Running head: The Modern Perfectus Orator · The Modern Perfectus Orator!e ancient rhetorician, Cicero, spoke at great lengths of what he called the ideal rhetor, or the perfectus

Running head: The Modern Perfectus Orator

The Modern Perfectus Orator:

Rhetorical Biography and Analysis of Winston Churchill’s Rhetorical Techne

Rylan Strachan

Dr. Tania Smith

Coms469

University of Calgary

March 28th, 2017

The Modern Perfectus Orator

The ancient rhetorician, Cicero, spoke at great lengths of what he called the ideal rhetor, or

the perfectus orator— the epitome of rhetorical prowess an individual could strive for (Herrick, 2013,

pp. 99-100). In lieu of Cicero’s classification, Winston Churchill may be considered one of the most

influential orators in modern history. Shortly after the turn of the 21st century, Churchill was the

subject of nearly six-hundred and fifty books (Langworth, 2004, p. vii). The mere expanse of texts

dedicated him indicate the immeasurable shadow of influence he holds on history and rhetoric.

Churchill served as British Prime Minister in the 1940’s and then again in the 1950’s. In this

era, Churchill was tasked with guiding a nation through several crisis, ie: WWII and the death of

King George VI. His addresses were often public, broadcasted over the radio or speeches given to

parliament, and covered by news reporters. With an iconic persona, Churchill spoke “as if he were

an organ, [using] strong words and enunciat[ing] clearly in a wave-like rhythm” (Montalbo, 1978, p.

8), captivating not only his immediate audience but audiences through out history.

Through a rhetorical lens, iconic Churchill speeches, including his first address as Prime

Minister (“Blood, Toil, Tears and Sweat”), his address to parliament after the evacuation of Dunkirk

(“We Shall Fight on the Beaches”), and his broadcasted tribute to the late King George VI (“For

Valour”), identify Sir. Winston Churchill as Cicero’s modern ideal rhetor. Through these speeches,

Churchill illustrates unprecedented style as a public speaker and an impeccable argument structure,

establishing a compelling ethos appeal.

Timeline of Churchill speeches and historic events by Rylan Strachan

2017.


Blood, Toil, Tears and Sweat

“Blood, Toil, Tears and Sweat” was Churchill’s commencement address to parliament, on the

13th of May, 1940, eight months into the international conflict that would be known as World War

II.

Climacteric to Warlord Churchill

Europe experienced a climacteric of rising tensions within initial warring months of WWII,

in which Prime Minister Chamberlain lead the British people. As the Phony War lingered and slowly

evolved into WWII, there was continual disappointment with British leadership. The British Empire

was in turmoil, and members of parliament began to place blame:

Wars are won, not by explanations after the event but by foresight, by clear decision and by

swift action. I confess that I did not feel there was one sentence in the prime minister's

speech this afternoon which suggested that the government either foresaw what Germany

meant to do, or came to a clear decision when it knew what Germany had done (The

Guardian, 2009, para. 1). The most daunting criticism against Chamberlain was that of Herbert Asquith, former prime

minister of Britain during The Great War, urging his resignation, and stating, “solemnly that the

prime minister should give an example of sacrifice, because there is nothing which can contribute

more to victory in this war than that he should sacrifice the seals of office” (The Guardian, 2009,

para. 7).

It is important to note that Churchill was increasingly exposed to the public spotlight within

the scope of the war prior to becoming PM. Churchill was called upon to assume First Lord of the

Admiralty for a second time, and his public opinion skyrocketed. Churchill’s public perception was

that he “[was] born for life in a world of tumult and to thrive on troubled times”(Raymond, 1940,

para. 7). In British culture, he was made for the job and the public loved his passionate aggression,

boasting that his defiance spoke loudly to the nations (Raymond, 1940, para. 16-18). Faith in

Churchill grew so strong, that when he was appointed prime minister he was hailed “Great Britain’s


answer to the Nazis, and a symbol of Britain's determination to fight Hitler to the finish” (The Globe

and Mail, 1940, para. 1).

The greatest challenges facing Churchill in “Blood, Toil, Tears and Sweat”, were adapting to

the historical and cultural context of the situation. Churchill would have to replace disappointment

with confident leadership, while convincing the audience that their previous faith in him would not

become fruitless. Situationally, Churchill had to be Kairotic; Britain was without a leader, and the

war was escalating, meaning timing was imminent and demanding. Churchill assumed the office of

prime minister on May 10th, 1940, and “Blood, Toil, Tears and Sweat” was delivered three days

later. His address was an attempt to utilize the precise timing of the situation.

The Compelling Case of His Blood, Toil, Tears and Sweat

The defining characteristic of Churchill’s first speech as PM is his ability to bond himself

intrinsically to the audience, demonstrating his ability to create an argument that is not only

unifying but bolsters his ethos. Burkholder, Campbell and Huxman (2015) claim:

[Historically] ethos refers to the distinctive culture of an ethnic group, and the ethos of an

individual depends on how well he or she reflects the qualities valued in that culture… [the]

way in which you mirror the characteristics idealized by your culture or group. (p. 251). Churchill’s adoption and mirroring of British ideals is exemplary in the conclusion of the speech,

illustrating his ability to creating an argument that compels the nation to his side:

I have nothing to offer but blood, toil, tears and sweat. We have before us an ordeal of the most grievous kind. We have before us many, many long months of struggle and of suffering.

You ask, what is our policy? I can say: It is to wage war, by sea, land and air, with all our

might and with all the strength that God can give us; to wage war against a monstrous

tyranny, never surpassed in the dark, lamentable catalogue of human crime. That is our

policy. You ask, what is our aim? I can answer in one word: It is victory, victory at all costs, victory in spite of all terror, victory, however long and hard the road may be; for without

victory, there is no survival. (Nation Churchill Museum [Blood, Toil, Tears and Sweat], n.d.,

para. 5-6).


Churchill utilizes a unique style giving the audience the notion that he has become

synonymous with the British war-effort. The words “I have nothing to offer but blood, toil, tears and

sweat”, are powerful because they utilize the stylistic appeal of a thematic zeugma. Longaker &

Walker (2011), claim the appeal of a zeugma is the “yoking-together of parallel phrases or

elements”(p. 149). In other words, Churchill is turning his personal effort as PM into a reincarnation

of the war effort, intrinsically linking himself with the nation.

Furthermore, the repetition of ownership phrases and collective phrases specifically found in

this section persuade the audience of Churchill’s credentials as a statesman. Ownership notions such

as “I have nothing but blood” and “I can answer in one word: It is victory”, illustrate Churchill’s

effort to accept his role and establish his virtue as commander. While collective emphasis, like “with

all our might and with all the strength that God can give us”, Churchill exemplifies his humility by

recognizing the national effort required, which bolsters his good-will. With this effort, Churchill

acquires identification, where an audience is persuaded to identify as one with the rhetor (Longaker

& Walker, 2011, p. 236). The identification appeal of Churchill effectively sways the audience to his

purpose.

Finally, in“Blood, Toil, Tears and Sweat”, The House is presented with an argument that

fulfills the highest stages of the stasis theory hierarchy, tailoring each section towards a specific

purpose that unifies The House with his agenda. With blunt honesty, Churchill moves into the policy

stasis with “You ask, what is our policy? I can say: It is to wage war”. Then almost immediately he

addresses the objection stasis, “You ask, what is our aim?… It is victory, victory at all costs”. Churchill,

by addressing the highest stages of the stasis system, is fulfilling the ancient teaching of rhetoric,

where students were taught to be prepared for likely points of contention (Herrick, 2013, p. 96),

subsequently exhibiting his credibility as PM.

We Shall Fight on the Beaches


“We Shall Fight on the Beaches”, was delivered in parliament on June 4th, 1940, as a

response to the failed Allied invasion of Dunkirk and the ensuing evacuation of Belgian, French and

British troops.

Allied Debacle Under Churchill Regime

In an effort to quell the threat of Hitler, Allied troops came to the aid of Belgium in 1940. As

the campaign raged on with troops pushing further into occupied territory, Belgium surrendered to

the Axis. This surrender rendered “Allied troops [to become] trapped with their backs to the sea on

the French beach of Dunkirk”(Ryan, 2016, para. 1). In response to dire circumstances, the Allies

launched operation Dynamo, a “make shift armada [consisting of the British Navy,] sailboats, fishing

trawlers, yachts—boast[ing] more than 800 craft”(Ryan, 2016, para.1), and systematically evacuated

over three-hundred thousand troops. On June 4th, 1940, the evacuation of Dunkirk was complete

and was hailed as “victory snatched from the jaws of defeat” (Summerfield, 2010, p. 789); however,

victory was not the consensus in government, as the situation in France began to escalate towards an

inevitable armistice with Germany, and members of parliament and the media demanded a scapegoat

to place blame on (Maguire, 2014, para. 8).

In preparation of his address, Churchill would be forced to consider and adapt to the

historical and cultural context that surrounded the Dunkirk campaign. Maguire (2014) encapsulates

the multifaceted challenges facing Churchill’s speech:

He had to stress the positive side of things (what little there was) without denying the critical

situation in which the British found themselves. If he overemphasized the successes of

Dunkirk he risked making people complacent … if he played up the peril too much, he might stimulate those… who wanted an armistice… he had to convince the Germans and

the Americans that Britain could and would fight on and that they were a credible military

power. (para. 3).

Ultimately, Churchill has to overcome the presuppositions of all his audiences, attempting to refocus

and unite a nation within a era of chaos. The historical and cultural context would show Churchill

the divided nation of those calling for blood, and those celebrating the evacuation. Furthermore,


since his actual audience was global, Churchill was challenged with creating a message that

exemplified British strength until the bitter end, hoping to entice the aid of the Americans and

dishearten the enemy. This rhetorical situation demanded the mastery of the ancient notion of kairos,

“to master oratory and your words” (Herrick, 2013, p. 34). Churchill utilized one speech to spur the

Allies to a united victory in the face of the ensuing Battle of Britain.

Arguing the inevitable

“We Shall Fight on the Beaches”, embodies Churchill’s prowess to construct an emotionally

compelling and theoretically impressive argument, serving as a beacon for the Allies to rally under his

leadership. The entirety of Churchill’s speech, serves as preliminary datum leading the epitome of his

argument within the conclusion:

We shall go on to the end, we shall fight in France, we shall fight on the seas and oceans, we

shall fight with growing confidence and growing strength in the air, we shall defend our

Island, whatever the cost may be, we shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing

grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills; we shall

never surrender, and even if, which I do not for a moment believe, this Island or a large part

of it were subjugated and starving, then our Empire… would carry on the struggle. (National Churchill Museum [We Shall Fight on the Beaches], n.d., para. 23).

This passage is a powerful example of Churchill’s ability to engage the audience in a ecphrasis

style that immortalize him as the committed fighter. The effectiveness of ecphrasis, is vivid language

that “[uses] detail to place an object, person, or event before the listners’ eyes” (Silva Rhetorica, n.d.).

When describing a figurative invasion, Churchill exemplifies a diction that allows the audience to

feel as if the events were unfolding before them, stirring their emotions and providing a pistis, “[a]

guarantee that inspires trust, faith, or belief in something” (Longaker & Walker, 2011, p. 45).

Furthermore, Churchill provides an argument that continually gains persuasive momentum,

convincing the audience of his ability, as well as the nation’s, to continue fighting. Churchill delivers

a chain epicheireme, where the rhetor links the conclusion of enthymemes into the premise of the next

enthymeme (Longaker & Walker, 2011, p. 69). In other words, one battle will logically lead to the


next, no matter the outcome. The execution of this epichereme is exemplary rhetoric because it

presents an anangeon argument by “arguing on the basis of inevitability” (Silva Rhetoricae, n.d.),

while utilizing a climatic scheme of accumulation, or “a series of reiterations in ascending order of

importance” (Longaker & Walker, 2011, p. 150). In this section Churchill is able to communicate to

the audience that there is no option but to continue to fight to the bitter end, bolstering

commitment to the war-effort, which inadvertently enhances his own ethos.

“For Valour:” King George VI

“For Valour” was a live radio broadcast delivered by Churchill on February 7th, 1952. It was

the official declaration of the passing of the British monarch, and served as tribute to the late King

George VI.

The Trial and Tribulation Facing a Prodigal Prime Minister

In the dénouement of World War II, the recovering United Kingdom began rehabilitation

with the holding of federal elections, unseating its war-time saviour. Churchill, after leading the

nation through the tribulations of World War II, inadvertently lead the Conservative Party to one of

its most historic election losses (Addison, 2011, para. 2). His unrelenting mindset and iron will,

“[was] one of the reasons why Churchill lost the general election in 1945… he had succeeded in

completing the almost superhuman task he had taken on in 1940, and in a way this made him

redundant”(Addison, 2011, para. 3). In a era of peace, the former prime minister faithfully stepped

down and assumed his new position as leader of the official opposition; however, in October of

1951, at the age of seventy-seven, Churchill wrestled the mantel of prime minister out of the grasps

of the incumbent, receiving less than half of the popular vote (Harvey, 1951, para. 9).

Churchill rose back to power in a era of peace, but within a year found himself in a nation

surrounded by crisis. On February 6th, 1952, King George VI, the residing monarch died from

cancer. Britain was suffering a major loss:


At no time during his reign were Britain and the Commonwealth free of anxiety and care.

They were either preparing for war, fighting a bloody struggle or trying to recover from the

devastation and destruction of war…[furthermore] George VI endeared himself to his

subjects by his unfaltering fortitude, his willingness to share their dangers and hardships and his example of making the best of every situation in which he found himself. (The New York

Times, 1952, para. 3-4).

Suddenly, the Empire was without the figurehead who had lead them through hell and back again,

leaving his eldest daughter to assume this vast responsibility.

Ultimately, Churchill is faced with staggering challenges as the rhetor. First, Churchill must

persuade his audience that he can lead as prime minister in a new genre of crisis. Secondly, he is

challenged with simultaneously uniting an Empire under the new leadership of a young queen.

Churchill, within the confines of his broadcast, must overcome the cultural and historical context,

primarily the audiences’ perception of his war-time persona. With a well crafted message, he

attempts to help the masses grieve their loss and unify under Queen Elizabeth II.

Establishing Ethos Through the Actions of Another

“For Valour”, shows the innate ability of Churchill to deliver an act of rhetoric without the

intention of himself, but inherently increase his influence and credibility as an orator. Churchill’s

techne of rhetoric is evident in the section of the eulogy where he prepares the way for the young

queen,

Now I must leave the treasures of the past and turn to the future. Famous have been the

reigns of our queens. Some of the greatest periods in our history have unfolded under their sceptre. Now that we have the second Queen Elizabeth, also ascending the Throne in her

twenty-sixth year, our thoughts are carried back nearly four hundred years to the magnificent

figure who presided over and, in many ways, embodied and inspired the grandeur and genius

of the Elizabethan age… I, whose youth was passed in the august, unchallenged and

tranquil glories of the Victorian era, may well feel a thrill in invoking once more the prayer and the anthem, ‘God save the Queen!’ (International Churchill Society, 2017, para. 14-16).

In this excerpt Churchill exemplifies the rhetorical tool of anamnesis. Silva Rhetoricae (n.d.),

claims that an anamnesis serves as an ethos enhancing tool, because “calling to memory past


matters… helps to establish ethos, since it conveys the idea that the speaker is knowledgeable of …

wisdom from the past”. With his expressed knowledge of female monarchs, Churchill conveys that

his credentials for leadership surpass military strategy.

In addition, Churchill is reminiscent of the style of distinction, showcasing aspects of

“pathos, emphasis, sophistication, even beauty” (Longaker & Walker, 2011, p.138?). Statements such

as, “I… may well feel a thrill in invoking once more the prayer and anthem, ‘God save the Queen’”,

expresses not only his poetic passion in honouring Elizabeth II, but

communicates to the audience that he is already her faithful servant and

simultaneously reaffirms his virtue.

Conclusion

Cicero’s ideal orator was an impressive status to achieve, first

embodying the values of the people in each act, then evoking emotions in

both themselves and the audience, while possessing a multitude of

attributes bolstering their presence and voice (Herrick, 2013, pp.

99-100). Sir. Winston Churchill, throughout his legacy as an orator,

comes as close as perhaps humanly possible to the standards of Cicero.

Churchill was an well educated rhetor, and, in iconic speeches such as

“Blood, Toil, Tears and Sweat”, “We Shall Fight on the Beaches” and “For

Valour”, posses unique style and brilliant argument structure, creating an

unparalleled ethos. In “Blood, Toil, Sweat and Tears”, Churchill becomes

synonymous with the will and need of the people. “We Shall Fight on the

Beaches”, illustrates a personal passion of resistance while persuading the

Allies to press on. Finally, in “For Valour”, Churchill exemplifies his

poetic presence as an orator in his tribute to King George VI and

commitment to Queen Elizabeth II. Finally, Churchill was known as a man whom despite:

Bust of Cicero (Online Library of Liberty, 2017).

Sir. Winston Churchill (Karsh, 1941).


[Having a voice not] especially appealing, it carried conviction and his delivery gave the

impression of power and sincerity. He combined flashy oratory with sudden shifts into

intimate, conversational speaking. Each change of pace, each dramatic pause, each

rhetorical flourish—all were carefully orchestrated. He roared like a lion and cooed like a dove with hand and facial gestures to suit. (Sambells, 2010, p. 8).

If history would have allowed Cicero to be present in the Churchill era, it is evident he would have

been hailed as the perfectus orator.

2518Words.


References

Addison, P. (2011). Why Churchill Lost in 1945 [webpage]. The British Broadcasting Corporation.

Retrieved from http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars/wwtwo/election_01.shtml

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Anangeon. (n.d.) In Silva Rhetoricae. Retrieved March 28, 2017 from http://rhetoric.byu.edu/

Britain's answer to nazis is-- Winston Churchill. (1940). The Globe and Mail (1936-

Current). Retrieved from http://ezproxy.lib.ucalgary.ca/login?url=http://search.proquest.com/

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Burkholder, T. R., Campbell, K. K. & Huxman, S. S. (2015). The Rhetorical Act: Thinking, Speaking,

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Langworth, R. M.(2004). Foreward. In C. J. Zoller, Annotated Bibliography of Works About Sir

Winston S. Churchill (pp. vii-x). Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe

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Pearson.

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people/marcus-tullius-cicero

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Running head: The Modern Perfectus Orator · The Modern Perfectus Orator!e ancient rhetorician, Cicero, spoke at great lengths of what he called the ideal rhetor, or the perfectus