in terms of something that is consistently happening, I don’t think that it’s or there’s been consistent focus on wellbeing …I think it’s really important and I am interested in it but I don’t think that ...I definitely think there are some things that have been presented well but in terms of it happening regularly and it’s not being revisited after that I think it loses its impact for the staff as well (Dante, Interview 2).

Inconsistency and lack of follow-through were two key areas that emerged from the

data as impacting the fidelity of teacher wellbeing approaches within the school site.

Gerald provides a perspective representative of a relatively new teacher within the

school. He described the following visible gaps in terms of perceived school culture

and actual staff engagement:

I think the school culture is a little bit ambiguous …the more and more that I'm at the school, though, probably the cultural expectations for staff probably don't stack up to what I would expect there to be in the shape of just general expectations and routines. I'd say it really comes back to routines and expectations that should be embedded across the whole school just from a staff point of view… it's [Leafy State High School] got that good reputation …If it's not broke, don't fix it type attitude, whereas …to have that real culture of excellence you need to …be driving and improving the agenda the whole time… and I don't feel that that's happening … (Gerald, Interview 2)

In an environment where various and continuous reform seemingly bombards teachers,

the capacity of new initiatives to gain momentum can be limited where it is perceived

as an ‘add on’ by teachers rather than a ‘value add’. While participants identified the

need for school leaders to drive support programmes in a ‘top-down’ approach, many

also related the value of school chaplaincy as a role to support both student and teacher

welfare in school settings. This unique position within Department of Education and

Training schools is one primarily associated with supporting student welfare; however,

several participants acknowledged the value of the role in also providing support for

teachers themselves. Gerald identified the unique role of chaplaincy within the school:

They do a lot of work and it’s not cutting edge things that they are doing …providing coffee vans for teachers on parent-teacher interviews…sort of making sure that there’s things in place throughout the school at different stages of the year where teachers may be stressed or under the pump just to sort of relax them a bit and say, ‘I’m doing something for you’ …something completely separate from school


management trying to manage teachers’ wellbeing … that’s the one really noticeable area about teacher wellbeing that I’ve seen within the school (Gerald, Interview 1).

Jasmine highlighted how the chaplain was “important to a lot of people” within the

school and played an active role in supporting the “emotional wellbeing” not just of

students but teachers also (Jasmine, Interview 2).

The responsibility of the school employing authority, DET, in overseeing

national policies and programmes aimed at providing quality learning and school

outcomes among state schools ultimately entails wellbeing support for teachers.

Within school contexts, Principals are chiefly responsible for ensuring a positive

school culture exists to allow for these outcomes. Deputy Principals can be tasked

with the responsibility of managing teacher welfare. All participants, with the

exception of one, identified concerns regarding the capacity of school leaders to

effectively provide support for teacher wellbeing in a structural sense based on current

practices and experiences. Gerald identified how a lack of tangible follow-through

from school leaders has in turn impacted the momentum of any endeavours in the field

of positive psychology and support for teacher welfare:

I suppose from a structural point of view, administration managing teacher wellbeing is nebulous to tell you the truth. It is spoken about, and wellbeing as a whole is spoken about within the school, but as to tangible actions that lead to greater moments of teacher wellbeing, I am not sure I can really put my finger on too many (Gerald, Interview 1).

Since 2012, the school site has been engaging with the area of positive psychology in

its approach to supporting students and staff. Initial interest manifested itself in the

creation of a Wellbeing Committee aimed at enacting support for staff and students in

various initiatives across the school and community. In its initial phase this particular

group was led by the school chaplain and a Head of Department responsible for health

and safety, wellbeing and leadership development within the school site. However,

participants in the study indicated that recent engagement in teacher wellbeing had

become static and that this lack of momentum correlated with a lack of school

leadership behind supporting teacher wellbeing.

Participants indicated a lack of clarity in terms of their understanding of the

role of school leaders in supporting teacher wellbeing within the school site. They

aligned this incongruence to the bottom-up style of leadership that had been adopted


to implement wellbeing support for teachers. They noted that, while wellbeing

professional development sessions were conducted by members of the Wellbeing

Committee within the school, there needed to be stronger leadership from the school

leadership team in terms of clarity around purpose and future direction as a practice

that complements teacher support and development. Clarity around the purpose and

big picture direction of wellbeing in terms of professional development was suggested

by participants as “blurry” or “non-transparent” in the case of the school leadership

team at the school (Gerald, Interview 2).

From a structural standpoint, teachers indicated that bottom-up approaches to

implementation were unsuccessful in garnering whole-staff enthusiasm for wellbeing.

Frustration voiced by four participants (Gerald, Jasmine, Ronald and Talan) seemed

to challenge the capacity of current approaches adopted by school leaders to support

teacher wellbeing. Gerald related deficiencies in current approaches in the following

passage:

It needs to be a top-down approach to start with. ...I think that the management within the school needs to walk the walk and talk the talk all the time if they want to show that this is something that the school really values. I think at the moment it is spoken about as a school priority or it is spoken about in a way that [Leafy State High School] is doing things in this area, but what those things actually are, how staff relate to those and how staff interact with those and how staff are engaged with those to start with is fairly unclear to start with. It is fairly unclear at the moment (Gerald, Interview 1).

Teachers in this study described the classroom as an environment where teachers were

in control over the teaching and learning and therein aligned positive wellbeing states.

Harry aligned increased autonomy over curriculum delivery as being a positive for

teacher engagement, yet, he noted, outside of the four walls of the classroom “there is

almost a withdrawal from that [sense of autonomy]” because change was “slowly

moving” (Harry, Interview 1). Cultural, political and economic imperatives

surrounding the environment of education can be linked with this reluctance to change

from school leaders. Participants confirmed that within the current climate leaders, as

well as teachers, are experiencing increased scrutiny and accountability. Faith,

Jasmine, Talan and Ronald identified constantly shifting expectations imposed on

schools especially with respect to performance scores manifest in standardised testing

such as NAPLAN. With respect to workload, the political and economic ramifications

of this pressure were described by some participants as an inhibiting factor. Where


teacher quality, competence and autonomy are challenged this in turn has the capacity

to affect their wellbeing. The impact of this economic imperative or rationalisation

was voiced particularly in the accounts of Ronald, Jasmine, Dante and Talon. These

participants claimed the economic imperatives had visibly affected members of the

school leadership team and initiatives implemented. A range of policies and processes

have been implemented in recent years targeting school and teacher performance to

improve outcomes for students. Notably, the data from this study highlighted the

important role that principals and school leaders play in designing and implementing

processes that have the potential to impact on teacher wellbeing.

Teachers further identified a lack of autonomy over areas outside of the

classroom. Jasmine, Faith, Talan, Dante and Ronald largely attributed this to

departmental policy and procedures affecting approaches of school leadership teams.

Jasmine, Ronald and Talan further identified limitations in education where data

drives much of the rhetoric and culture at the expense of other focus areas, including

teacher wellbeing. In their State Schools Strategy 2016-2020, DET Queensland

identified the following key goals: improving academic achievement; lifting the

performance of top students; improving reading and writing; improving Year 12

certification rates; closing the gap for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students;

and, finally, improving the participation and achievement of students with disability

(DET, 2016). Resultantly, schools are scrutinised around performativity data at the

Federal, State and community level to meet these predetermined targets. For teachers

who are at the coalface, discussions around data can serve to challenge their practice.

Where ‘top-down’ approaches toward addressing perceived data deficiencies in

schools are not soundly received by teachers, the extent of the latter’s engagement and

professional morale can decline.

Some participants indicated that the manner and approach undertaken in providing

feedback to faculties and staff with respect to performance could be seen as inhibiting

teacher wellbeing (Faith, Interview 1; Jasmine, Interview 2; Marcia, Interview 1).

Ronald and Gerald made particular reference to support toward the implementation of

the Australian Professional Standards for Teachers as a tool for leaders to establish

explicit benchmarks in professional practice. Both teachers have similar experience

in education. For beginning teachers, expectations around workload underpinning

these professional standards combined with the multi-dimensional nature of the role


are described by most of the participants as having the capacity to affect wellbeing

states.

4.2.3 Early Career Teacher Support

Regarding workload management, comparisons in perception among

experienced teachers, ECT and intermediately experienced were of particular

significance. Faith, a teacher possessing over three decades of experience, highlighted

the challenges facing ECT outside of classroom teaching and the lack of nurture

within current models adopted within the school:

…You talk about young teachers today …they have ‘do you know there is a new study?’ and ‘this will work better’, there’s differentiation, there’s better ways of doing this, there’s data coming out, there’s upper two bands and it seems to me that there is almost a double whammy for those young teachers. Yes, you still have to be master of your subject but …they’re not separate these things that sit in with it …it’s like going to a Monday morning staff meeting in that it doesn’t matter how many deputies you have each one has been told what they have to do, so each one will say I am looking for data, and I am looking for this and looking for that …someone needs to understand that’s not a nurturing environment for the teaching profession (Faith, Interview 1).

The resilient nature of teachers to cope under administrative and departmental

pressure was a key finding from the study. In particular, senior teachers demonstrated

a capacity to reflect on educational change as a cyclic process. The term senior refers

to teachers who have extensive experience within the field of education. The

experience of senior teachers allowed them to consider change and workload

intensification differently than other participants who possessed less experience. In

contrast, participants acknowledged the challenges for both Contract Teaching staff

and Early Career Teachers (ECT) whose ability to handle both change and workload

intensification was inhibited by their inexperience and other pressures commonly

endured. Contract teachers refer to teachers appointed contractually to a school for an

agreed period. Their engagement can be fluid and short term from five days to a

maximum of 12 months. Potentially, Contract Teachers can be working up to three

years within a school before being offered a permanent position. ECT refers to

teachers whose employment in education spans between one to five years. Ronald

commented on the unique challenges facing Contract Teachers in schools:


If I was on contract, my wellbeing would be fine at the start and throughout the year, and then be massively affected toward the end of the year. Whether I am going to be working next year …they might have plans, mortgage, families, you don’t know. That’s not fair (Interview 2).

Gerald highlighted that, for beginning teachers, the constant workload as well as “high

expectation” and “barriers which they place upon themselves” served to inhibit their

wellbeing and even lead to “burnout.” Jasmine linked the lack of employment

continuity experienced by contract teachers with feelings of “disempowerment”

(Interview 2). Alternatively, Dante described the positive impact that external

pressures garnered in terms of his teaching practice during the early years:

…in the early years of my teaching career…it was something that motivated me to work really hard and to …get as much out of the environment if I was to move on…Definitely when you get letters from HR saying ‘it’s time to go’ which I had for half a dozen years…[but] luckily enough to have the support of the Principal …it’s positive for me to be vulnerable (Interview 2).

Dante highlights the important role that school Principals play in supporting

the wellbeing of Contract Teachers and ECT through employment security. This study

highlighted job security as a key challenge confronting contract teaching staff and

ECT within the school site. The notion of ‘making every post a winner’ in pursuit of

attaining permanency emerged as an experience shared by all participants in this stage

of their career. Teachers identified this period as having limited opportunity to voice

personal difficulties or challenges on account of job security. Jasmine, an experienced

teacher of almost four decades, identified how departmental factors failed to cultivate

a sense of belonging among beginning teachers:

I don't want to exaggerate... I’d say three instances of where questions of permanency have really been an issue for disquiet for people and it's certainly discombobulated them. [It] has not been good for their wellbeing. I'm not just talking teaching staff. I think contracts, I understand why the department has to have contracts and employ people on contracts. They are very disempowered and when someone has been doing a job for a long period of time and has been constantly on contract, that sends a message that is not a message that anyone wants to receive (Jasmine, Interview 2).

Growing pressure surrounding teacher performance and scrutiny can challenge the

ability of contract teachers and ECT to voice difficulties or challenges experienced on

account of the impact this can have on role continuity within DET school structures.

Many participants reflected on their sense of vulnerability and over-extension of role

experienced during the ECT phase of their career as having the potential to negatively

impact their wellbeing. Faith described it as a time of “constant uncertainty


professionally”, “embarrassing” and “one of the great destabilising factors in the

government education system” (Faith, Interview 2). Gerald related how “constant

volunteering” among ECT and contract teachers “to make sure your face is seen

within the school” had the capacity to “build upon your stresses” at this phase of a

teaching career (Gerald, Interview 1). Marcia described challenges she encountered

when she commenced teaching being forced to teach outside of her subject areas

without “a lot of support”. The notion of “constantly doing”, staying “late at school”

and taking work home were practices identified as habits during this phase of teaching

(Interview 1). Alternatively, while Dante acknowledged working rigorously during

this period in a variety of areas outside of the core business of teaching to impress

supervisors and school leaders, he indicated this “vulnerability” served as a

motivating force driving his own personal performance “to be retained” within a

school where he desired to work (Dante, Interview 2). Ultimately, meaningful

relationships fostered with colleagues and students during this period were identified

by participants as playing a key role in supporting teacher wellbeing. A challenge

going forward remains the changing nature of teacher work. In this study, participants

indicated how institutional reform and policy at times inhibited role relatedness,

perceptions of self-competence and curriculum autonomy.

4.2.4 Institutional Processes and Factors

Institutional processes refer to federal, state and regional demands imposed on

schools with respect to human resourcing, teaching and learning through the guise of

government and curriculum authorities. The enacting of these processes in school

contexts is traditionally in relation to particular problems perceived and, inevitably,

schools’ capacity to implement can lead to various constraints and pressures (Ball et

al, 2012). Institutional factors refer to the wider impact of policy in school contexts

for teachers. More specifically, participants described increased accountability and

administrative workload as a systemic influence was not well managed by leaders in

the context of the school.


4.2.4.1 Changing nature of teaching role

Teacher perceptions of the changing nature of their work were mixed across

participants within the study. The changing nature of teacher work was identified as

having both positive and negative outcomes for teachers. Participants identified the

implementation of new, rigorous curriculum (e.g. Australian Curriculum) as being a

positive as it compelled teachers to collaborate and work toward shared, whole school

goals (Dante, Interview 2; Jasmine, Interview 1). Participants indicated a sense that

faculty relationships strengthened as a result of this ad hoc curriculum engagement.

Participants conveyed the extent to which teacher roles and workload had intensified

in recent years and further identified this as an inhibiting factor in terms of their

wellbeing. In particular, they perceived an increase in administrative processes,

meetings and professional development as detracting form the core business of

curriculum teaching:

We do a lot of housekeeping …This sounds like a whinge, you’re damned if you do and damned if you don’t situation…We spend too little time discussing important issues, and then the reaction to the criticism of too little, then it’s too much. I feel some irritation about that. There's a certain measure of, let's just get to business and cut through and do what we are paid to do (Jasmine, 1).

Whether the culpability for these onerous administrative tasks lies with the department

or school leadership team is not wholly clear within the data. Rather, participants in

the main aligned departmental agendas or reform with decisions made by school

leaders as representatives within the school. Marcia noted how the school and faculty

expectations “always seem to change” and the fact that “you always feel like you are

having [sic] to rewrite things” makes “it difficult” in terms of continuity in roles and

subject areas (Marcia, Interview 1).

4.2.4.2 Administrative workload and role autonomy

The majority of participants noted that the volume of administrative-related

work was associated with negatively impacting wellbeing states. Common examples

of work-related factors impacting teacher wellbeing that emerged from the data

include quality teaching models, behavioural management systems and administrative


focus in whole-staff meetings. The following passage from Jasmine reinforces

contextual concerns voiced with respect to current practices in implementation:

The times when I feel most frustrated and annoyed are often at ELT [executive leadership] meetings, when I think my time is being wasted, that the meetings not been well thought through beforehand, that there are discussions going on that are frustrating for a whole range of reasons. I suspect that, I think admin [administration] has tried to protect us from a whole bunch of things that EQ [Education Queensland] now demands of schools, but still some of that comes through. I guess when you have been teaching for a long time, it’s annoying to see something come through that…you’re seeing something for a third time. This is the ‘latest best thing’. That’s a companion issue I suppose…there are things that don’t seem to be core business but have become core business and suck up a lot of time that I just, shoulder droop, ‘What’s the point of this? (Jasmine, Interview 1).

Marcia, Jasmine and Ronald acknowledged diminished preparation time in the core

business of curriculum as inhibiting their wellbeing. The research highlighted how the

impact of this can differ across teachers. Two important coping variables emerged

which are pertinent to facilitating positive states of wellbeing when dealing with

adversity in the work environment: experience and job security. Departmental reform

in terms of accountability and school performance is inextricably linked with these

two variables. Participants identified the need for a more balanced approach from

school leaders with respect to implementing DET reform and their own processes and

procedures around outcomes and teacher quality.

Ronald articulated how “seeing inequity across the work ethic of staff members” further “impact[ed]” on his “wellbeing” where, among administrative leaders, there appeared to be “an acceptance that people will do all this extra work… but there is no real gratitude…” (Ronald, Interview 1)

The data from the research indicate that teachers, while possessing degrees of

autonomy over curriculum delivery in the classroom, are not provided adequate voice

in terms of other processes that impact on their practice due to demands from

competing priorities from an administrative point of view.

The multi-dimensional nature of the role of teachers today has meant an

engagement in support services for students outside of their expertise. In particular,

participants indicated expectations around the provision of counselling, mental health

support and accountability as being beyond the expertise of the classroom teacher.

Ronald highlighted the need in current climates for external support and training to

effectively support the welfare of students:


As a teacher, I think that the educating part of it is our job. That’s easy. It’s the guidance counsellor role that we are now undertaking that I am not comfortable because we are not trained in it. When it comes to anything whether it is family issues… It could be sibling issues, it could be abuse issues, [but] we are not trained in that …I do not think it is possible to train all staff in that…role. I think improving staff understanding and training on those, and maybe having some people who are a point of contact could be good for those kids and the staff (Ronald, Interview 2).

Jasmine, an experienced teacher of almost four decades, noted that in current contexts

the “core business” of curriculum practice had been replaced with alternative,

mandatory professional development perceived as “sucking up time” (Jasmine,

Interview 1). Ronald described school professional development practices overall as

being “superficial” and lacking clear purpose for participants (Interview 2). Some of

the participants reflected on how any new learning for teachers at the core needed to

challenge understandings of existing practices to have any momentum or ‘buy in’ for

teachers. The responsibility for this was largely attributed to school leaders. However,

reluctance to accept change at the structural level within the micro-system of the

school itself was identified by Harry and Gerald as an inhibiting factor to the

momentum of holistic teacher wellbeing support (Harry, Interview 1; Gerald,

Interview 2). In the main, participants indicated a reluctance to accept additional

professional development when it appeared independent of their core business or

where transparency around its theoretical underpinnings was perceived to be non-

existent. Where teachers were engaged purposefully in professional development

perceived to support teachers’ core business, their attitudes were naturally more

positive and this engagement facilitated positive wellbeing states.

4.2.4.3 School Accountability

Schools provide the vehicles through which strategic priorities - at the state

and federal level - in student achievement and outcomes are to be delivered and school

and teachers are held accountable. Consequently, teachers who are at the coalface for

reform and policy are forced to adapt within an ever-changing environment. Ronald

highlighted that a key challenge lay in the role of wellbeing in the current environment

of education given the perceived dominance of other strategic priorities:

The priority is education, outcomes, NAPLAN …new syllabus and so on and wellbeing gets pushed down to the bottom of that…two years ago we had a


whole PD at the start of school, last year it was a half day and this year it might have been an hour. It has been diminished (Interview 2).

Participants highlighted that strategic priorities impacted the nature of their work in a

variety of ways. Most of the participants indicated a level of discomfort with the

climate surround current school performativity models within high school contexts

(Harry, Interview 1; Ronald, Interview 1&2; Jasmine, Interview 1&2; Talan,

Interview 2; Marcia, Interview 1&2).

4.2.5 Teacher Relationships and Wellbeing

A consensus among participants was that meaningful relationships were

associated with stronger wellbeing states. The quality of relationships within school

settings assist teachers with their coping abilities to meet the various challenges and

pressures surrounding the role (Roffey, 2012). They identified three specific domains

in particular: teacher-teacher, teacher-student relationships and teacher-leader

relationships. Relationships were described by participants as forces that impacted

their sense of autonomy, competence and relatedness within their work environment.

They further described a sense of belonging associated with the harmonious

functioning of each of these domains within school contexts to establish purpose or

identity. This sense of belonging intertwines with the effective functioning of school

culture.

4.2.5.1 Teacher-Teacher Relationships

Collegial or ‘professional’ relationships were discussed as positively

contributing to teacher wellbeing within the school. Participants aligned strong

feelings of wellbeing with positive collegial relationships fostered within and outside

of their faculty areas:

They [collegial relationships] are the most important factor for mine. I suppose that it is how you are as an individual. It wouldn’t be the same for everybody, but personally I think that I’m a fairly social person so I like to touch bases with other teachers, and I like to liaise with other teachers frequently, even if it is about non-school-related issues. Yeah that is easily the most important factor for me [in terms of] my wellbeing at school. Having those relationships with your peers that you can rely upon, you can talk to, you can liaise with, you can de-stress, I suppose by talking to other


people who have the same values, attitudes and beliefs as you do (Ronald, Interview 2).

Ronald suggests that collegial relationships serve the purpose of building shared

rapport in schools where shared voice exists, support is reliable and, philosophically,

there is alignment in approaches to teaching and learning. For Marcia, the perception

of being valued in a school by colleagues and school leaders served as an affirmatory

force in her transition to the school:

I definitely think …feeling welcomed and valued at the school …that you can have your opinion or your voice is heard …that you’re given the resources or whatever you need to do your job properly and then also having …staff that you get along with that you can have relationships or friendships that sort of thing as well [can make] …you feel happy going to work each day (Marcia, Interview 1).

Notably, for participants who had taught for two decades or more the value of collegial

relationships were not described as important an influence upon individual wellbeing

in comparison with participants such as Ronald, Dante and Marcia.

4.2.5.2 Teacher-Student Relationships

All teachers who participated within the study indicated strongly that having

a sense of purpose and belief that their practice is positively contributing to students’

learning had reciprocal impact in terms of teacher wellbeing. They aligned feelings of

happiness and contentment in their environment with overseeing successful student

outcomes. Jasmine reflects on the impact of teacher-student relationships in the

following extract:

I think being me feeling that I’m contributing in some way is really a critical component of me feeling good …feeling good about what’s happening in the classroom …to start with. Obviously I get involved in a number of things outside of the classroom. Those are important as well, but on a day-to-day basis, response from the students and feeling good about the chemistry that’s going on in the classroom, that something positive is being achieved in the classroom … is really critical …that’s really important, that sense of doing a good job in the classroom (Jasmine, Interview 2).

Teachers’ classroom practice and student learning emerged as a key area contributing

to wellbeing. Where teachers were engaged in purposeful classroom practice their

arousal level and desire to meet challenges increased. However, there remained

challenges outside of their realm of expertise. In terms of effectively delivering


wellbeing at the whole-school level, participants felt they were unable to cater wholly

for the diverse needs of students in their environment. Ronald described discomfort

experienced when called upon to support students with “mental health issues” as well

as “gross anxiety issues,” relating he felt “not capable” or “qualified” in these

scenarios (Ronald, Interview 1).

4.2.5.3 Teacher-Leader Relationships

Findings from this study highlight the importance of strong relationships

between teachers and their school leaders. A need for collaborative, shared decision-

making was linked with an effective school leadership structure. Section 4.2.3

discussed the challenges for school leaders who are expected to implement policy and

reform that is commonly perceived by teachers as intensifying their workload. In

conjunction with this, they are to work toward building a positive school culture that

at times appears at odds with directives and messages they espouse. Some participants

(n=4) conveyed a lack of confidence in certain school leadership approaches had

stemmed from poor transparency and a lack of consultation. To an extent, the effects

of this lack of confidence may be reflected in diminished engagement from staff as a

consequence of decisions made by school leaders. Where participants were passionate

in their descriptions of factors that impacted their wellbeing they seldom alluded to

processes aligned with school leaders. The only exception to this across the entire

study relates to the merit attributed by teachers to the role that positive psychology

can perform in supporting teacher wellbeing. This is particularly resonant in the

accounts of Ronald, Gerald, Talan, Marcia, Harry, Dante and Faith. Dante described

a keen personal interest in learning more about wellbeing and positive psychology but

highlighted a lack of “consistency” and thoughtful “targeting” by school leaders as an

inhibiting factor (Interview 1). Similarly, Gerald describes a limitation in school

leaders’ touting of the value of positive psychology where they appear reluctant to

“walk the walk and talk the talk” even though it is articulated as “something the school

really values” (Interview 1).

Therefore, participants suggested the capacity of leaders to build successful

relationships with their teaching staff is tied with value adding rather than adding to

their workload. In essence, demonstrating an intent to provide strength-based support

and, where possible, preventing unnecessary administrative workload from affecting


the role of teachers should underpin any effective school leadership structure. Notably,

participants described how role relatedness and perceptions of competence could be

linked with the strength of relationships with their colleagues as well as school leaders.

4.2.5.4 Teachers’ Sense of Belonging

It has been acknowledged that teachers can experience belonging within their

own classroom practice despite growing external challenges. Most teachers

interviewed aligned autonomy in their classroom practice with strong states of

wellbeing. Some aligned this autonomy with feelings of self-efficacy within their

work environments (Faith, Interview 1; Gerald, Interview 1; Marcia, Interview 1;

Ronald, Interview 1). Participants who indicated they felt a sense of purpose in their

roles within the school aligned this with strong engagement in their core business as

well as a more positive mindset when faced with challenges and adversity. This state

of ‘challenge-arousal’ was described by participants as contributing to their

professional engagement. Despite growing contemporary external pressures for

teachers including classroom walk-throughs, differentiation tracking, teaching and

learning audits, public scrutiny and accountability, teachers’ wellbeing was facilitated

by relationships within their classroom where they experience the most influence.

This control in turn positively affected wellbeing states whereby teachers, through

experience, gained feelings of adequacy, competence and self-efficacy in their

practice. Faith defines this as a ‘symbiotic’ relationship between teacher support and

mastery of practice:

I don’t think that it’s easily gained [self-efficacy]. As a classroom teacher it is always good to be in a supportive environment of a school but as a person that has been a classroom teacher for decades, when you are in the four walls of your room you can make it or break it for yourself and your children. So it is really a learned environment for a teacher, to gain wellbeing for the teacher myself, and for the students and that’s not easy …that symbiotic experience is not always perfect, is constantly honed, and tough, but essential (Faith, Interview 1).

Faith suggests that the relationship between teacher perceptions of competence in

classroom practice and their overall wellbeing states are inextricably tied. While

teachers respond positively to the autonomy provided within their classrooms,

preparing them for the diverse challenges posed by current teacher roles can be more


difficult, especially for inexperienced teachers. This ‘learned environment’ alludes to

a synergy between teacher, curriculum practice, student and community.

One factor identified by participants as inhibiting the collaborative culture within

the school was the isolationist nature of different faculty areas. Many of the

participants referred to “silo” or “departmental” cultures within faculty areas (Marcia,

Interview 1; Ronald, Interview 2; Talon, Interview 1; Harry, Interview 1) as being an

impediment to any positive momentum in terms of whole-school culture. Whether this

can be attributed to school leadership, individualism or competition within

educational reform models, or it is instead distinctly unique to the school site, will be

discussed further in Chapter 5.

4.3 SUMMARY

These findings have highlighted several factors within school contexts that have

the capacity to affect teacher wellbeing. While Queensland schools are expected to

provide holistic wellbeing at the student, community and teacher level, the research

identifies several challenges in terms of the capacity of administrators to effectively

provide consistent structures that support teacher wellbeing. Teachers represent the

ultimate manifestation of departmental policy and initiatives, including the

implementation of wellbeing in the classroom; however, data from this study

confirmed the need for supported teacher welfare to be prioritised as a vital precursor

to subsequent effective implementation at the whole-school level. Departmental or

‘institutional’ emphasis on data and student outcomes within school contexts was

identified as diminishing the potential for teacher wellbeing to be placed at the

forefront in current support models adopted at the school.

Teachers acknowledged autonomy over classroom practice and relationships

with students as being key contributors to their enhanced wellbeing. Additionally,

collegial relationships where shared purpose, voice and vision existed had the capacity

to positively impact wellbeing levels for teachers. The data also highlighted the

relationship between teaching experience and stronger states of resilience. In terms of

environmental stressors such as policy change and workload intensification, senior

teachers who had experienced similar phases within their own teaching history were


able to draw upon the necessary external resources to cope. Conversely, for those

teachers whose experience spanned between five and 13 years, perceptions of change

and workload intensification differed. The potential impact of these environmental

stressors on teacher wellbeing was more evident in the data.

A lack of continuity and transparency in vision were identified as negative

factors associated with bottom-up approaches to embedding wellbeing at the whole-

school level. The data highlighted the capacity of top-down models to be adopted and

articulated to teachers by principals to allow for transparency. Moreover, teachers

identified the need for consistent follow-through in wellbeing support at various

junctures in the year.

The challenges facing ECT and beginning teachers within DET schools arose

as a further concern within the data. Their ability to have a voice and express concern

regarding challenging experiences was identified as greatly diminished at this phase

of a teaching career. Ironically, it is this stage where the need for highly responsive

mentorship and support is at its most critical; however, safeguarding job security by

diplomatically withholding concerns often supersedes this need.

This chapter has described and summarised the data obtained from the

research. Results from the interview instruments relating to the research questions will

be analysed as well as the application of thematic analysis techniques. The resultant

themes that have emerged will be presented in detail.

Chapter 5 will provide robust discussion and analysis of these findings. It will

draw links with the research questions in terms of inhibiting and contributing factors

affecting teacher wellbeing. Related themes that have emerged during the

investigation, such as school culture, institutional processes and relationships, will be

analysed in greater detail.

Chapter 5: Discussion 91

Chapter 5: Discussion

Chapter 5 presents a discussion of the results of this study in relation to the

research questions. Literature from the field is linked with the results and the wider

significance of the phenomenon of teacher wellbeing will be discussed. In Chapter 4,

results of the study were organised into headings containing themes and sub-themes.

In Chapter 5, participant experiences and perceptions of wellbeing underpin the

discussion and provide an authentic voice to the data. As highlighted in the literature

review, individual perceptions of wellbeing are aligned with a range of factors,

including: person-environment congruence, autonomy, relatedness, competence and

workload balance. This chapter explores the results from the study in relation to the

research questions. The results suggest that, due to the intensive nature of pre-existing

core teacher duties, there exists a need for school leaders to provide adequate and

deliberate wellbeing support in an approach that complements the professional

development improvement framework.

Section 5.1 revisits the theoretical framework underpinning the study. It draws

upon previous research in the field of wellbeing, identifying social and contextual

factors in school contexts that shape and influence the phenomenon. Section 5.2

discusses the theme of school culture and its related impact on teacher wellbeing.

Section 5.3 discusses the role of school leadership in terms of their management of

institutional policy and reform. Moreover, particular challenges facing ECT and

contract teachers are discussed with respect to retention, support and job security.

Section 5.4 identifies three key relationships existing in the school context that can

have varied impact on teacher wellbeing: teacher-to-teacher, teacher-to-leader and

teacher-to-student. Finally, Section 5.5 provides a summary of the significance of the

study’s emerging themes and restates key deductions articulated within the chapter.

5.1 REVISITING THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

The process of investigating wellbeing can be a complex one given that the

phenomenon is multi-faceted and unique to individuals. To better hone the intent of

this study, the researcher focused primarily on environmental factors that either


contribute to or inhibit teachers’ wellbeing. These environmental factors related more

specifically to work-related practices identified within the school site. Previous

literature identified that teacher experiences of positive wellbeing translate to stronger

engagement, morale and perceptions of self-efficacy within the context of their

environment (Brunetto, et al 2012). Research suggests that school culture (Aelterman

et al, 2007), leadership (Bubb & Earley, 2004), role autonomy (Reis, et al 2000) and

relationships (Van Petegem, et al, 2005) are integral factors contributing to teacher

wellbeing in school contexts. Participant data obtained through this study reported that

individual, relational (colleagues, students, leaders) and contextual (school culture,

leadership, systemic) factors that relate to wellbeing are important considerations for

any whole-school wellbeing model to be effective. The research questions sought to

identify and further analyse these unique factors from participants in order to add to

the growing body of wellbeing literature in education. Specifically, the study aimed to

address the following research questions:

To what extent, if any, does the work of teachers within a school system

influence wellbeing?


wellbeing?


Insight obtained from participants allowed for greater depth of understanding of the

unique cultural and structural milieu surrounding teachers’ work environment in the

context of the school (Ballet & Kelchtermans, 2009). In particular, participant attitudes

regarding school policies, procedures and values help to demonstrate how aspects of

school culture can affect teacher wellbeing. These themes are explored in the following

sections and form the basis for the discussion that ensues.

5.2 SCHOOL CULTURE

The data from this study revealed strong links between staff wellbeing and

school culture. It has highlighted the importance of shared values, empowerment and

collegiality in terms of building role satisfaction and a sense of belonging in schools.

Schools leaders are charged with the responsibility of endorsing a vision that embraces


teachers, students, parents and local community voices. In a sense, this vision

underpins the strategic direction of decisions made in their schooling contexts. The

importance of positive school culture and vision is described in the literature as

influencing teacher willingness to change their instructional practice and engagement

in student and faculty learning (Deal & Peterson, 1998). In this study, participants

acknowledged the need for a clearer and more purposeful embedding of wellbeing

within the cultural milieu of the school. Tied to this endeavour, to an extent, is the

vision of the school. To better understand cultural milieu and vision it is therefore vital

that the role of school practices and community be investigated more closely. The

literature supports the notion that community and leadership practices are central

tenets behind a successful school culture model (Johnson et al, 2015; McCallum &

Price, 2010). It also identifies how staff cohesion stems from a shared understanding

of school purpose and vision among staff and leaders within schools (Marzano, et al,

2005).

The importance of consultation and collaboration were strong themes that

emerged in this study. Some participants (n=7) identified how a perceived lack of

consultation and voice within Leafy State High School inhibited their perceptions of

the existence of collaborative and shared vision within the school. Therein a degree of

disequilibrium exists. Teachers are to implement and deliver processes relating to the

school’s improvement vision regardless of whether they disagree with its meaning and

purpose for their own practice. The nature of this approach lends itself to a more

administrative hierarchy where decisions are made by school leaders in isolation that

have the capacity to impact teachers, student, parents and local community. School

vision requires a meaningfulness and practicality that allows for student success as

well as nurturing a bond between parents and teachers alike (Rowling, 2007). The

literature further highlights the need for collaboration between community, parents,

teachers and school leaders in developing and enacting a whole school plan (Pushor,

2007); this echoes Hallinger’s (2003) earlier recommendations for dual interventionist

approaches which blend top-down and bottom-up approaches to build unified school

culture. It is suggested that the approach of school leaders be a more balanced and

supportive one to ensure that relationships between school leaders and teachers are

more effective and the capacity to manifest more positive attitudes toward professional

work can be prevalent (Flores, 2004).


Jasmine, Marcia, Ronald, Dante and Gerald repeatedly emphasised throughout

their conversations the importance of collaboration with their colleagues in developing

their capacity as teachers. Whether this collaboration was focused on curriculum

planning or sharing teacher practice, they aligned value in the ability to share open,

genuine conversations with their colleagues in a trusting environment. Furthermore,

where teachers perceive they have opportunities to consult in the shared vision of a

school they are more likely to feel that they are partners in a meaningful and purposeful

cause (Kirk & Jones, 2004). In contrast, a lack of consultative process among teachers

can lead to disempowerment and increased teacher attrition levels within schools

(Krueger, 2000; Burnard & White, 2008). Participants highlighted the importance of

strong leadership in cultivating a positive climate and culture in their school. They

related how the extent of engagement, morale and positivity in their work context has

the potential to be heightened by decisions made at the school leader level. They

related leadership behaviours such as clarity in vision, whole-school consultation and

shared decision-making as building trust and contributing positively to the school

climate. Furthermore, participants reported feeling less empowered and motivated to

engage in professional development when they perceived leaders as failing to follow-

through with identified strategic direction in schools. Rather than desiring leaders to

pay lip service to government policy and reform, they reported a need for authentic

approaches in discussing performance data, teacher wellbeing support and workload

management.

Demands imposed by national standardised achievement benchmarks have led

to principals investing funding into professional development aligned with yielding

student test outcomes rather than targeted interventions to support the wellbeing of

their teachers (Luke & McArdle, 2009). Comparative league table data for schools

regarding their performativity against local, regional and state-wide sectors has meant

that parents and communities are more informed than perhaps in any other period.

Correspondingly, this public scrutiny and accountability impacts teacher wellbeing

directly (Darmody & Smyth, 2016; Mearns & Cain, 2003). While this has been related

with negative outcomes such as competitive ‘gaming’ between and within rival

schools, intensified teacher workload expectations and a decline overall in the public

perception of teachers (Klenowski, 2011), this was not consistent with the findings

from participants in this study. Rather, for Faith, Harry and Jasmine, local school


community was favourably described as a galvanising force in its capacity to influence

a positive school culture for students and teachers alike. They described their local

community as setting expectations for both school and students and related how this

contributed to a positive culture within their school context. Importantly, these three

participants are the oldest and most experienced within the study, with over 80 years

of teaching experience between them. The research confirms how older teachers are

more likely to avoid negative stimuli and emotions in their interactions and as such

report higher levels of wellbeing compared with other teachers (Erskine, et al, 2007;

Yang, 2008). While distinctions existed between the perceptions of school culture

among senior teachers compared with those possessing less than 15 years of

experience, it is suggested that continuity in employment within a particular school

can improve perceptions of school culture and identification with community. The

need for employment continuity for ECT and Contract Teachers is discussed in Section

5.3.2 of this chapter.

Dante positively described how higher expectations and scrutiny from the

community were important in driving teachers to constantly reflect and improve their

performance (interview 2). For Faith and Jasmine, the local community was described

as a ‘critical mass’ that imposed high expectations not just of schools, but also students,

suggesting that this was an important facet in driving whole school improvement rather

than a pressure that negatively impacted their wellbeing as teachers (Faith, Interview

1; Jasmine, Interview 2). The literature highlights the importance of teachers’ standing

in society and external expectations surrounding their role as having the capacity to

promote professional satisfaction and dissatisfaction alike ( Fernet et al, 2012; Yousef,

2002).

Marcia and Talan reflected how Leafy State High School was a “good” school

(Marcia, Interview 1; Talan, Interview 1) while Dante, Ronald and Marcia further

described feeling “lucky” to work in the environment professionally (Dante, Interview

2; Ronald, Interview 2; Marcia, Interview 1). Whether these favourable comments are

reflective of environmental structures in place (e.g. leadership, role autonomy), or the

socio-economic region in which the school is positioned, is difficult to determine

clearly. The literature posits that increased public scrutiny and expectations around

school performativity can lead to a decline in teacher relatedness to their role (Johnson

et al, 2015). Teachers need to feel connected to others (Deci & Ryan, 2011) across the


context of schools – including parents and community - and where teachers perceive

they operate as ‘producers’ held accountable and scrutinised by their ‘consumers’ their

sense of a shared, collaborative environment is seemingly blurred (Kelchtermans,

2007). It is suggested that schools work more cohesively with community as this

relationship can build purpose, meaning and empowerment into the functioning of

schools not simply for teachers but similarly for students.

Leafy State High School’s recent commitment to implementing positive

psychology in-services for staff professional development was identified by all

participants as a positive step toward building school culture and connecting with

students, parents and community. A key objective of these in-service sessions for

teachers was to develop an awareness of the scientific principles underpinning their

personal wellbeing and to provide further strategies and practices that can be utilised

to support their wellbeing when challenged with professional adversity in a work

context. Given the rapid emergence of student wellbeing at the social, emotional and

academic level in educational reform and policy, participants asserted that there was a

need to equip teachers with this knowledge before they can successfully embed it

within their professional environment. While the literature indicates how engagement

with strength-based programmes for teachers has the capacity to improve personal

motivation, commitment and attitudes toward their work environment (Guskey, 2002),

findings from this study were mixed in terms of the value of these approaches.

Although, participants acknowledged the value of previous wellbeing endeavours that

explored relevant positive psychology theorem including growth mindsets, positive

relationships, character strengths and mindfulness, there appeared to be no real

indication across these conversations around the need for follow-through in the form

of a formalised programme to be implemented in the school. Instead, participants

suggested that leaders be considerate of the wellbeing of teachers in the delivery of

reform in school contexts. For this to be a sustainable whole-school approach, school

leaders are to shift current methodological approaches in an effort to ensure teacher

wellbeing is at the forefront.

The literature review discussed the example of Geelong Grammar School as a

successful positive psychology intervention case study targeting whole-school

wellbeing. Admittedly, though, Geelong Grammar’s journey toward successfully

implementing a whole-school programme involved students, teachers, support staff,


parents and community becoming invested in years of specialised support and review.

A whole-school ecological model requires policy documents governing schools to

demonstrate clear correlation and articulation of vision by school leaders (Wyn et al,

1999). This ecological model highlights the importance of the interplay of curriculum

(teaching and learning); organisation, ethos and environment; and community

partnerships as critical dimensions underpinning the success of whole-school models.

For schools, this may include altering key school policy documents such as the staff

handbook, student enrolment, student behaviour, student attendance and Occupational

Health and Safety to reflect their vision for wellbeing.

This study has highlighted the merit of providing teachers with learning as well

as tools around positive psychology and wellbeing. Importantly, it has highlighted the

need for a clear link between school policies and processes and positive outcomes at

the classroom and professional level. This ‘buy-in’ is necessary in allowing teachers

to build a sense of person-environmental congruence in their school (Edwards &

Rothbard, 1999). To deconstruct further, personal-environmental congruence allows:

leaders to be buoyed by teacher support; teachers to be buoyed by strengthening

collegial and student relationships; and, finally, engages parents alongside schools in

a shared vision. Harry, Gerald, Jasmine, Talan and Ronald reported disparities in the

public narrative conveyed by the school regarding the ‘culture of wellbeing’

underpinning its identity. Evidently, it is suggested that both teachers and community

as key stakeholders were not actively involved - in a conceptual or consultative sense

- in the ‘whole-school’ model adopted by school leaders; consequently, this meant that

certain limitations in its reach were likely. Participants conveyed feelings of frustration

and scepticism regarding the evident disparities in the public and private narrative of

Leafy State High School. In contrast, based on their engagement with positive

psychology and wellbeing in-services to date, they described great potential in it

providing meaningful, purposeful and relevant learning otherwise absent in their

professional development.

All participants indicated an overall satisfaction in their role and ascribed this to

personal factors such as relatedness to role, perceived competence in duty and degree

of autonomy over curriculum. This dynamic of person-environmental congruency is

identified in the literature as being a critical mechanism in establishing effective

organisational outcomes (Sagiv & Schwartz, 2000) and contributing to positive


wellbeing states (Edwards & Rothbard, 1999). Specifically, a number of outcomes are

related, including: improving students’ motivation and achievement (Briner &

Dewberry, 2007); building teachers’ self-efficacy and attitudes (Bandura, 2006);

enhancing teachers’ personal aspirations (Mujis & Reynolds, 2002); teachers’ attitude

toward innovation and change (Guskey, 1998); and, finally, workplace retention

(Weiss, 1999). While a strong sense of self-efficacy was reported by participants, it is

important to note that the school is positioned in a mid-to-high socio-economic

metropolitan area where retention of teachers is significantly higher than other regional

areas of lower socio-economic composition. Notably, role satisfaction and engagement

are discussed in the literature as being tied to individual factors as well as situational

factors (Muchinsky & Mohahan, 1987). The literature suggests that through deliberate

building of awareness around unhealthy attitudes and behaviours relating to wellbeing,

teachers’ sense of competence and role satisfaction can be positively impacted (Gouda

et al, 2016). Therefore, participant perceptions can reflect both personal and

environmental limitations as well as strengths with respect to school practices.

5.3 SCHOOL LEADERSHIP

School leaders are discussed in this study as persons responsible for the

management of schools. They support human resources within their contexts as well

as advocate for delivery of quality education for students. An important facet of this

role lies in their leadership of teachers through the provision of professional

development and building of a cultural identity within schools.

5.3.1 School Leadership: Institutional Factors

A key finding emerging from the study was the need for effective and holistic

approaches where collaboration was sought between school leaders, teachers and

community alike to be evident within school contexts. In particular, participants

identified a need for school leaders to be more aware of factors, such as workload,

impacting teacher wellbeing within the environment. Participants described a need for

stronger support, especially during key stages of the year where teachers manage an

increasing workload and other challenges in their context.


This study sought to elicit teacher perceptions of work-related practices

impacting their wellbeing. An inhibiting factor impacting teacher wellbeing described

by most of the participants was the existence of a perceived disconnect between school

leader agendas and the presence of targeted wellbeing support for teachers. It can be

assumed that, as a consequence of these perceived gaps, the underlying integrity and

culture of the leadership approach has suffered within the school and this was

perceived as an inhibiting factor. Participants reported how school leaders had

emphasised student outcomes and teacher practice within their strategic professional

development at the expense of continuity in providing a deliberate wellbeing

programme that was both accessible and meaningful for staff. This lack of follow-

through by school leaders impacted the perceptions of participants in a variety of ways.

Curriculum instruction, staff management and general administration requirements are

prominent areas of focus for professional development in schools (Wright & da Costa,

2016). While these performativity and standards-centric ‘agendas’ were perceived by

most as peripheral in their relevance to teacher core business and related student

outcomes, others perceived them as necessary to an extent, though a greater emphasis

on planning and actual consultation with teachers was suggested as a more effective

approach. Van Driel and Berry (2012) argue that professional development

opportunities should ensure teachers have opportunities to reflect, individually and

collectively, on their enacting of teaching learning strategies to support authentic

growth and engagement. For teachers, the provision of deliberate opportunities for

focused discussion and collaboration collegially has positive, affective gains in the

development of practice (Hattie, 2013). This study highlights the need to align

professional development mores strongly with professional learning, such as

wellbeing and positive psychology, to authentically engage and build teacher practice.

The implementation of positive psychology has been linked in the literature with

more hopeful and positive expectations about future outcomes and an increased

confidence in teachers’ ability to deal with environmental challenges in their roles

(Williams et al, 2015). For teachers, trust can serve as a way of reducing uncertainty.

Overall, participants – who represented a broad cross-section of teacher experience

and subject discipline specialty areas – confirmed some feelings of mistrust toward

school leaders’ capacity to be transparent, consultative and provide adequate time to

deliver diverse agendas in their work context. Participants such as Faith, Marcia and


Dante empathised with the challenging position school leaders occupied as conduits

in the delivery of systemic priorities as well as teacher wellbeing. The research

suggests that increases in breath and complexity of responsibilities among school

leaders has led to a decrease in role satisfaction (Darmody & Smyth, 2016; Marko et

al, 2013; Riley, 2017). In contrast, the remaining participants - Ronald, Gerald, Harry,

Jasmine and Talan – highlighted how certain workload expectations from school

leaders appear to intensify their role. They associated this approach with a devaluing

of care and connectedness at the expense of focusing on the core business of teaching

and learning. This study identified the challenging position that school leaders are

positioned within the context of a mid to high socio-economic high school. The

literature suggests that school leaders, similar to teachers, are impacted by workload

commitments and other stressors unique to the role (Riley, 2017). The shared impact

that growing emphasis on high stakes testing and accountability has had on the roles

of teachers and school leaders alike (Darmody & Smyth, 216; Markow et al, 2013).

One of the challenges for school leaders it appears is delivering authentic professional

opportunities for teachers to develop teaching and learning toward meeting stronger

student outcomes. With respect to school leaders and their implementation of reform

in schools, the literature suggests prescribing how teachers are to teach and what to

teach can prove an impediment for teacher professional engagement (Bucelli, 2017).

School leaders often provide professional development tied with reform and policy,

focused around curriculum instruction, staff management and general administration

requirements. Unfortunately, this approach can be perceived as ‘box ticking’ by staff

where demonstrable impact on teaching and learning is not evident. Another limitation

suggested relates to the lack of longevity and authenticity often associated. In this

study, the perceived disconnect between the agenda of school leaders and their staff

cohort reported by participants aligns further with increasing complexity surrounding

teacher work. Interestingly, the literature asserts that unique challenges face ‘baby

boomer’ teachers within current education systems due to the association of stress,

burnout or disillusionment with the impact of years of mandated reform on their lives

and work (Aaronson & Meckel, 2008; Hargreaves, 2001). The perspectives of Faith

and Jasmine, baby boomers themselves represent an interesting consideration. Both

described a constantly changing landscape within education where reform and policy

appeared ‘cyclic’ in its nature in that they felt at times processes and ways once cast

aside were again returned to in their context (Faith, Interview 2; Jasmine, Interview 1).


They related how, despite teacher work being a space of constant change, relationships

with their students, colleagues and strong school culture were prevailing aspects that

positively influenced their wellbeing and continued professional engagement. Faith’s

comment with respect to responding to various adversity posed during the school year

that “forewarned is forearmed” (Interview 2) suggests a learnt ability through

experience that newly beginning teachers have still to acquire.

The need for school leaders to deliver purposeful professional development that

positively impacts the teaching and learning for students is a core finding of this study.

Contrastingly, additional ‘housekeeping’ or ‘administrative’ requirements impressed

upon teachers were described as inhibiting their wellbeing. Ronald struggled with

apparently “meaningless” or “pointless” (Interview 2) approaches to professional

development during his tenure at the school while Faith reported feeling “frustrated”

and “annoyed” that her “time is being wasted” on professional development that has

“not been well thought through beforehand’ by school leaders responsible for

overseeing it (Interview 1). A suggestion here is that school leaders, although

traditionally former teachers themselves, possess certain limitations in effectively

translating policy and reform when delivering professional development. In a

structural sense, participants’ acknowledgments of a lack of clarity and transparency

suggest a further need for a school implementation framework to be established that

demonstrates valued engagement of staff time. The literature depicts effective

leadership teams as those that assist teachers to advance their self-worth by promoting

shared decision making and developing teacher empowerment in a culture of inquiry

(Dudley, 2013: Griffith, 2004; Rock & Wilson, 2005; Sarason, 1990; Sibbald, 2009;).

Participants described how insufficient consultation and collaboration by school

leaders with staff had led to a largely administrative or outcome-based professional

development model at the expense of other meaningful endeavours to further their

expertise. Cranston & Ehrich (2009) argue that this professional development has been

linked to increasing role complexity. While participants articulated experiencing a

sense of empowerment through the fostering of strong relationships with colleagues

and their students, they reported overall that key aspects of the professional

development model adopted in the school clashed with their educational values in that

role autonomy and relatedness were at times threatened. This corroborates earlier

discussion in the literature review where the capacity of teachers to experience a sense


of relatedness within their environment was linked with school leader management of

teacher workload (Salanova et al, 2011). Furthermore, participant concerns regarding

diminished preparation to time to deliver expected outcomes is linked with stress and

professional disengagement (Feltoe et al, 2016; Precey 2015).

While participants reported spending excess time on peripheral professional

development driven by school leaders, another concern identified was a lack of

consultation with school staff. This was particularly voiced by Harry and Jasmine who

both occupy leadership roles within the school. Although the provision of teacher time

to engage in professional in-services can be perceived as an ‘add on’ where it is not

seen to contribute to core teaching practice, none of the participants discredited

previous endeavours by school leaders in implementing positive psychology in

services. Instead, participants were more critical of leaders following-through with

other strategic agendas perceived as having the capacity to positively impact teaching

and learning. The literature identified concerns surrounding leadership approaches that

manifested meeting complex student needs in mainstream classrooms, continuously

changing curriculum programmes and diverse assessment strategies as inhibiting

factors affecting the nature of teacher work (Hargreaves, 1994). Marcia corroborates

this assertion in her reflection:

…there always seems to be some sort of change, whether it …new syllabus …or just at the school ‘we’re going to take this approach instead’…you always seem like you are having to rewrite things …there is a lot of administrative processes just to prove you’re doing your job…what differentiation you are doing…I don’t know if it is making a difference necessarily to your job…” (Marcia, Interview 1)

Talan related the ineffective approaches of school leaders with a lack of

perception of their staff needs at different junctures of the year where it appears they

are bombarded with different expectations (Interview 1). In essence, participants

described a need for a rethinking and repositioning of the leadership mindset in the

school culture. Gerald highlighted perceived ambiguities in the current approach

adopted by leaders where “cultural expectations for staff [did] not stack up to what”

would be respected “in the shape of just general expectations and routines (Interview

2). The importance of professional dialogue between school leaders and teachers as

well as role clarity for teachers is aligned in the literature with competence

(Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2007). It is suggested that a review of internal policies be

adopted in school contexts so as to articulate a clear approach for leaders, teachers,


students and parents. School perception, policy and effective engagement of parents

in shared vision are aligned in the literature as pertinent variables in conducting any

socio-ecological approach (John-Akinola, 2015). A key challenge embodied within

this approach, however, is ensuring this support complements a transparent

improvement framework for improving the teaching and learning, or otherwise it is

likely to be perceived as an ‘add on’ and be limited in its reach or traction.

Participants highlighted the importance of school leaders to buffer or safeguard

their teachers from the dangers of workload intensification and complexity. The

literature highlights the need for school leaders to be considerate of internal and

external pressures impacting teacher work so that teachers’ social, emotional and

academic wellbeing can be supported (Yang et al, 2009). Where teachers perceive their

school leaders to be actively buffering them from internal and external adversity, their

professional engagement, teaching and classroom environments are positively affected

(Valli & Beuse, 2007). Participants identified the need for leaders to shift their mindset

toward restoring notions of ‘nurture’ and ‘care’ in their approach to professional

development. While they acknowledged that school performance and evidence of

student learning are constants in educational policy, leaders are expected to adopt a

more selective approach in their strategic focus that allows nurture to be cultivated. In

a simplistic sense, well teachers foster well classrooms (Schonert-Reichl & Lawler,

2010). The professional engagement of teachers is linked with their sense of ,

competence, relatedness and autonomy in their context (Woodman et al, 2009).

Positive psychology in-services were described by participants as a nurture-based

approach to supporting teacher wellbeing. Through building awareness of unhealthy

attitudes and behaviours relating to wellbeing, and benefitting from the provision of

tools to build positive relationships and buffer against adversity in their work context,

teachers increase their competence and role satisfaction (Gouda et al, 2016).

Experiences shared by participants suggest that having a leadership group trained in

effective wellbeing promotion in high school contexts has the capacity to make a

stronger difference in supporting staff wellbeing implementation. The literature posits

how the emergence of professional learning groups in schools is an important

consideration to build shared governance and responsibility (Bernard, 2004; Epstein

& Van Voorhis, 2010). For teachers to feel empowered and engaged in a particular

strategic direction this collaboration should be visible between parents, schools and


local community (Salle et al, 2015) rather than implemented top-down from school

leaders without consultation. Their suggestion that leadership credibility among staff

was tied with leaders’ capacity to ensure a clear rather than fragmented strategic

direction is a valuable finding.

5.3.2 School Leadership: ECT and Contract Teacher Wellbeing

Findings from this study shared by participants confirm the important role that

nurture plays in supporting all teachers, especially those that encounter challenges

more acutely. In this study, the term nurture across participant conversations

encompassed a variety of dimensions. Firstly, nurture was linked with the awareness

and responsiveness of school leaders to the wellbeing of their teachers. This awareness

or responsiveness was manifest in the provision of collaborative time for teachers to

engage in cultivating teaching and learning or, in some instances, the provision of

meaningful positive psychology and wellbeing in-service. For most participants, the

need for nurture was discussed as particularly necessary for Contract Teachers and

Early Career Teachers.

For ECT Contract Teachers a key challenge firstly lies in the success of their

integration into high school contexts and, following this, addressing the plethora of

expectations around planning, professional development, observations and outcomes.

Sustaining this level of professional rigour over the initial years is described in the

literature as providing a spate of challenges for schools in terms of delivering effective

mentorship models and, for ECT and contract teachers, with respect to retention

(Roffey, 2012). The literature identifies how familial, financial and alternative

employment factors can influence ECT to leave the profession. In terms of teacher

wellbeing, the literature also highlights how the current climate of performativity,

standards and overcrowded curriculum are further factors impacting teachers’ desire

to continue in the profession (Gallant & Riley, 2014). The multi-faceted nature of the

role has meant that teacher work has become particularly challenging for ECT who are

transitioning from a university lifestyle to the traditional patterns of high schools

(Friedman, 2000; Johnson et al, 2015). Some of the literature describes how teachers

who have newly entered the profession possessing high motivation, commitment and

idealism are confronted by a reality at odds with expectations. They further describe


how exhaustion and, potentially, burnout can be a consequence of this conflict

(Friedman, 2000). Along with addressing similar performativity measures as

experienced teachers, ECT are further challenged to establish new routines, build and

sustain relationships and continuously develop their practice through robust

probationary programmes (Johnson et al, 2015). The increasingly changing and

complex workload connoted can adversely impact ECT wellbeing.

While ECTs engage with an extensive workload in an effort to retain

employment they are less likely to request support from school leaders given the

perceived harm it can cause in that it demonstrates a lack of capacity (Krueger, 2000;

Stuart & Thurlow, 2000). Some participants (n=3) indicated that, in the early years of

teaching, it was best practice not to draw attention to any challenges or deficiencies

given the potential impact on sustaining employment as ECT or contract. In a sense,

this finding corroborates earlier deductions drawn in Section 5.3.2.1 regarding the

existence of ‘mistrust’ among teachers due to a perceived lack of support from school

leaders. It described how school leaders’ emphases on student performance and

curriculum delivery had at times appeared misdirected or even at the cost of other

meaningful priorities such as positive psychology. Within OECD nations between 25-

40 per cent of beginning teachers are likely to leave the profession within the first five

years of teaching (Day & Gu, 2010). In response to growing attrition levels, the

literature suggests a need for stronger mentorship or induction processes during the

early career stages to be adopted in schools (Gallant & Riley, 2014; Roffey, 2012).

However, it is important to note that early departures by ECT from the profession may

also be due to personal circumstances outside of the control of school leaders (Burke

et al, 2013). Further, some attrition levels suggest stronger opportunity for graduate

teachers in schools as well as a shifting mindset for graduate teachers in the profession

who do not necessarily regard teaching as a long-term commitment from the outset

(Plunkett & Dyson, 2011). Interestingly, two participants in the study - Marcia and

Talan - represent a demographic who only relatively recently graduated past their first

five years of experience as teachers.

Having completed rural service before transferring to Leafy State High School,

Marcia’s experience in transitioning to this new environment is notable. On entering

the rural setting, she received a mixed response from the school staff: one collegial

faction positively responding to an experienced transfer bringing knowledge to the


context, while another faction was seemingly disappointed given that certain contract

teachers were arbitrarily redistributed following Marcia’s arrival (Marcia, Interview

1). She described an initial feeling of “if you really don’t want me, don’t take me then”

before identifying some of the legitimate reasons some may not opt to leave schools

for rural service with respect to family commitments (Interview 1). Graduate teachers

are offered contracts in metropolitan and rural schools and, in instances where

requirements are met, offered the prized security of permanency (Bluett, 2007). In

contrast, the presence of contractual employment has the potential to disrupt the

development of a sense of belonging in the profession given teachers are restricted in

being able to build meaningful connections between colleagues and schools (Plunkett

& Dyson, 2011). However, in the state where this study was conducted, schools are

restricted in the sense that contracts can be negotiated and renewed over three years of

service whereas teachers who have attained permanency can receive priority in terms

of employment. Consequently, contract teachers – much like ECTs – often find

themselves working from ‘pillar to post’ and under abject scrutiny around their

performance and meeting of standards (Gerald, Interview 2; Jasmine, Interview 2) in

an effort to sustain job security and continuity. Marcia remarked how fortunate she

was that she herself did not have to undergo the “added stress” experienced by ECT

and contract teachers who up until “the last week of a term” can still be “unsure of

whether they have a job the next term and year” (Interview 1). The experience of Talan,

the only contract teacher among the participants in the study, confirms this experience

of vulnerability and role insecurity. As a teacher who had transferred from overseas

into the metropolitan region, he described scenarios each year where a negotiation at

the leadership level would occur right at the end of the school calendar year with

respect to his employment continuity. At Leafy State High School Talan described

“work in isolation” as an impediment; however, when questioned regarding his views

on job security as a Contract Teacher, he indicated being unfazed by the matter overall

(Interview 1).

Whether this perception of job security is representative of wider experiences of

contract teachers within high schools compared with ECT is questionable given that

research identifies that for both groups experiences of angst, stress and a lack of self-

efficacy can be common (Roffey, 2012). It is important to note further that Leafy State

High School as a setting since 2008 has experienced very low turnover of staff who


were either ECT or contract teachers. While the literature describes low staff turnover

and heightened role satisfaction as critical predictors to effective leadership models in

schools (Griffith, 2004), this study found other unmeasurable aspects such as collegial

and community support were more discriminating factors. The literature also points to

socio-economic factors surrounding school contexts that can influence staff turnover

in that schools in lower socio-economic regions tend to have moderately higher

turnover levels (Ingersoll & May, 2001). A similar case could be made with respect to

individual characteristics of teachers influencing decisions to remain or leave school

contexts (Boe et al, 1997). Whether this can be causally linked with school practices,

sense of community or relationships is difficult to determine.

Participants’ reporting of professional isolation was identified as an inhibiting

factor in their context. Most participants reported deriving a stronger sense of

wellbeing as a consequence of purposeful professional relationships in their work

context. This associated impact regarding school performance and individual morale

and engagement is articulated in the literature (Mansfield et al, 2014; Preston &

Samford, 2002; Wyn et al, 2000). It is suggested that schools be guided by the value

in establishing necessary collaborations and networks within their contexts and that

this not only apply to ECT and contract teachers but all teachers for a sustainable

model.

The perspectives of Faith and Jasmine are of further relevance to this discussion.

Faith described how “young teachers today” are met with expectations to keep up to

date with the latest educational theory while ensuring “differentiation” and use of

“data” in a climate where mastery of subject and increasing diversity in ability is

expected (Faith, Interview 1). Simultaneously, ECT are trying to establish a

professional identity within their context. Faith described this as a “double whammy”

(Interview 1). Participant perceptions suggest inherent issues within expectations for

ECT whereby their capacity as new recruits to the field from various institutional

learning contexts and tertiary experience programmes is effectively overlooked

(Plunkett & Dyson, 2011). Alternatively, Jasmine described anecdotally witnessing

multiple colleagues experience “disempowerment” as a consequence of the contract

employment model adopted in state school contexts. She suggested it leads to the

cultivation of a “poor” message for those affected, who are powerless in terms of role

security at any given time of the year (Jasmine, Interview 2). Rather than attributing


responsibility for this discomfort to school leadership, Jasmine’s reflections

encompass deeper systemic challenges facing the state education school sectors

nation-wide. In the literature review, heightened accountability (Kelchtermans, 2007)

and a more de-personalised role associated (Leithwood & Earl, 2000) was described

as diminishing the voice of teachers and contributing to feelings of disempowerment

similar to Jasmine’s reflections. It can be assumed from participant data and research

that both ECT and contract teachers feel disempowered in schools due both to

excessive complexity and lack of security in their roles.

5.4 INSTITUTIONAL PROCESSES AND FACTORS

5.4.1 School and Teacher Accountability Models

With respect to institutional reform and policy enacted in high schools, teacher

perceptions of inhibiting factors largely centred on administrative workload and the

nature of approaches adopted in measuring teacher performativity. Where participants

perceived professional development as being anchored to improving outcomes relating

to standardised testing platforms with little actual consultation or dialogue between

teachers, their ‘buy-in’ was diminished and subsequently their engagement declined.

Participants reported how growing demands surrounding the nature of the role in the

current climate had the potential to deleteriously impact their work-life balance. This

finding is consistent with literature in the areas of role satisfaction and teacher

engagement (Burchielli & Bartram, 2003). It further highlights the challenging

position faced by school leaders who face the dilemma of supporting the interests of

the state and clients, which can often come at the cost of teacher motivation and role

satisfaction (Mosse 2005). Participants reported feelings of frustration toward school

leaders where implementation of reform and policy was perceived as inauthentic or

paying lip service to external expectations. While regional, state and federal

institutions impose demands on schools, it is the responsibility of their leaders to

provide adequate avenues for teachers to deliver such measures while maintaining a

suitable work-life balance. School leaders were responsible for driving the

development of positive school culture (Peterson & Deal, 2011); however,

microsystemic factors such as processes and procedures manifest in reform can inhibit

their ability to garner support from their staff (McCallum & Price, 2012). Participants


referred to school leaders as well as external reformists – through the guise of DET –

as being responsible for the increasing demands and expectations. Marcia provided the

following reflection:

It’s funny that in just six years that I’ve been teaching, how many things you [can] see change…I can see why teachers [who] have been teaching for fifty years [are] like ‘it’s back to that model again’…different governments coming in and wanting to introduce new things and I guess sometimes there’s only so many new things you can do before they go back to an old model…even with a new syllabus…they’re coming out so quickly all the time…the model of teaching is constantly changing and that gets tiring (Interview 1)

Key perceptions articulated by some of the participants with respect to workload

expectations centred on school leaders “constantly adding [sic]” responsibilities, yet

seldom removing anything in lieu of these workload increases (Talan, Interview 1;

Dante, Interview 2; Gerald, Interview 1). The need for a more deliberate, shared and

transparent approach in the provision of professional development relates to this

notion. For school leaders, the challenge lies in meeting external demands at the

federal, state and regional level around performativity, while engaging their staff in a

shared manner in processes that need to demonstrate direct impact on teacher practice

without being perceived as an ‘add on’ to their load (Scott & Dinham, 2003). While

professional development is essential in bringing teacher cohorts together toward

building positive school culture where teacher morale, engagement and satisfaction

are optimal (Apple, 2001), it appears that school leader decisions do not tap into the

wider motivations of teachers nor the process in which change typically occurs.

Effective professional development is tied with increasing wellbeing where

participants derive a sense of improved competence, greater role satisfaction as well

as demonstrable results relating to student learning outcomes as a consequence

(Guskey, 2002).

The literature review identified reformist models of increased accountability

around performativity as negatively impacting teacher wellbeing. Increasing technical

control and scrutiny over teacher work was described as serving ‘neo-liberal’ or

‘proletarianised’ agendas (Bach et al, 2006; Robertson, 1996) linked with declining

role autonomy, competence and self-efficacy (Darling-Hammond et al, 2002; Klassen

et al, 2011; O’Donoghue, 1994). The research cautioned against the related impact to

teacher practice, suggesting that – akin to the experiences of the UK and US – such

technical control had the capacity to deskill and depersonalise the teacher workforce


(Rumschlag, 2017). Some participants (n=4) described how external pressures posed

by meeting NAPLAN benchmarks and other school performativity measures exerted

a deleterious impact on the integrity of their role as educators. The narrowing of

curriculum and teacher practice is aligned with a declining sense of teacher role

relatedness, low professional morale, engagement and satisfaction (Salanova et al,

2011). While technical control is further evidenced through the inception of the P-12

Australian Curriculum and professional standards (AITSL) for all teachers,

participants reported positive impacts in their growth in practice. Jasmine in particular

highlighted gains as a faculty leader in implementing the Australian Curriculum. She

reflected on how curriculum leaders emerged within the faculty through this shared

project. Furthermore, given it was identified as being a “need”, there was “a sense of

accomplishment” felt where a certain “synergy” could be experienced in engaging

with a project that importantly was “planned for, people contributed” to and “signed

off” on (Jasmine, Interview 1). The effectiveness of the professional learning

community evidenced in Jasmine’s reflections should not be underestimated. It

perhaps highlights how shared decision-making among teacher teams can contribute

to wider school agendas.

One of the key recommendations from an Adelaide study exploring effective

school culture was that the establishment of professional learning communities where

all teachers were expected to be leaders of learning was critical to embedding positive

school culture (Johnson et al, 2015). Individual wellbeing can be linked with positive

school culture in that the fulfilment of goals (Deci & Ryan, 2011; Ryan & Deci, 2000;

Ryan & Deci, 2017), sense of purposeful challenge (Czikszentmihalyi, 1997) and

increased arousal levels assist in building effective teaching teams (Keyes & Simoes,

2012). In contrast, where ‘aspirational’ or professional learning groups work in

isolation their efforts thus become parochial in reach and focus (Fullan, 2011). The

term professional isolation here refers to the fragmented ramifications associated with

a lack of shared culture in schools. It is clear from participant data that the

meaningfulness of positive psychology professional development sessions previously

were wholly supported; however, the approaches adopted to date were marred by

ineffective use of time, resourcing and transparency in their synergy with strategic

directions of the school. It suggests a key challenge for school leaders is deciding

where to place a targeted, wellbeing professional development programme supporting


teachers in their contexts. Participants described a dynamic of growing intensification

and workload in the current climate due to expectations around performativity and

accountability. They highlighted the value of environmental conditions that enabled

time for collaboration in teaching and learning with colleagues and further indicated

the importance of feeling a sense of a shared voice in strategic decisions around

teaching and learning in their context. Both Gerald and Ronald further remarked that

sufficient scope was still available in their curriculum to be creative and innovative in

their practice. The literature asserts that high levels of autonomy can be linked with

job satisfaction (Pearson & Moomaw, 2006), while prescribed benchmarks and

outcomes imposed on schools through the defining of curriculum can lead to a

deskilling of the workforce (Bach et al, 2006). A significant challenge to teacher

wellbeing is tied to the increased workload complexity for teachers and the resultant

impact on role satisfaction (Williamson & Myhill, 2008). Marcia reported how the

“biggest thing” affecting her wellbeing in the current environment related to “pressure

about the outcomes” (Interview 1). She cited external performativity pressures

experienced by schools regarding ‘pass’ results for students, leading to increased

scaffolding, and consequent teacher reluctance to deliver favourable judgments of

student achievement based on expectations of school leaders (Interview 1). The

researcher gleaned from conversations with Marcia, Jasmine and Talan the notion that

pressures around student achievement within current performativity models had led to

a narrowing of focus to quantitative outcomes using prescribed data sets. Importantly,

they suggest that this had the capacity to affect the fidelity and quality of the teaching

and learning in schools.

Although participants reported tighter controls and expectations around the

nature of teacher work, they acknowledged that a sufficient degree of control over

curriculum delivery remained and this in turn led to feelings of ownership and

autonomy. However, the socio-economic position of the school should be considered

when interpreting this finding. Whether similar levels of autonomy are evident in other

high school contexts, particularly those in regional or remote areas, is debatable.

Marcia’s experience affirms this point. Her five-year tenure in a remote high school

was presented as markedly different compared with her experience at Leafy State High

School. She noted:


I felt like I was constantly proving, showing evidence of what I was doing…so much [of the] time, and you felt like there was no trust…at the end of each term you feel …down …I was always having to prove myself (Interview 1).

Participants did report growing concerns regarding the increased load associated with

teacher work combined with a lack of preparation time. Where the role of teachers

exists within a routinized and administration-laden environment, the wellbeing of

teachers is negatively affected (Ballet et al, 2006; Easton, 1991; Fullan, 2007). They

further identified the paradox existing in the current educational climate whereby

teachers are expected to meet performance measures in a multi-faceted role yet receive

diminished time for planning, work and skill organisation to be effective practitioners

for students. The literature review referred to this paradox as ‘economic rationalism’

and cited governance by school leaders on behalf of reformists as being largely

responsible (Atweh & Singh, 2011; Bullough, 2011; Easthope, 2000). Participants

indicated a desire for more discerning policy implementation by school leaders. The

literature highlighted the positive impact for teacher wellbeing associated with the

provision of more teacher preparation time and allowing for stronger autonomy over

the teaching and learning (Adoniou, 2012). Many participants confirmed the value of

this approach in cultivating relationships between teachers and school leaders as well

as serving to strengthen perceptions of school culture.

5.5 TEACHER RELATIONSHIPS

Schools are microcosms through which diverse relationship dynamics are

evident and this interplay encompasses school leaders, teachers and students alike. The

success of school culture is inextricably tied with the relationships existing both

internally (teachers, leaders, students) and externally (parents, community). For

teachers, a fundamental need to belong exists (Baumeister & Leary, 1995), and their

engagement in healthy relationships can therefore impact their wellbeing positively.

Supportive relationships built on experiences of trust and nurture are identified as

increasing teacher relatedness to role and context (Evans & Prillstensky, 2007).

Stemming from this is a gaining of self-efficacy (Bandura, 2006), stronger personal

aspiration (Muijs & Reynolds, 2002), improved attitude toward innovation and change

(Guskey, 1998) and, finally, improved retention for teachers within their schools

(Weiss, 1999). All participants reported collegial relationships as a strong determinant


that influences and sustains their wellbeing. While a range of relationship dynamics

exist within school contexts, participants related strongly with teacher-to-teacher

relationships and teacher-to-student relationships. They referred to a sense of

belonging emerging as a consequence of both collegial and student-centred

relationships performing at strong levels. Notably, relationships between teachers and

school leaders were described by some participants as impacting their perceptions of

school culture. Where school leaders sought to buffer their teachers from an

intensifying workload, the former were perceived as being effective in their practice.

5.5.1 Teacher-teacher relationships

Most participants reported a link between strong collegial relationships and

positive experiences of wellbeing and engagement as teachers. The literature suggests

that where teachers perceive their peers as willing to support in a purposeful,

empathetic manner – whether professionally or personally – they are able to

reciprocate (Caprara et al, 2006; Roffey, 2012). The quality of these relationships is a

predictor for how effective teachers feel in their daily work and lives (Day & Gu, 2010;

Deci & Ryan, 2011; Ryan & Deci, 2000; Ryan & Deci, 2017). An element of intrinsic

satisfaction can be linked to participants’ reported sense of purpose and meaning in

their roles within the school as it served to build and reinforce their motivation and

commitment. In this sense, belonging and purpose are inextricably linked with

professional morale and engagement (Evans, 1998). Participants reported making

positive contributions to the lives of their students rather than the culture of the school

and this served as a primary motivating factor.

In contrast, Talan described a scenario at school where a colleague confronted

him over a disagreement about policy implementation which led to them “screaming”

and “boiling over” in full view of a staffroom of witnesses (Interview 2). The impact

of this conflict for Talan’s wellbeing appeared significant:

I didn’t even want to come to work because it was just like, this is just pointless, everything I’m doing [they] are making me look like an idiot…[they] have been teaching …for a long time and you might appear to be a younger teacher…it might be because of me but it might not be because of me (Interview 2).

It is suggested that professional disagreement and teaching expertise were central

catalysts underpinning this confrontation. While critical discussion and mentorship


models for younger teachers are important models in education, in the context of this

experience they served as variables that effectively contributed to a decline in morale

and confidence for Talan. The experiences of Talan support the literature in that, where

strong collegiality and efficaciousness permeate work contexts at school, higher job

satisfaction is evident (Bandura, 2006; Caprara et al, 2006; Karademas, 2006; Podell

& Soodak, 1993).

A further risk to the development of collegial environments reported by

participants was the “silo” or isolationist “departmental” cultures within faculty areas,

described as an impediment to the success of any shared agenda across the school

(Marcia, Interview 1; Ronald, Interview 2; Talon, Interview 1; Harry, Interview 1).

Given the size of the school, the division of teachers into faculty areas can be a

deliberate decision from school leaders to ensure curriculum conversations and support

processes are promoted effectively. However, participants are arguably suggesting that

this division has cultivated insular faculty environments within schools. This insularity

limits cross-faculty collaboration and a range of associated opportunities. Ronald

described how liaising with other teachers on curriculum and “non-school related

issues” was valuable in that it allowed for “de-stress” and growth in “talking to other

people who have the same values, attitudes and beliefs” (Interview 2). Marcia similarly

described feeling that your “opinion or your voice is heard” and that being “given the

resources” to “do your job properly” is an important facet of the role, and these gained

“relationships or friendships” have the capacity to make “you feel happy going to work

each day” (Interview 1). School leaders are responsible for overseeing the

collaboration of teachers in whole-school processes; however, some participants

suggested that homogeneous whole-school visions and reforms are compromised to an

extent by isolationist faculty staffroom models.

One of the challenges highlighted by most participants in the study was allowing

for collegial time to build relationships amid an ever-increasing and complex workload

(Harry, Interview 1; Ronald Interview 2; Jasmine, Interview 1; Marcia, Interview 1;

Faith, Interview 1). The literature highlights how principals in particular play a major

role in teachers’ level of relational trust or mistrust in terms of cultivating positive

school culture (Louis, 2007), managing workload and allowing preparation time

(Feltoe et al, 2016; Travers & Cooper, 2007). Where collaboration and trust are

reciprocal, the likelihood of trust among teacher cohorts is enhanced. This in turn can


lead to stronger collaboration. Based on participant perceptions of the role of leaders

to ‘buffer’ against unreasonable interference to core practice (Jasmine, Interview 1;

Gerald, Interview 1; Ronald, Interview 1; Dante, Interview 2), it is assumed that they

operate as a vital conduit in socio-ecological school model. The literature supports this

assertion by arguing an important aspect of the role of school leaders lies in their

provision of critical tools through professional development that has the capacity to

increase teacher efficacy, intrinsic motivation and therein students outcomes (Scribner,

1999; Wagner & French, 2010). Furthermore, where it is suspected that the agenda of

school leaders is blurred by their response to demands for change and performativity,

the bond between them and their teachers is likely to be threatened.

5.5.2 Teacher-school leader relationships

Of the four most significant stressors for teachers identified in the literature, an

environment of constant change and poor transparency are most related to the

influence of school leaders (Travers & Cooper, 2007). While they are not necessarily

responsible for the continuous change affecting the profession, school leaders are

perceived by teachers as important conduits who act to buffer or diminish the potential

intensification of workload. Where their practices involve engaging shared decision-

making and positive affirmation of teacher efforts, the research suggests teacher

relatedness and competence are reinforced. Their role gratification and willingness to

stay in the field are positively impacted (Cancio, Albrecht & Johns, 2013). Research

has highlighted how purposeful engagement and arousal is necessary for teachers to

establish a sense of person-environmental connection (Muchinsky & Monahan, 1987).

For most participants, approaches to teacher accountability, measures of

performativity and a lack of nurture are key factors identified as inhibiting their

wellbeing (Ronald, Interview 2; Jasmine, Interview 2; Faith, Interview 1; Marcia,

Interview 1; Harry, Interview 1; Gerald Interview 1). The limitations associated with

school leaders’ implementation of policy and reform were discussed earlier in Section

5.3.1. Participants appeared to distrust the integrity of certain processes implemented

by school leaders. The literature aligns the erosion of trust between teachers and school

leaders as a potential catalyst to the withdrawal of the former from fervently

contributing to the organisation (Robinson, 1996). It is assumed that, where this

relationship erosion is most pronounced, the health of the work environment will

suffer. Research has linked the absence of effective leader-follower relationships and


meaningful school culture with declining teacher morale and professional engagement

behaviours (Handford & Leithwood, 2013; Podsakoff et al, 1990; Tschannen-Moran

& Hoy, 2007).

A notable finding from the study relates to the role of gratitude in buoying

teacher engagement. While Ronald identified a lack of gratitude as indicative of

limited school leader insight into internal operations of strong teachers (Interview 1),

Dante conversely related that receiving gratitude from school leaders or others was not

something sought personally or necessarily influencing his state of wellbeing

(Interview 2). Most participant described collaboration as ad hoc in its execution rather

than as a systemic embedding and compulsory part of the teaching and learning cycles.

Importantly, teachers acknowledged in this study the positive affect of working in

whether the responsibility for gratitude lies with leaders or colleagues is not

specifically stated in the research, teachers’ sense of empowerment is linked with

collegial recognition and this emerges from effective collaborative teaching teams

(Fullan, 2008; Nelson et al, 2013). This illustrates the compatibility of both wellbeing

and performance agendas in schools

Irrespective of whether the responsibility lies with colleagues or school leaders,

the literature orientates teachers’ underlying need for companionship, identity and

belonging as being tied to an extent with recognition by school leaders of the

professional contributions of their teaching staff (Mitchell & Sackney, 2000). Harry

commented about how gratitude did occasionally occur during ‘staff briefings’ on

Monday mornings; however, he likened the approach to a “cheer squad” (Interview 1).

While ‘staff briefings’ may not necessarily be the appropriate forum to convey

gratitude, these reflections suggest that where gratitude is applied during these

ceremonies, the delivery lacks substance and is fleeting in its nature. Yet the literature

does identify how gratitude in work environments can help to consolidate and secure

supportive social relationships (Chan, 2013; Seligman et al, 2005). Essentially, teacher

application of gratitude has been demonstrated to strengthen peer relationships as well

as encourage individual reflectiveness of aspects for which they are grateful (Emmons

& McCullough, 2003). Obviously, there are ramifications in terms of increasing

positive experiences of wellbeing when gratitude is adopted effectively and equitably.

The subjective and multi-layered nature of gratitude as a phenomenon can make it

challenging for school leaders and teachers to naturally adopt within their routine and

practice. It is suggested that, first and foremost, school leaders more actively and


substantially consider the role of gratitude in effecting a positive shift in their current

relational models (Fullan, 2008).

While the research highlights the importance of school leaders to ensure

recognition and value for their staff are consistently expressed in order to increase

motivation and satisfaction, participants. Findings from this study highlighted the

ambiguity of the role of gratitude in school contexts among peers and leaders.

5.5.3 Teacher-student relationships

The formation of strong bonds with students for teachers is a critical factor that

can be a powerful influence on teachers’ mental health (Hattie, 2013). In fact, the

establishment and sustaining of long-term meaningful connections with students and

colleagues engendered within teaching is a facet non-existent in other professions

(Klassen et al, 2012). From a vocational standpoint, working with children is one of

the key reasons that individuals enter the profession (Roffey, 2012). Participants

reported how “feeling that I’m contributing in some way is really a critical component”

of their “feeling good about what’s happening in the classroom,” the associated “sense

of doing a good job” can buoy the arousal and morale levels as a consequence

(Jasmine, Interview 2; Talan, Interview 2; Gerald, Interview 1). Talan described his

own professional arousal being heightened by making a challenging student “feel

safe”, reminding them that “we care” and “want [them] to do well” to “break the cycle”

of disadvantage which can hinder the progression of some students. His statement

“that’s why you teach, these are the moments” neatly summarises the perceptions of

participants in the study regarding the importance of teacher-to-student relationships.

Whereas the challenges posed by behaviour management are identified in the literature

as potentially inhibiting teacher wellbeing (Hagenauer et al, 2015), none of the

participants in this study identified this as a factor affecting them personally. However,

it must be noted that the socio-economic position of the school may be a contributing

factor given the likely low severity of challenging student behaviour. Another factor

to consider in this finding is the role that community plays in influencing the attitudes,

perceptions and behaviours of students. Importantly, for schools in lower socio-

economic areas as well as remote areas, it is possible that student behaviour may be

reported as an inhibiting factor.


5.6 SUMMARY

This chapter provided a discussion of findings obtained through the study with

regards to teacher perceptions of school practices affecting their wellbeing. It began

by describing the role that school culture plays in impacting teacher wellbeing. Data

revealed how a need for a shared, transparent vision from school leaders is an

important ingredient in building a positive school culture. Next, it discussed the nature

of holistic health promoting school models that embrace a wide range of stakeholders.

It suggested that a key alternative to top-down leaderships models lay in approaches

engaging collaboration and shared voice from teachers, students, parents and local

community. Following this, the need for school leaders to be more aware of the

emotional challenges facing teacher work in current contexts was discussed. The

discussion next observed institutional processes and factors impinging on the nature

of teacher work. In particular, performativity measures gauged through standardised

platforms were related to increasing workload and public scrutiny. Finally, the chapter

discussed the importance of healthy relationships in school contexts that are open and

collaborative; therein, it aligned teacher perceptions of belonging to their relationships

with colleagues, leaders and students.

Chapter 6: Conclusions 119

Chapter 6: Conclusions

6.1 SUMMARY

This chapter concludes the study, summarises the overall findings, and proposes

directions for future research. It commences by addressing the research question and

sub-question that guided the investigation. Additionally, a synopsis of findings that

relate to the research question and sub-question are outlined. Following this, a

summary of the significance associated with the study is presented before potential

limitations are outlined. Recommendations for practice are then discussed, before

suggestions for further research in the field are proposed.

6.2 AIM, SCOPE AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS

This qualitative case study investigated teacher perceptions of wellbeing in a

high school context. The following research questions guided the investigation:


wellbeing?


wellbeing?


While wellbeing research has gained particular momentum in recent decades, the

primary focus of both qualitative and quantitative studies has adopted a student-

centred perspective where social, emotional and academic factors related to students’

wellbeing were measured and explored. As a consequence, the voices of teachers

themselves - a critical conduit in the delivery of diverse student outcomes - has

seemingly been omitted from the body of research to date. Where studies have looked

to explore teacher wellbeing, quantitative research methods such as surveys have been

the main instruments utilised. By drawing upon teacher perspectives of wellbeing

through a descriptive case study design, this research has added rich data to the

burgeoning field of wellbeing in education today.


The data collection for this research study was conducted at Leafy State High

School - a setting located within a mid to high socio-economic metropolitan district in

an Australian capital city. It is a site that has uniquely engaged with a range of

deliberate, supportive professional development opportunities in targeting teacher

wellbeing. Each of the eight participants in the study was selected through purposive

sampling techniques to ensure a range of teacher expertise, gender and experience was

represented in the data. In particular, a broad cross-section of teacher experience

informed the data: Marcia and Talan (5-8 years); Ronald and Gerald (8-13 years);

Dante (10-15 years); Harry (15-20 years); and Jasmine and Faith (30-40 years). Their

unique perspectives on school practices from a range of differing career stages aids the

credibility of findings.

6.3 CONCLUSIONS FROM STUDY

The study explored and evaluated teacher perceptions of factors within their

work environment that impacted upon their wellbeing. The following section includes

recommendations around the major findings that emerged in the study. Importantly,

these recommendations are specific to the location of the case study and are not wholly

translatable or generalizable to fit other contexts. There exists a degree of adaptability;

however, within the recommendations for other school contexts to be considered for

professional reflection and discussion. A wide range of educational bodies, including

independent, Catholic and primary education sectors, may consider for adaptability

purposes.

The need for balance in the blending of top-down and bottom-up leadership

practices to engage teachers in authentic professional learning and development.. For

example, school leaders, who are responsible for managing the wellbeing o their

teachers, should aim to provide strong transparency around the strategic direction of

wellbeing in the school. The potential for clarity appeared affected by the plethora of

expectations and crowded nature of other agendas promoted in the school around

performativity. Importantly, none of the participants in this study were leaders at the

administrative level and therefore this perspective was effectively not captured in the

data. In the context of schools, adopting an ecological approach toward implementing

wellbeing involves a clear embedding across policy, curriculum, internal structures


and practice. Inherent within this model is the involvement of school leaders, teachers,

students, parents and local community in a shared and consultative way. Where

approaches were perceived as ad hoc, blurred or disconnected the participant teachers

reported a level of demotivation to engage with school leaders. While the attraction to

positive psychology and wellbeing theory will continue to be recognised as valuable

and necessary, a limitation in the current models of practice in schools is that teacher-

centred focus is sacrificed due to an emphasis primarily on student welfare. A key

challenge for school leaders lies in the provision of meaningful professional

development that serves to complement rather than intensify teacher workload. This

study highlighted the merit in both volunteer and mandatory wellbeing in-services.

Participants viewed these experiences as positively impacting their teaching and

learning and a complement for their professional development. Among the more

important findings of this study was the reinforcement of the need for teachers to feel

a sense of competence, autonomy and relatedness in their roles. The existence of these

factors was aligned with positive feelings of heightened morale, engagement and

improved wellbeing.

The provision of adequate time for teachers to engage in wellbeing support

programmes while continuing to meet institutional reform and policy agendas in the

school context will certainly challenge leaders. Notably, this research has

recommended that more discerning consultation be evident in schools between leaders

and their teacher cohorts toward identifying purposeful professional development

rather than intensifying or complicating workload through administration-laden

expectations. Engendered within this discourse is ongoing consultation between

school leaders and teachers. Where professional learning is negotiated between

teachers and school leaders toward a shared improvement agenda, the likelihood of

teachers experiencing fulfilment, relatedness and autonomy is increased.

For schools to properly advocate for ecological models, a shift in mindset is

recognised. Those traditional constructs of control and compliance engendered within

education leadership need to shift toward shared, collaborative engagement of teachers

in whole-school endeavours. The formation of Professional Learning Communities

(PLC) is one avenue adopted by schools to allow teacher-driven – as opposed to top-

down leadership driven – collaboration and decision making around aspects identified

as strategically necessary within the context of the school. Where membership on these


PLCs is mandatory and a breadth of choice is provided to accommodate the respective

passions or interests of a diverse teaching cohort, increased engagement is likely given

that equity in expectations underpins this approach. This study brought to the fore

participant perceptions of mistrust in the capacity of school leadership teams to build

stronger awareness of unhealthy attitudes and behaviours among their teaching teams.

Additionally, it highlighted the importance of transparency and authentic

representation in school messages around identity among schools and the wider

community. Schools seeking to implement whole-school wellbeing should adopt an

inclusive model where shared collaboration is fostered and a variety of stakeholders

(e.g. school leaders, teachers, students, parents and community) have shared

responsibilities in the promulgation of the programme within the school context.

Importantly, this study confirmed the role of school leaders as key linchpins in

positively moving reform within school contexts. It particularly articulated a need for

stronger consideration of teacher workload balance from school leaders within this

reformist climate.

Relationships. This study demonstrated the importance of teacher relatedness

to their roles in managing their morale, engagement and overall wellbeing. One of the

primary factors identified across participant narratives was how open, collaborative

and collegial relationships had the capacity to buoy and support individual wellbeing.

Similarly, participants acknowledged the empowering nature that teacher-to-student

relationships had cultivated in their work life. It found that collegial relationships in

schools effectively served to buffer against perceived pressures imposed by school

leaders and policy makers. For some participants, it further highlighted a perceived

disconnect between teachers and their school leaders in the current context.

Some participants aligned ‘frustration’, ‘lack of nurture’ and ‘lack of

transparency’ with aspects of the leadership approach within the school. Where lines

of demarcation are evident between teachers and their leadership group, ecological

models of collaborative enquiry and shared decision-making are diminished. Given

the current climate of accountability and constant reform it is critical that school

leaders and teachers work harmoniously in their environment. Opportunities for

collaboration and shared decision-making can manifest in deliberate consultation with

teachers and community. Recently, the emergence of PLCs across teacher cohorts has

been one example of an effective model of ensuring teachers are offered engagement


in matters pertaining to school identity or culture. Where role satisfaction is low among

teacher cohorts, substantive changes like reform within schools are challenged.

Therefore, school leaders need to sensitively and strategically plan reform processes

which proactively engage and support teachers. One manifestation includes the

deliberate designing of opportunities for teacher collaboration which has the capacity

to reinforce or build communities of practice within schools. This study found the

relational engagement underpinning these opportunities strengthened individuals’

relatedness to school culture and leadership teams. Where teacher engagement is

perceived as purposeful as well as value adding to professional practice, educational

reform facilitation and capacity building within schools are likely outcomes. This

implies a shift in reform methodology. The notion of placing teacher wellbeing at the

forefront of strategic direction can allow for the building of a culture of reciprocity

among teachers in schools.

Contextual factors impacting teacher wellbeing. This study highlighted how

contextual factors can influence participant perceptions of school practices affecting

their wellbeing. Firstly, the socio-economic status of the school exerts influence over

the types of challenges met by teachers in this context with respect to student behaviour

and working conditions. Positioned in a mid to high socio-economic metropolitan

district, Leafy State High School has consistently achieved strong cultural and

academic outcomes for its students. These heightened standards were described by

participants as creating an environment where increasing workload, administrative

duties and performativity dominated teacher work. Whether similar or different

complexities exist in other metropolitan or even remote schools is difficult to

determine. A key sentiment across participant conversations was that experiences of

stress and workload increase could be managed through the development and

sustaining of collegial relationships. The notion that relatedness or connectedness to

their colleagues positively influences the professional engagement of teachers is a

novel finding from this study. The ever-increasing nature of workload complexity and

intensification continues to pose problems for teacher wellbeing, especially for ECT

who toil through a myriad of other challenges in their establishing of a professional

identity in schools. If evidence confirms that well teachers positively affect their

learning environments, then continuing pressure surrounding teacher workload,

accountability and professional standards – factors that can potentially inhibit teacher


wellbeing - seems an unrealistic combination. Therein lies a contradiction. If deliberate

steps are not taken toward reducing administrative or peripheral layers associated with

teacher roles it is likely that teacher perceptions of school leaders and systemic

influences will further decline.

Institutional processes impacting Early Career Teachers (ECT) and Contract

Teachers. This study highlighted systemic issues for ECT and contract teachers in

schools. In an effort to secure continued employment, they face a myriad of challenges

while attempting to seamlessly transitioning from their previous tertiary or

professional context. Participants provided anecdotal experiences as well as

observations of colleagues where their desire to impress and demonstrate capacity

meant they were less likely to request assistance or support from school leaders.

Conditions of workload complexity and intensification for both ECT and Contract

Teachers can lead to feelings of isolation. In Australia, the retention of teachers during

their first five years of service is an escalating issue.

School programmes that support ECT and Contract Teachers ought to be

underpinned by effective mentorship models. Currently schools access funding for

beginning teachers to implement mentorship or probationary programmes that

discontinue after the initial year of teaching. For Contract Teachers who are outside of

the scope of beginning teacher mentor programmes, the extent of support is distinctly

less when compared with beginning teachers. Therefore, among the core tenets of

effective leaders should be a provision of effective workload management, access to

confidential professional and personal support services and, where possible, stronger

clarity around employment continuity during the school year for beginning Permanent

Teacher and Contract Teacher classifications alike. ECT and Contract Teachers

require strengths-based feedback from mentors and school leaders to support their

adjustment and development of more realistic expectations regarding their personal

and professional capacity. This can promote stronger self-efficacy, competence,

autonomy and relatedness to role and improve retention for ECT and Contract

Teachers. It may provide necessary buffering amid the ongoing pressure, ambiguity

and uncertainty surrounding both groups in their professional contexts.

Overall, shifting toward positive school cultural models is a complex and

highly collaborative process across school leadership teams, teacher cohorts, students,

parents and community. These recommendations offer guidance for school leaders to


improve and expand current practices in order to demonstrate to teachers they lead that

their wellbeing is valued in the current education climate of role intensification,

accountability and public scrutiny.

6.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY

The overall significance of this study lies in its contribution to a field that has a

paucity of research dedicated to teacher wellbeing. By focusing specifically on teacher

perceptions, a richer, more nuanced understanding of environmental factors was

obtained that has meaningful repercussions for further research and exploration in the

field of teacher wellbeing. Presenting the participant narratives allowed for identifiable

patterns pertaining to contextual, personal and relational factors to be interpreted and

the related findings compared in other contexts.

Importantly, the study identified the critical importance of teacher experiences

of autonomy, relatedness and sense of competence in their work. Participants

identified strongly a need for relatedness in their professional roles that stems from the

allowing of fidelity in the teaching and learning in their classrooms and the presence

of meaningful relationships with colleagues. It further highlights the importance of a

purposeful, lucid school culture, collaborative, empowering relationships emerged

also as strong contributing factors affecting teacher wellbeing. This finding supports

ecological models of whole school implementation discussed in the literature (Wyn et

al, 1999). As well, it suggests leadership in schools consider the impact of role

intensification and the delegation of administration-laden duties perceived as

peripheral to teacher professional or personal development. Given that experiences of

mistrust, frustration and ambiguity in school leadership structures resonated in most

of the participant narratives, school leadership teams – irrespective of context – should

review their models to systemically embed shared decision-making. This study has

highlighted how an excessive emphasis on performativity and accountability can serve

to devalue the role of teachers as masters of their classrooms. Teacher mastery

effectively stems from possessing a sense of ownership and autonomy in their core

business of teaching and learning. It further exposed the need for a more nurture-driven

approach to be adopted by school leaders that demonstrated planned, transparent and

proactive support in providing professional learning. This can have positive


ramifications for the wellbeing of teachers and, correspondingly, the students they

teach through authentic and holistic improvement in school climate.

In addition to contributing to the existing body of literature on teacher wellbeing,

this study also represents a contribution to methodological advancement. The adoption

of a single case study that drew upon the experiences of a cross-section of individuals

through interviews has not been widely developed as a research approach in the field

of teacher wellbeing. By adding nuanced, rich descriptions from multiple participants

at two junctures in a school year, it provides comparable data as well as valuable

insight into factors that undermine and enhance teacher wellbeing in schools. Open,

flexible question design across interviews offers an alternative approach that can be

useful for future application in research in the field.

Interestingly, analysis of the data revealed teacher wellbeing is most impacted

by relatedness to their roles in schools. To extrapolate further through this, teachers

derived heightened morale, engagement and sense of competence with the teaching

and learning culture underpinning schools. Moreover, participants aligned relatedness

to their role with the strength of collegial relationships in the workplace. In this sense,

the teacher wellbeing needs are addressed through the provision of meaningful,

professional collaboration and the cultivation of positive relationships with colleagues.

Finally, the study raises certain questions as to the likely benefits of targeted

professional wellbeing programmes in schools. While extensive literature has

highlighted the need to support teacher wellbeing within the current educational

climate of performativity and accountability it is unclear which approach is necessarily

the most effective. While efforts to deliver supplementary teacher wellbeing

programmes in schools has merit, this study did not confirm wholly the value of this

approach to best developing core business of teaching and learning. Rather, the notion

of a systemic embedding of teacher wellbeing at the forefront of reform

implementation in schools emerged as an interesting finding in this study.

It further posed important questions around the capacity of school leaders to best

meet the wellbeing needs of their teacher cohort. While participants acknowledged the

merit in positive psychology approaches to supporting teacher wellbeing, this study

has suggested that a lack of clear direction and follow-through in top-down approaches

can adversely affect the credibility of these programmes. Participants described

intermittent exposure to positive psychology theorem such as positive relationships,


character strengths, growth mindsets, resilience and mindfulness as being valuable and

personally relevant. However, the prevailing findings around teacher wellbeing related

to factors that are supportive of building professional identities in schools. In this

sense, it found that teachers’ professional identities are inextricably tied with a sense

of autonomy, relatedness and competence in their practice.

6.5 LIMITATIONS

This research is representative of findings from a small cohort of participants

who offered insights specifically on one school’s practices affecting teacher wellbeing.

Inherently, given the study was conducted on one site, the data are reflective of the

environment and context of that school which may not be consistent with other schools

from differing SES or rural and remote regions within the various states, territories and

education sectors across Australia. Although data obtained through the study from

participants aimed to represent a broad cross-section of perspectives accounting for

years of experience, subject discipline and gender, it is acknowledged that the small

size of the cohort interviewed does not wholly encapsulate the views and perceptions

of all staff within the school site. As a phenomenon, wellbeing is inherently associated

with individuals’ social, emotional and environmental context and this entails the

revealing of personal attitudes, beliefs and perceptions. The potential discomfort

associated with engaging in interviews targeted at exploring individual wellbeing may

have impacted the breadth of candidates who volunteered to participate in the study

during the recruitment phase. While the study offers eight narratives across two

particular junctures in a school calendar year (Term 2, July and Term 3, November),

the short period of time over which the study was conducted suggests findings may

not be as substantive when compared with more longitudinal approaches that may

more robustly capture the intent of this research in identifying school practices.

The study reported key findings in relation to ECT and contract teachers yet only

one participant belonged to either category. In effect, participant perspectives

conveyed on the matter represented a mixture of personal experiences in a historical

sense or anecdotally from their observations of colleagues. While their perspectives

should not be dismissed as they add further richness to the literature, it is

acknowledged that they are not entirely representative of first-hand experience.


The interpretivist and constructivist approaches that informed data analysis in

this study meant that the researcher, given his position as a co-worker at the school

site, possibly arrived at deductions that are subjectively influenced by his relationship

to participants in the study. Furthermore, the researcher’s closeness to practices

occurring at the site regarding wellbeing has the capacity to impact data presented. In

particular, the researcher’s role as a Head of Department within the school during the

course of the study has the potential to influence his individual understanding of the

transcription data as well as potentially influence participant descriptions of work-

related factors during interviews.

6.6 RECOMMENDATIONS

There are four recommendations to be made based on findings determined by

this research.

1. Review professional development, professional learning and personal

development models to combat workload intensification and

complexity.

2. School leadership teams collaboratively build social and cultural milieu

within their contexts through the provision of targeted wellbeing

support.

3. Incorporate teacher-teacher collaboration models as an embedded

school practice to foster a sense of reciprocity and strengthen teacher

voice in school contexts.

4. School leaders, line managers and senior teachers to collaboratively

develop a support model to increase the capacity, engagement,

potential for success and wellbeing of Beginning Teacher, Early Career

Teacher and Contract Teacher’s.

First, school leaders perform an important role in facilitating professional and

personal development and they need to ensure this is meaningful and underpinned by

a strengths-based model. One of the limitations identified in top-down models is that

it restricts the ability for ecological models to permeate school contexts embracing

teacher, student, parent, and community participation collectively. This is especially


the case in teacher wellbeing. Based on the findings of this research, it is clear that

school leaders need to better manage the implementation of policy and reform to

ensure that perceptions of bureaucratic agendas around performativity and

accountability do not undermine teacher autonomy and voice. For teachers, a sense of

feeling valued and supported – akin to Maslow’s (1954) needs fulfilment in work

contexts - can increase role satisfaction and professional engagement. This research

has highlighted how confidence and trust can suffer where vision and transparency are

not evident or blurred and professional development errs on intensifying teacher

workload.

The research has demonstrated how performativity and accountability-laden

approaches to professional development can affect the integrity of teachers’ work.

Where teachers perceive they are being bombarded with administrative or peripheral

tasks not clearly linked to their professional or personal improvement then their

relationship with school leaders can ultimately suffer. A key finding from this study

related to the capacity of teacher-to-teacher relationships to buoy and support teacher

wellbeing in school contexts. In particular, they linked perceptions of competence,

relatedness and autonomy strongly with their relationship with colleagues, leaders and

students.

Strong advocacy for the role of wellbeing and positive psychology development

suggests teacher awareness of adversity surrounding their professional lives and

recognises their intent to be tooled with proactive, strength-building approaches. As

such, school leaders should take steps in providing adequate support in this space

without ‘adding on’ to the workload of their teachers. Findings from this study suggest

that leadership teams in school embrace a more nurtured approach to demonstrate to

their staff that their wellbeing is something that matters. As a starting point, an aligning

of school policy documents to reflect the role of wellbeing at the whole school level is

critical. This requires a consultative and collaborative process in order for it to achieve

necessary reach across key stakeholders.

This study brought to the fore an identifiable gap in the field where teacher

welfare has largely been excluded. Given this, the scope and ecological potential for

teacher perceptions of work-related factors in their environment adds evidence to the

burgeoning field of wellbeing which has to date primarily been student-centred in its

focus. It recommends that the ontological narrative espoused by schools regarding


their identity ensure it mirrors the public narrative. In simpler terms, core messages

regarding whole-school programmes must be consistent from the administrative level

to teacher level to student level to parent and community level. This study has

highlighted the need for top-down leadership models to be reviewed in the

implementation of personal and professional development programmes given their

capacity to restrict relatedness among teacher cohorts. By prioritising teacher welfare

at the forefront to complement personal and professional development, school leaders

can restore and strengthen trust among their teacher cohorts. It recommends that the

distinct use of top-down leadership approaches is important in establishing

professional and personal priorities for teacher engagement; however, it further

identifies the need to cultivate collaborative and shared learning cultures across

schools. Professional learning communities are one example of this type of approach

given their capacity to foster a sense of personal and shared commitment within their

organisation and therein elicit stronger investment in their school context. By

structuring how teachers work together in a way that promotes collaborative, shared

learning, school leaders harness the collective potential of the teachers they lead and

build positive climate within their contexts.

The need for increased adoption of nurture-based approaches by school leaders

to support teachers is particularly recommended for ECT and contract teachers where

research indicates these groups report higher levels of stress, anxiety and retention

concerns. While mentorship programmes are representative of current approaches

adopted in schools to support ECT, decreasing retention figures highlight challenges

in retaining these teachers in the profession and therefore a stronger review is

necessary. The potential to adopt wellbeing support through positive psychology

sessions exploring growth mindsets, mindfulness, character strengths and positive

relationships is an appropriate consideration. Contract teachers who do not fall under

the umbrella of ECT are often an omission from deliberate support structures in school

contexts. Like ECT, their vulnerability as a group is manifest in the fact that

employment continuity is reviewed six monthly or annually for up to a three-year

period. These institutional factors may continue to affect teacher wellbeing and

retention for each group, consequently serving to threaten the quality of education

provided to students.


Undoubtedly, a key challenge for school leaders lies in the creation of a climate

that attracts, supports, motivates and retains effective teachers. Given the pending

retirement of a large proportion of baby boomer teachers in the next decade, the

potential for a shortage of experienced and quality teachers poses a range of concerns.

Regarding retention, participants in this study ascribed intrinsic and extrinsic

fulfilment to experiences of role autonomy, relatedness and competence. In this sense,

the perception that they are meaningfully enhancing student outcomes is tied to their

own personal quality and potential as educators. By aligning their values and beliefs

with the dominant school culture, teachers are able to experience person-

environmental congruence within the workplace. Thus, this study has highlighted the

need for schools to address growing retention concerns through the building of a

school culture where connectedness and purpose among teacher cohorts is ingrained.

6.7 SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

There currently exists a paucity of research exploring teacher perceptions of

factors impacting their wellbeing within school environments. For transferability in

other contexts, further studies should be conducted in lower SES urban schools or

remote and rural schools to build the body of research. Opportunities for further

research may exist in other sectors, including Catholic and Independent associations

or even primary schools, to assist with building comparability and generalizability in

the data. While the same research questions may not specifically apply, determining

environmental factors and school practices that impact the nature of teacher work has

the capacity to inform future programme development in schools to target support for

teachers.

There exists further opportunities to conduct similar studies using multi-site

qualitative analyses to further build comparability. In this study, participants were

recruited from a single school setting, which was identified as a mid to high SES with

strong academic and cultural repute. In this sense, participants’ recognition of

challenges and adversity are to an extent consistent with the profile of the school as

well as external factors discussed in this study such as institutional processes.

Furthermore, data obtained were from two points in time during a particular school

year rather than over a longitudinal period to test whether attitudes and perceptions


can shift over time. The limitations section of this chapter described how longitudinal

approaches have the capacity to elicit stronger data surrounding school practices and

teacher perceptions, accounting for shifts and potentially providing a more holistic

picture of the key themes that emerge in school culture, school leadership and

relationships. Alternatively, larger samples or samples that contain different

demographic profiles may be considered for further research given the capacity of each

to add valuable data to the field.

Research in the field of wellbeing highlights the impact well teachers can have

on shaping positive learning environments. It further aligns a variety of social,

emotional and academic outcomes for students. This study has offered a lens into the

efficacy of school practices and leadership from the perspective of a unique cross-

section of teachers. In particular, it has identified several critical themes, including

school culture, school leadership, institutional processes and teacher relationships.

These themes are manifest in effective whole-school ecological models. A number of

changes for practice were suggested, including school leader revision of approaches to

implementing departmental policies and procedures that are perceived as hindering

teacher work through increased intensification and complexity. In a critical sense, the

need for school leaders to collaboratively engage teachers, students, parents and

community behind a transparent and identifiable vision requires further review of

policy, practices and procedures within school settings. The provision of time for

collective inquiry connoted by this endeavour will be a further consideration for school

leaders. On the notion of teacher wellbeing, this study has suggested that school

programmes which offer transparent and supportive approaches which add to, rather

than detract from, teacher practice are particularly effective models. By adopting this

cultural shift in leadership mentality, organisational improvements at the teacher,

student and community level are possible.

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Appendix A

Title: Participant Email Recruitment Document

Subject Title: Participation in a research study investigating teacher perceptions of

wellbeing.

Dear colleagues,

I am writing to formally acknowledge a study on teacher wellbeing that is to be

conducted this year as part of a Master of Research Education study at Leafy State

High School. The purpose of this email is to request volunteer participants to assist

with this particular study.

This qualitative research study aims to explore teacher perceptions of wellbeing within

the context of a secondary school setting. Teachers who participate will potentially

identify enabling and inhibiting factors which affect their wellbeing. I am looking for

participants from a range of age groups, experience and subject disciplines so that the

sample is representative of a diverse range across the school setting.

The study will involve at least two 45-50 minute semi-structured interviews at a

location negotiated by participants. It is intended that these interviews be negotiated

by the participants themselves to ensure impact on usual routine is minimised as much

as possible. Participation in the proposed research is voluntary. Please view the

attached Participant Information Sheet and Consent Form for further details on the

study.

The study will abide by and adhere to the value, principles and ethical considerations

outlines in the National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Human Research, 2007

(updated May 2015). DETE research protocols will be followed and ethical clearance

from Queensland University of Technology has been obtained before its

commencement. Principal approval to conduct the study as well as to approach and

recruit teachers as participants within the school site has been attained by the

researcher. This study offers a valuable opportunity to identify factors that influence

teacher wellbeing within a secondary school setting and has the capacity to inform

future programme development in the field. The completed thesis for this study will

be made accessible to all participants. Further, findings from the study will be

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delivered back to whole staff in Term 1, 2017 for professional development and

feedback purposes. However, please note that all participant names and roles within

the school will be de-identifiable throughout the study.

Should you wish to participate or have any questions, please contact me via email

listed below.

Please note that this study has been approved by the QUT Human Research Ethics

Committee (approval number #63970).

Many thanks for your consideration of this request.

Ross Muir

Masters of Education Student

Phone 35113824

Email: [email protected]

Principal Supervisor: Dr Elizabeth Curtis

Phone: 31383270

Email: [email protected]

Faculty of Education (Queensland University of Technology)

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Appendix B

Title: Interview Questions

Interview 1 (July, 2016)

What factors within your own environment have the capacity to enhance your

sense of wellbeing?

What factors within your work environment have the capacity to inhibit your

sense of wellbeing?

In your years of teaching experience, how has the role changed in terms of

workload?

To what extent do you feel a sense of accomplishment in your work?

How important are collegial relationships in terms of maintaining your

wellbeing?

Leafy State High School is unique in terms of its focus on wellbeing. How has

wellbeing been a whole school focus?

What has been the impact of the schools’ wellbeing endeavour on your own

work life and state of wellness?

Interview 2 (November, 2016)

Describe the school culture of Leafy State High School. What are the traditions,

ceremonies and leadership practices which are connected with its identity?

How has the introduction of the Australian Professional Standards impacted

the nature of your work and wellbeing?

Do you feel that you have sufficient preparation time to deliver the outcomes

expected?

The role of teachers has seen an increase in terms of accountability around data

and school performance. How has this impacted the nature of your work?

Is the climate of expectation around teacher work today different to when you

began teaching?

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How do you personally buffer against adversity in your work life?

What role does gratitude play in terms of your work environment?

What personnel/bodies are responsible for supporting teacher wellbeing in

school contexts?

In what way does job security contribute or inhibit teacher wellbeing?

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Appendix C

Title: Department of Education and Training Hierarchy