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• Rural/UrbanRural/Urban • Gender: patriarchies and double Gender: patriarchies and double
standards--Native, Iberian, African standards--Native, Iberian, African • Condition: slave/not Condition: slave/not
encomendado/not encomendado/not • Race/Race/calidadcalidad//castacasta: espa: español, indio, ñol, indio,
casta--casta--phenotype (color), not enoughphenotype (color), not enough• Culture: language, dress, food, social Culture: language, dress, food, social
interaction interaction • Class, wealth: poor, notClass, wealth: poor, not
Society of castas: Spanish AmericaSociety of castas: Spanish America
1580: colonial 1580: colonial hegemonyhegemony
Spanish cities and Spanish cities and towns: 225 (tot. towns: 225 (tot. pop ~500,000)pop ~500,000)
Native towns and Native towns and villages: villages: thousands (~5 thousands (~5 million)million)
Spanish mines and Spanish mines and plantationsplantations
Post-conquest societyPost-conquest society (Spanish America)(Spanish America)
ruralrural
urbanurban
• Native: gendered division of laborNative: gendered division of laboruniversal, early marriage (15-16 yrs)universal, early marriage (15-16 yrs)access to village lands via household access to village lands via household
• IberianIberiansex-ratio imbalance--5-10 males/femalesex-ratio imbalance--5-10 males/femalenearly universal, later marriage (17-18)nearly universal, later marriage (17-18)equi-partible inheritance equi-partible inheritance
• AfricanAfricansex ratio imbalance--3 males/femalesex ratio imbalance--3 males/femaleslavery threatened family, communityslavery threatened family, communityadvantage of informal unionsadvantage of informal unions
Gender: patriarchies and Gender: patriarchies and double standardsdouble standards
Ethno-racial composition, New SpainEthno-racial composition, New SpainIndians predominant through end of colonial regimeMestizaje proliferated from late 16th-century
est
ima
ted
po
pu
latio
n (
tho
usa
nd
s) -
-lo
g s
cale
Ethno-racial scenarios for New Spain, 1520-1810Cook & Borah (maximalists), Rosenblat (minimalist), & Aguirre-Beltran
1519 1570 1646 1742 1810
1
2
47
10
20
4070
100
200
400700
1000
2000
40007000
10000
2000025.6 mil
Maximal4.5 millMinimal
Indian
3.7 mill
Afromest
20,000African
Indomest
700,000
Euromest
7,000
European 12,000
Race/Race/calidadcalidad//castacasta
Racial lines more Racial lines more apparent than apparent than real real
Phenotype (color) Phenotype (color) not enoughnot enough
Flexibility: Flexibility: calidad calidad (character, (character, reputation)reputation)
Crossings Crossings
Three divisions Three divisions
EspaEspañolñolpeninsular, peninsular, creolecreole
IndioIndioencomendado,encomendado,migrant migrant (naboria)(naboria)
CastaCastanegro (bozal)negro (bozal)mulato, etc.mulato, etc.
MarriagewaysMarriageways
Spain: “Spain: “Better to Better to marry than to burn”--marry than to burn”--low illegitimacy in low illegitimacy in Spain.Spain.
New SpainNew Spain: “Better : “Better to be well fixed with a to be well fixed with a concubine than badly concubine than badly married.”--high married.”--high illegitimacy in Spanish illegitimacy in Spanish America. America.
• Indian: rampant in the Caribbean Indian: rampant in the Caribbean (until the virtual extinction of the (until the virtual extinction of the population) and on the frontiers (until population) and on the frontiers (until the end of colonial rule) the end of colonial rule)
• African: African: first the earliest conquestsfirst the earliest conquestssmall in number until 18th centurysmall in number until 18th centurybut important in society, economy and but important in society, economy and even politics (militias) even politics (militias)
SlaverySlavery
Slave Traffic from Africa: 1451-Slave Traffic from Africa: 1451-18701870
(data repeated on next 4 maps) (data repeated on next 4 maps)• 1451-1600: beginning (1/4 million)1451-1600: beginning (1/4 million)• 1601-1700: growing (1.3 million)1601-1700: growing (1.3 million)• 1701-1811: peaking (6 million)1701-1811: peaking (6 million)• 1811-1870: declining (2 million)1811-1870: declining (2 million)
Slave Traffic (figures in thousands): Slave Traffic (figures in thousands): 1451-1600, beginning 1451-1600, beginning (1/4 million)(1/4 million)
(P.D. Curtin, (P.D. Curtin, The Atlantic Slave TradeThe Atlantic Slave Trade))
5050
7575
5050
100100
Slave Traffic: 1601-1700, Slave Traffic: 1601-1700, growing growing (1.3 million)(1.3 million)
2525300300
600600
250250150150 5050
Slave Traffic: 1701-1810, Slave Traffic: 1701-1810, peaking peaking (6 million)(6 million)
350350
600600 1,4001,400
1,4001,400
1,9001,900450450
Slave Traffic: 1811-1870, Slave Traffic: 1811-1870, declining declining (2 million)(2 million)
5050
600600 100100
1,1001,100
Cacao Boom: Venezuela, 4 regions Cacao Boom: Venezuela, 4 regions occurred after 1680soccurred after 1680s
(data for 1684, 1720, 1744)(data for 1684, 1720, 1744)
Caracas
• EncomenderosEncomenderos: conquerors and royal : conquerors and royal favoritesfavorites
• EncomiendaEncomienda: Grants of tribute and : Grants of tribute and labor of native villagers, primarily to labor of native villagers, primarily to conquistadoresconquistadores
• Crown attempts to convert from Crown attempts to convert from private to royal control (New Laws of private to royal control (New Laws of 1542)1542)
• Attempts to restrict use of labor by Attempts to restrict use of labor by encomenderos (personal service encomenderos (personal service banned 1549) banned 1549)
• Labor drafts: mita and repartimiento Labor drafts: mita and repartimiento (1550-)(1550-)
Encomienda and encomenderosEncomienda and encomenderos
PotosPotosíí (Upper Peru), 1545 (Upper Peru), 1545: richest : richest silver mine in the early modern silver mine in the early modern
worldworld
Inside PotosInside Potosíí: native miners: native miners
Migrant Migrant labor draft: labor draft: mita every mita every 7 years7 years
16 provinces: 16 provinces: lost 50% of lost 50% of pop in a pop in a century century
EndEnd