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russian literature: History

Overview

Russian literature has long been a cultural focus of the entire world. It's not surprising that the

formation of Russia's first literary traditions goes back to the first century. The adoption of

Christianity boosted the development of literacy, philosophy and theological literature. The

earliest literary works were not written in the Russian language but in Old Church lavonicwhich was developed in the !th century by "reek missionaries Cyril and #ethodius.

Old Church lavonic became the liturgical language of the Orthodo$ Church, prompting literary

activity in Russia.

In !%% &ladimir I, "rand uke of (yiv, converted to Christianity and made it Russia's officialreligion. )ventually, religious ties between Russia, the *y+antine )mpire, ncient Rome and

"reece strengthened and began to share common traits. s literacy rapidly developed, so didRussian literature. -istorical chronicles, sacred scriptures, biblical te$ts, sermons, biographies ofsaints and other religious writings and poems were translated from "reek into Old Church

lavonic which remained the literary language of Russia until the /th century. t that time,

 books served mainly as a means to foster religious awareness. In the long run, Christianity

marked the character of the Russian literature. Church literature laid the foundation for the ideasof Russian unity and Russian national identity.

First works of Russian literature

*y+antine "reek writings influenced the first te$ts created during the (yiv period. The most

significant sermon, 0lovo O 1akone I *lagodati0 23435 0ermon on 6aw and "race07, is a

detailed oration written by the head of the Orthodo$ Church in Russia at that time, #etropolitan

Illarion. It is believed to be the first original work of Russian literature.

The chronicle 08ovest' &remennykh 6et0 295 0The Tale of *ygone :ears,0 also known as

0The Russian 8rimary Chronicle07, attributed to the monk ;estor, e$plores the history of the )ast

lavic peoples, namely Russians, *elarussians, and <krainians up to the year 3.

-owever, the most prominent work of the period is probably 0lovo O 8olku Igoreve0 2%450The Tale of Igor's Campaign07. It focuses on a 8rince Igor=s failed raid against an army of sian

nomads and is written in lyrical poetic language.

The creation of religious scripts went hand in hand with the creation of folk poetry5 songs, epics

and fairy tales described authentic Russian life and culture. In the late th and early >thcentury, 0Teaching0 by 8rince &ladimir #onomakh and 0?anderings of aniel0 featured a

fusion of religious scripts with folk literature. In >@3 the Tatars invaded (yiv, bringing an early

end to this period in culture.

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Aor the ne$t >33 years the Tatars occupied most of Russia. ?hile )urope was enBoying the

Renaissance, Russian literature was at a standstill. series of upheavals and riots throughout the

th and /th centuries brought political and secular influences to literature.

"Messages of Ivan the Terrible" and the autobiography of Arch Priest Avvakum

were the first literary works written in spoken ussian! These works mied the

church and bookish languages with folk speech!#ne of the most important and

notable literary works of the $%th century was "&omostroi" '"House(#rderer")!

It set the rules for moral behaviour and gave instructions for running a

household!

In the th century folkloric poetry was on the rise as was the popular genre of the secular story

of manners. In the /th century Russian culture was greatly influenced by ?estern )uropeanvalues. Tsar 8eter the "reat�s fascination with )uropean culture was looming large and brought

the first printed books to Russia, almost all of which were religious in content. number of

Russian poets started composing verses imitating ?estern authors. In fiction, the influence of

?estern adventure tales such as 0on Dui$ote0 by #iguel de Cervantes, is obvious in 0The Taleof avva "rudtsyn0 208ovest' o avve "rudtsyne07 and 0The Tale of Arol kobeev0 208ovest' o

Arole kobeeve07. In /%, the first plays written by a Russian author, ymeon 8olotsky,

appeared. tep by step, modern Russian literature started to emerge as more and more writers began to develop their own unconventional styles.

*y the %th century written Russian finally came into wide use, replacing Old Church lavonic.

8eter the "reat and Catherine the "reat were keen to promote literature in Russia. 8erhaps the

most important figure of Russian intellectual life in the %th century was #ikhail 6omonosovwho rose from peasant origins to become a prominent scientist and writer. One of the greatest

 poets of the time was "avrila er+havin. Russian author enis Aonvi+in dominated the drama.

-is plays 0*rigadir0 2written /%E/!5 published /!35 0The *rigadier07 and 0;edorosl� 

2/%>5 0The #inor07 mocked the manners and morals of the upper classes. One of the most

interesting nonEfiction works of the period was 08uteshestvie i+ 8eterburga v #oskvu0 2/!350Fourney from t. 8etersburg to #oscow07 by leksandr Radishchev. It earned its author a tenE

year e$ile to iberia. ;ikolay (aram+in established a Russian prose style in his travel writings

with his famous 0Istoriia gosudarstva rossiiskogo0 2%%E%>@5 0-istory of the Russian tate07.

Golden Age of Poetry

The !th century was probably the most fruitful period in the history of Russian literature.

This way to images of Medieval *omen + +

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#ikhail 6ermontov Mikhail ,ermontov 4 October%@ G >/ Fuly %@

 ;ikolai "ogol -ikolai .ogol 9 #arch %3! G @#arch %4>

Ivan Turgenev Ivan Turgenev ! ;ovember %% G 9

eptember %%9

6yev Tolstoy ,yev Tolstoy ! eptember %>% G >3 ;ovember !3

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nton Chekhov Anton /hekhov >! Fanuary %3 G4 Fuly !3@

The first few decades of the !th century came to be known as the "olden ge of 8oetry.

?ithout a doubt, leksandr 8ushkin's renowned novel in verse 0)vgeny Onegin0 2%>9E%97cemented his name in history.

*efore the !th century, drama received very little attention from Russian writers. It continued

until two pillars of Russian drama leksandr "riboedov 20"ore ot <ma0 %995 0The ?oes of?it07 and leksandr Ostrovsky 20"ro+a,0 %35 0The Thunderstorm07 stepped into the spotlight.

*ut by the end of the century, several timeless plays were written by nton Chekhov, fore$ample 0Chaika0 2%!5 The eagull7.

The author of the most famous short story in Russian, 0hinel0 2%@>5 0The Overcoat07, ;ikolay

"ogol, is considered to be the original master of Russian prose of the !th century. -is comic,

grotesHuely humorous collection of short stories 0&echera na khutore bli+ ikanki0 2%9E%9>50)venings on a Aarm near ikanka07 are peppered with the local colour and ambience of

<kraine.

Ayodr ostoyevsky's novels e$amined political and social issues as well as philosophical and

moral problems of Russian society. -is 0Crime and 8unishment0 2%7 is considered to be oneof the best novels of all time.

6eo Tolstoy, like his contemporary ostoyevsky, was not Bust a brilliant novelist but a political

thinker and philosopher as well. -is novel 0&oina i #ir0 2%4E%!5 0?ar and 8eace07 is afamily and a historical novel in one and is said to be one of the greatest literary works in the

history of world literature.

hort fiction and poetry gradually replaced the novel and by the end of the !th century were the

dominant genres of Russian literature.

 Silver Age

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le$ander *lok   Alexander Blok  >% ;ovember %%3 G/ ugust !>

One of the most gifted lyrical poets produced by Russia after le$ander 8ushkin.

Impressionism and symbolism replaced social realism. new breed of Russian poets was

inspired by ?estern )uropean cultures, while Russian culture was gaining in popularity in)urope.

Russian poet and novelist &alery *ryusov introduced symbolism to Russian audiences.

One of the most sophisticated poets of the time was leksandr *lok. -is greatest work,

0venadtsat0 2!%5 0The Twelve,0 !>37, described the mood of 8etrograd 2now aint8etersburg7 in the winter of !% in the wake of the !/ *olshevik Revolution.

ome of the greatest poets of the >3th century who opposed the *olshevik Revolution and oviet

rule were nna khmatova 2ReHuiem, !@7, #arian Tsvetaeva and Osip #andelstam. The last

of these was arrested in the !93s and died in a labour camp.

 Socialist realism

mong those who supported the !/ Revolution was a prominent oviet novelist and

 playwright, #aksim "orky 20#other,0 !3/7. -e was also a founder of socialist realism.

fter the Revolution, many writers left Russia for )urope and the ?est. 8erhaps one of the mostgifted among them was novelist &ladimir ;abokov who emigrated to the <nited tates in !@3

and began writing in )nglish.

<nder Foseph talin, the oviet regime's enforcement of literary guidelines made many

established writers withdraw from literature. 6ittle literature was created at that time.

?orks by ndrey 8latonov and #ikhail *ulgakov disappeared in the !>3s.

lthough *ulgakov had published several plays and stories, his masterpiece 0#aster and

#argarita,0 completed shortly before his death in !@3, remained unknown until it was published

in !.

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fter the end of ??>, the guidelines of socialist realism were enforced even more strictly than

 before, and the period from !@ until the death of talin in !49 was probably the bleakest in

Russian literature of the >3th century.

 Russian literature in exile

-owever, the decades after talin's death saw several thaws. Restrictions over literature were

eased. In an effort to cast off talin's legacy, ;ikita (hrushchev e$panded the limits of whatcould be said in public and written in the press. In the !3s a number of works that had

 previously been banned were republished and many writers felt relief.

*oris 8asternak finally published his legendary novel 0octor 1hivago,0 although outside theoviet <nion. t first it was accepted by a oviet maga+ine, but then reBected. )ventually it was

 published in the ?est in !4/. 8asternak was awarded the ;obel 8ri+e for literature in !4%, but

was forced by the oviet authorities to decline the award.

(hrushchev's campaign against talin also allowed the publication of another masterpiece, 0Odinden' Ivana enisovicha0 20 ay in the 6ife of Ivan enisovich,0 !97 by leksandr

ol+henitsyn. It appeared in the leading oviet literary maga+ine, causing a sensation. It focused

on the realities of life in prison camps to which tens of thousands of people suspected of antiE

oviet views, including ol+henitsyn himself, were sent.

*ut still, novels by ol+henitsyn, such as 0Rakovyi (orpus0 20Cancer ?ard,0 !%7 and 0&

(ruge 8ervom0 20The Airst Circle,0 !%7 could not be published in the oviet <nion. Their

 publication abroad eventually led to an official campaign against the writer that resulted in hise$pulsion from the oviet <nion. -e was awarded the ;obel 8ri+e for literature in !/3.

mong other prominent antiEoviet authors was the poet Foseph *rodsky, who left the oviet<nion in !/>. In !%/ *rodsky too was awarded the ;obel 8ri+e. 6ike ol+henitsyn, he moved

to the <nited tates.

 New faces

The early !!3s saw the collapse of the oviet <nion and with it the end of /3 years of state

control over literature. Official censorship was over and the government proclaimed freedom ofthe press. This longEawaited independence had profound effects on Russian literature. ?orks by

writers which had previously been banned reappeared in maBor editions.

<pEandEcoming, promising and controversial writers such as 6iudmila 8etrushevskaya, 6udmila<litskaya, &ladimir orokin and &iktor )rofeev, to name a few, appeared on the Russian scene.

?hile Russian prose, poetry and drama e$plore new trends in the world of literature, withRussian authors in the limelight, lovers of Russian literature are hopeful that another "olden ge

is Bust round the corner.

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ussian literature refers to the literature of Russia or its migrs, and to the RussianElanguage 

literature of several independent nations once a part of what was historically Russia or the oviet

<nion.

Roots of Russian literature can be traced to #iddle ges, when epics and chronicles in Old

Russian were composed. In the ge of enlightenment, literature had grown in importance, and

from the early %93s, Russian literature underwent an astounding golden age in both poetry,

 prose, and drama. fter the Revolution of !/, Russian literature split into oviet and white

migr  parts. oviet <nion assured universal literacy and highly developed book printing

industry, but also carried out ideological censorship.

Russian authors significantly contributed almost to all known genres of the literature. Russia had

five ;obel 8ri+e in literature laureates. s of >3, Russia was the fourth largest book producer

in the world in terms of published titles.JK  popular folk saying claims Russians are 0the world's

most reading nation0.

Early history

Old Russian literature consists of several masterpieces written in the Old Russian language 2not

to be confused with the contemporaneous Church lavonic7. nonymous works of this nature

include The Tale of Igor's Campaign and Praying of Daniel the Immured . The soEcalled 0lives of

the saints0 2RussianL MNNP QPS, zhitiya svyatykh7 formed a popular genre of the Old Russian

literature. Life of Alexander evsky offers a wellEknown e$ample. Other Russian literary

monuments include !adons"hina,  Physiologist , #ynopsis and A $ourney Beyond the Three #eas.

*ylinas G oral folk epics G fused Christian and pagan traditions. #edieval Russian literature had

an overwhelmingly religious character and used an adapted form of the Church lavonic 

language with many outh lavic elements. The first work in colloHuial Russian, the

autobiography of the archpriest vvakum, emerged only in the midE/th century.

18th century

fter taking the throne at the end of the /th century, 8eter the "reat's influence on the Russian

culture would e$tend far into the %th century. 8eter's reign during the beginning of the %th

century initiated a series of moderni+ing changes in Russian literature. The reforms he

implemented encouraged Russian artists and scientists to make innovations in their crafts and

fields with the intention of creating an economy and culture comparable. 8eter's e$ample set a precedent for the remainder of the %th century as Russian writers began to form clear ideas

about the proper use and progression of the Russian language. Through their debates regarding

versification of the Russian language and tone of Russian literature, the writers in the first half of 

the %th century were able to lay foundation for the more poignant, topical work of the late %th

century.

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atirist ntiokh mitrievich (antemir , /3%G/@@, was one of the earliest Russian writers not

only to praise the ideals of 8eter I's reforms but the ideals of the growing )nlightenment 

movement in )urope. (antemir's works regularly e$pressed his admiration for 8eter, most

notably in his epic dedicated to the emperor entitled Petrida. #ore often, however, (antemir

indirectly praised 8eter's influence through his satiric criticism of Russia's Usuperficiality and

obscurantism,V which he saw as manifestations of the backwardness 8eter attempted to correct

through his reforms.J>K (antemir honored this tradition of reform not only through his support for 

8eter, but by initiating a decadeElong debate on the proper syllabic versification using the

Russian language.

&asily (irillovich Trediakovsky, a poet, playwright, essayist, translator and contemporary to

ntiokh (antemir, also found himself deeply entrenched in )nlightenment conventions in his

work with the Russian cademy of ciences and his groundbreaking translations of Arench and

classical works to the Russian language. turning point in the course of Russian literature, his

translation of 8aul Tallemant's work %oyage to the Isle of Love, was the first to use the Russianvernacular as opposed the formal and outdated ChurchElavonic.J9K This introduction set a

 precedent for secular works to be composed in the vernacular, while sacred te$ts would remain in

ChurchElavonic. -owever, his work was often incredibly theoretical and scholarly, focused on

 promoting the versification of the language with which he spoke.

?hile Trediakovsky's approach to writing is often described as highly erudite, the young writer

and scholarly rival to Trediakovsky, le$ander 8etrovich umarokov, //G///, was dedicated

to the styles of Arench classicism. umarokov's interest in the form of Arench literature mirrored

his devotion to the westerni+ing spirit of 8eter the "reat's age. lthough he often disagreed with

Trediakovsky, umarokov also advocated the use of simple, natural language in order todiversify the audience and make more efficient use of the Russian language. 6ike his colleagues

and counterparts, umarokov e$tolled the legacy of 8eter I, writing in his manifesto &pistle on

 Poetry, UThe great 8eter hurls his thunder from the *altic shores, the Russian sword glitters in all

corners of the universeV.J@K 8eter the "reat's policies of westerni+ation and displays of military

 prowess naturally attracted umarokov and his contemporaries.

#ikhail &asilyevich 6omonosov, in particular, e$pressed his gratitude for and dedication to

8eter's legacy in his unfinished Peter the reat , 6omonosov's works often focused on themes of

the aweEinspiring, grandeur nature, and was therefore drawn to 8eter because of the magnitude of 

his military, architectural, and cultural feats. In contrast to umarokov's devotion to simplicity,6omonosov favored a belief in a hierarchy of literary styles divided into high, middle, and low.

This style facilitated 6omonosov's grandiose, high minded writing and use of both vernacular

and ChurchElavonic.J4K

The influence of 8eter I and debates over the function and form of literature as it related to the

Russian language in the first half of the !th century set a stylistic precedent for the writers

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during the reign of Catherine the "reat in the second half of the century. -owever, the themes

and scopes of the works these writers produced were often more poignant, political and

controversial. le$ander ;ikolayevich Radishchev, for e$ample, shocked the Russian public

with his depictions of the socioEeconomic condition of the serfs. This )mpress Catherine II

condemned this portrayal, forcing Radishchev into e$ile in iberia.JK

Others, however, picked topics less offensive to the autocrat.  ;ikolay (aram+in, /G%>, for

e$ample, is known for his advocacy of Russian writers adopting traits in the poetry and prose

like a heightened sense of emotion and physical vanity, considered to be feminine at the time as

well as supporting the cause of female Russian writers. (aram+in's call for male writers to write

with femininity was not in accordance with the )nlightenment ideals of reason and theory,

considered masculine attributes. -is works were thus not universally wellEreceived, however

they did reflect in some areas of society a growing respect for, or at least ambivalence toward, a

female ruler in Catherine the "reat. This concept heralded an era of regarding female

characteristics in writing as an abstract concept linked with attributes of frivolity, vanity and pathos.

ome writers, on the other hand, were more direct in their praise for Catherine II. "avrila

Romanovich er+havin, famous for his odes, often dedicated his poems to )mpress Catherine II.

In contrast to most of his contemporaries, er+havin was highly devoted to his state5 he served in

the military, before rising to various roles in Catherine II's government, including secretary to the

)mpress and #inister of Fustice. <nlike those who took after the grand style of #ikhail

6omonosov and le$ander umarokov, er+havin was concerned with the minute details of his

subBects.

enis Aonvi+in, an author primarily of comedy, approached the subBect of the Russian nobility 

with an angle of critiHue. Aonvi+in felt the nobility should be held to the standards they were

under the reign of 8eter the "reat, during which the Huality of devotion to the state was

rewarded. -is works critici+ed the current system for rewarding the nobility without holding

them responsible for the duties they once performed. <sing satire and comedy, Aonvi+in

supported a system of nobility in which the elite were rewarded based upon personal merit rather 

than the hierarchal favoritism that was rampant during Catherine the "reat's reign.J/

Golden Age

The !th century is traditionally referred to as the 0"olden )ra0 of Russian literature.

Romanticism permitted a flowering of especially poetic talentL the names of  &asily 1hukovsky 

and later that of his protg le$ander 8ushkin came to the fore. 8ushkin is credited with both

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crystalli+ing the literary Russian language and introducing a new level of artistry to Russian

literature. -is bestEknown work is a novel in verse, &ugene (negin. n entire new generation of

 poets including #ikhail 6ermontov, :evgeny *aratynsky, (onstantin *atyushkov, ;ikolay

 ;ekrasov, leksey (onstantinovich Tolstoy, Ayodor Tyutchev, and fanasy Aet followed in

8ushkin's steps.

8rose was flourishing as well. The first great Russian novelist was ;ikolai "ogol. Then came

 ;ikolai 6eskov, Ivan Turgenev, #ikhail altykovEhchedrin, all mastering both short stories and

novels, and novelist Ivan "oncharov. 6eo Tolstoy and Ayodor ostoyevsky soon became

internationally renowned to the point that many scholars such as A. R. 6eavis have described one

or the other as the greatest novelist ever. In the second half of the century nton Chekhov 

e$celled in writing short stories and became perhaps the leading dramatist internationally of his

 period.

Other important !thEcentury developments included the fabulist Ivan (rylov5 nonEfiction

writers such as &issarion *elinsky and le$ander -er+en5 playwrights such as leksandr

"riboyedov, leksandr Ostrovsky and the satirist (o+ma 8rutkov 2a collective pen name7.

 ;ineteenth century Russian literature perpetuated disparate ideas of suicide5 it became another

facet of culture and society in which men and women were regarded and treated differently.

woman could not commit the noble, heroic suicide that a man could5 she would not be regarded

highly or as a martyr , but as a simple human who, overcome with feelings of love gone

unfulfilled and having no one to protect her from being victimi+ed by society, surrendered

herself.J%K #any of the !th century Russian heroines were victims of suicide as well as victims

of the lifestyle of t. 8etersburg, which was long argued to have imported the very idea of and Bustifications for suicide into Russia. t. 8etersburg, which was built as a ?estern rather than a

Russian city was long accused by supporters of traditional Russian lifestyles as importing

?estern ideasWthe ideas of achieving nobility, committing suicide and, the synthesis of these

two ideas, the nobility of suicide being among them. J!K

 ;ovels set in #oscow in particular, such as Anna )arenina, and Bednaia Liza 28oor 6i+a7,J3K 

follow a trend of female suicides which suggest a weakness in character which e$ists only

 because they are women5 they are said by readers to be driven by their emotions into situations

from which suicide seems to be the only escape. These instances of selfEmurder have no deeper

meaning than that and, in the case of Bednaia Liza* the setting of #oscow serves only to providea familiarity which will draw the reader to it, and away from ?estern novels.J3K

Contrastingly, many novels set in t. 8etersburg viewed suicide primarily through the lens of a

male protagonist 2as in Ayodor ostoyevskyXs Crime and 8unishment7 as opposed to the females

who held the spotlight in the aforementioned titles. *eyond that, instead of the few females who

commit suicide in these 8etersburg te$tsJ3K being propelled to such lengths by a love so powerful

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and inescapable that it consumed them, financial hardships and moral degradation which they

faced in the Imperial CapitalJ3K contaminated or destroyed their femininity5 related to this,

 prostitution became markedly more prominent in popular literature in the !th century.J%K

nother new aspect of literary suicides introduced in the 8etersburg te$ts is that authors have

shifted their ga+es from individuals and their plotEdriving actions to presentations of broad

 political ideologies, which are common to "reek  and Roman heroesWthis step was taken in

order to establish a connection between Russian male protagonists who take their own lives and

Classic tragic heroes, whereas the women of the literature remained as microcosms for the

stereotyped idea of the female condition. The idea of suicide as a mode of protecting oneXs right

to selfEsovereignty was seen as legitimate within the sphere of t. 8etersburg, a secular and

U"odlessYVJ3K capital. <nlike Classic tragic heroes, the deaths of male protagonists, such as in

 ;ikolai "ogolXs evskii Prospekt  and mitry "rigorovichXs #vistul+kin, did not bring about great

celebrations in their honor, or even faint remembrances amongst their comrades. In fact, both

 protagonists die lonely deaths, suffering Huietly and alone in their final hours. <ntil the Russianrevolution in !/, such themes remained prominent in literature. J3K

Silver Age

The beginning of the >3th century ranks as the ilver ge of Russian poetry. ?ellEknown poets

of the period includeL le$ander *lok , ergei :esenin, &alery *ryusov, (onstantin *almont,

#ikhail (u+min, Igor everyanin, asha Chorny, ;ikolay "umilyov, #a$imilian &oloshin, 

Innokenty nnensky, 1inaida "ippius. The poets most often associated with the 0ilver ge0 are

nna khmatova, #arina Tsvetaeva, Osip #andelstam and *oris 8asternak .

?hile the ilver ge is considered to be the development of the !th century Russian literature

tradition, some avantEgarde poets tried to overturn itL &elimir (hlebnikov, avid *urliuk ,

leksei (ruchenykh and &ladimir #ayakovsky.

Though the ilver ge is famous mostly for its poetry, it produced some firstErate novelists and

shortEstory writers, such as leksandr (uprin, ;obel 8ri+e winner Ivan *unin, 6eonid ndreyev,

Aedor ologub, leksey Remi+ov, :evgeny 1amyatin, mitry #ere+hkovsky and ndrei *ely,

though most of them wrote poetry as well as prose.

20th century

?ith the victory of Russia's Revolution, #ayakovsky worked on interpreting the facts of the new

reality. #ayakovsky works such as 0Ode to the Revolution0 and 06eft #arch0 2both !%7

 brought innovations to poetry. In 06eft #arch0, #ayakovsky calls for a struggle against the

enemies of the Russian Revolution. The poem 043,333,3330 discusses the leading played by the

masses in the revolution. In the poem 0&ladimir Ilyich 6enin0 2!>@7, #ayakovsky looks at the

life and work at the leader of Russia's revolution and depicts them against a broad historical

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 background. In the poem 0It's "ood0, #ayakovsky writes about socialist society being the

0springtime of humanity0. #ayakovsky was instrumental in producing a new type of poetry in

which politics played a maBor part. JK

In the !93s ocialist realism became the predominant trend in Russia. Its leading figure was

#a$im "orky, who laid the foundations of this style with his works The ,other  and his play The

 &nemies 2both !37. -is autobiographical trilogy describes his Bourney from the poor of society

to the development of his political consciousness. -is novel The Artamanov Business 2!>47 and

his play )gor *ulyshov 2!9>7 depict the decay and inevitable downfall of Russia's ruling

classes. "orky defined socialist realism as the 0realism of people who are rebuilding the world,0

and points out that it looks at the past 0from the heights of the future's goals0. "orky considered

the main task of writers to help in the development of the new man in socialist society. "orky's

version of a heroic revolutionary is 8avel &lasov from the novel 0#other0, who displays

selflessness and compassion for the working poor, as well as discipline and dedication. "orky's

works were significant for the development of literature in Russia and became influential inmany parts of the world.J>K

 ;ikolay Ostrovsky's novel -o. the #teel /as Tempered  has been among the most successful

works of Russian literature, with tens of millions of copies printed in many languages around the

world. In China, various versions of the book have sold more than 3 million copies.J9K In

Russia, more than 94 million copies of the book are in circulation.J@K The book is a fictionali+ed

autobiography of Ostrovsky's life, who had a difficult workingEclass childhood and became a

(omsomol member in Fuly !! and went to the front as a volunteer. The novel's protagonist,

8avel (orchagin, represented the 0young hero0 of Russian literatureL he is dedicated to his

 political causes, which help him to overcome his tragedies. The novel has served as aninspiration to youths around the world and played a mobili+ing role in Russia's "reat 8atriotic

?ar. J4K

le$ander Aadeyev achieved noteworthy success in Russia, with tens of millions of copies of his

 books in circulation in Russia and around the world. J@K #any of Aadeyev's works have been

staged and filmed and translated into many languages in Russia and around the world. Aadeyev

served as a secretary of the oviet ?riters' <nion and was the general secretary of the union's

administrative board from !@ to !4@. -e was awarded two Orders of 6enin and various

medals. -is novel The 0out  deals with the partisan struggle in Russia's Aar )ast during the

Russian Revolution and Civil ?ar. Aadeyev described the theme of this novel as one of arevolution significantly transforming the masses. The novel's protagonist 6evinson is a

*olshevik revolutionary who has a high level of political consciousness. The novel The 1oung

uard , which received the tate 8ri+e of the <R in !@, focuses on an underground

(omsomol group in (rasnodon, <kraine and their struggle against the fascist occupation. JK

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The first years of the oviet regime were marked by the proliferation of avantEgarde literature

groups. One of the most important was the Oberiu movement that included ;ikolay 1abolotsky,

le$ander &vedensky, (onstantin &aginov and the most famous Russian absurdist aniil

(harms. Other famous authors e$perimenting with language were novelists ndrei 8latonov and

:uri Olesha and short story writers Isaak *abel and #ikhail 1oshchenko.

?riters like those of erapion *rothers group, who insisted on the right of an author to write

independently of political ideology, were forced by authorities to reBect their views and accept

ocialist realism principles. ome !93s writers, such as #ikhail *ulgakov, author of  The

#aster and #argarita, and ;obelEpri+e winning *oris 8asternak  with his novel Do"tor !hivago 

continued the classical tradition of Russian literature with little or no hope of being published.

Their maBor works would not be published until the (hrushchev Thaw and 8asternak was forced

to refuse his ;obel pri+e.

#eanwhile, 2migr2 writers, such as poets &yacheslav Ivanov, "eorgy Ivanov and &ladislav

(hodasevich5 novelists such as "aito "a+danov, #ark ldanov and &ladimir ;abokov and short

story ;obel 8ri+e winning writer Ivan *unin, continued to write in e$ile.

The (hrushchev Thaw brought some fresh wind to the literature. 8oetry became a mass cultural

 phenomenonL :evgeny :evtushenko, ndrei &o+nesensky, Robert Ro+hdestvensky and *ella

khmadulina read their poems in stadiums and attracted huge crowds.

ome writers dared to oppose oviet ideology, like short story writer &arlam halamov and

 ;obel 8ri+e winning novelist leksandr ol+henitsyn, who wrote about life in the gulag camps,

or &asily "rossman, with his description of ?orld ?ar II events countering the oviet officialhistoriography. They were dubbed 0dissidents0 and could not publish their maBor works until the

!3s.

*ut the thaw did not last long. In the !/3s, some of the most prominent authors were not only

 banned from publishing, but were also prosecuted for their ntiEoviet sentiments or parasitism.

ol+henitsyn was e$pelled from the country. Others, such as ;obel pri+e winning poet Foseph

*rodsky, novelists &asily ksyonov, )duard 6imonov and asha okolov, and short story writer

ergei ovlatov, had to emigrate to the <, while &enedikt :erofeyev and Oleg "rigoriev 

0emigrated0 to alcoholism. Their books were not published officially until perestroika, although

fans continued to reprint them manually in a manner called 0sami+dat0 2selfEpublishing7.

Popular genres

Children's literature in oviet <nion was considered a maBor genre, because of its educational

role. large share of early period children's books were poemsL (orney Chukovsky, amuil

#arshak , gnia *arto were among the most read. 0dult0 poets, such as #ayakovsky and

ergey #ikhalkov, contributed to the genre as well. ome of the early oviet children's prose

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was loose adaptations of foreign fairy tales unknown in contemporary Russia. le$ey ;. Tolstoy 

wrote Buratino, a lightEhearted and shortened adaptation of  Carlo Collodi's Pino""hio. le$ander 

&olkov introduced fantasy fiction to oviet children with his loose translation of Arank 6.

*aum's The /onderful /izard of (z , published as The /izard of the &merald City, and then

wrote a series of five seHuels, unrelated to *aum. Other notable authors include ;ikolay ;osov,

6a+ar 6agin, &italy *ianki.

?hile fairy tales were relatively free from ideological oppression, the realistic children's prose of 

the talin era was highly ideological and pursued the goal to raise children as patriots and

communists. notable e$ample is rkady "aydar , himself a Red rmy soldier in Russian Civil

?ar L his stories and plays about Timur  describe a team of young pioneer  volunteers who help the

eldery and resist hooligans. There was a genre of hero pioneer story, that bore some similarities

with Christian genre of hagiography. In (hrushov and *re+hnev times, however, the pressure

lightened. #idE and late oviet children's books by )duard <spensky, :uri )ntin, &iktor

ragunsky bear no signs of propaganda. In the !/3s many of these books, as well as stories byforeign children's writers, were adapted into animation.

oviet cience fiction, inspired by scientistic revolution, industrialisation, and the country's

space pioneering, was flourishing, albeit in the limits allowed by censors. )arly science fiction

authors, such as le$ander *elyayev, "rigory damov, &ladimir Obruchev, leksey

 ;ikolayevich Tolstoy, stack to hard science fiction and regarded -. ". ?ells and Fules &erne as

e$amples to follow. Two notable e$clusions from this trend were :evgeny 1amyatin, author of

dystopian novel /e, and #ikhail *ulgakov, who, while using science fiction instrumentary in

 -eart of a Dog  * The 3atal &ggs and Ivan %asilyevi"h, was interested in social satire rather than

scientistic progress. The two have had problems with publishing their books in oviet <nion.

ince the thaw in the !43s oviet science fiction began to form its own style. 8hilosophy,

ethics, utopian and dystopian ideas became its core, and ocial science fiction was the most

 popular subgenre.J/K lthough the view of )arth's future as that of utopian communist society

was the only welcome, the liberties of genre still offered a loophole for free e$pression. *ooks of 

 brothers rkady and *oris trugatsky, and (ir *ulychev, among others, are reminiscent of social

 problems and often include satire on contemporary oviet society. Ivan :efremov, on the

contrary, arose to fame with his utopian views on future as well as on ncient "reece in his

historical novels. trugatskies are also credited for the oviet's first science fantasy, the #onday

*egins on aturday trilogy. Other notable science fiction writers included &ladimir avchenko, "eorgy "urevich, le$ander (a+antsev, "eorgy #artynov, :eremey 8arnov. pace opera was

less developed, since both state censors and serious writers watched it unfavorably. ;evertheless,

there were moderately successful attempts to adapt space westerns to oviet soil. The first was

le$ander (olpakov with 0"riada0, after came ergey negov with 0#en 6ike "ods0, among

others.

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specific branch of both science fiction and children's books appeared in midEoviet eraL the

children's science fiction. It was meant to educate children while enterteining them. The star of

the genre was *ulychov, who, along with his adult books, created children's space adventure

series about lisa ele+neva, a teenage girl from the future. Others include ;ikolay ;osov with

his books about dwarf ;e+nayka, )vgeny &eltistov, who wrote about robot boy )lectronic, &italy

#elentyev, &ladislav (rapivin, &italy "ubarev.

#ystery was another popular genre. etectives by brothers rkady and "eorgy &ayner  and spy

novels by :ulian emyonov were bestEselling,J%K and many of them were adapted into film or T&

in !/3's and !%3s.

&illage prose is a genre that conveys nostalgic decriptions of rural life. &alentin RasputinXs !/

novel, Prosh"haniye s ,atyoroy 2 3are.ell to ,atyora7 depicted a village faced with destruction

to make room for a hydroelectric plant.J!K

-istorical fiction in the early oviet era included a large share of memoirs, fictionali+ed or not.

&alentin (atayev and 6ev (assil wrote semiEautobiographic books about children's life in Tsarist

Russia. &ladimir "ilyarovsky wrote ,os"o. and ,us"ovites, about life in preErevolutionary

#oscow. The late oviet historical fiction was dominated by ?orld ?ar II novels and short

stories by authors such as *oris &asilyev, &iktor stafyev, *oris 8olevoy, &asil *ykaZ, among

many others, based on the authors' own war e$perience. &asily :an and (onstantin *adygin are

 best known for their novels on #edieval Rus, and :ury Tynyanov for writing on Russian

)mpire. &alentin 8ikul wrote about many different epochs and countries in an le$ander umasE

inspired style. In the !/3s there appeared a relatively independent &illage 8rose, whose most

 prominent representatives were &iktor stafyev and &alentin Rasputin.

ny sort of fiction that dealt with the occult, either horror , adultEoriented fantasy or magic

realism, was unwelcome in oviet Russia. <ntil !%3's very few books in these genres were

written, and even fewer were published, although earlier books, such as by "ogol, were not

 banned. Of the rare e$ceptions, *ulgakov in ,aster and ,argarita 2not published in author's

lifetime7 and trugatskies in ,onday Begins on #aturday introduced magic and mystical

creatures into contemporary oviet reality to satiri+e it. nother e$ception was early oviet

writer le$ander "rin, who wrote romantic tales, both realistic and fantastic.

Post-Soviet era

)nd of the >3th century has proven a difficult period for Russian literature, with relatively few

distinct voices. lthough the censorship was lifted and writers could now freely e$press their

thoughts, !!3's political and economic chaos affected the book market and literature heavily.

*ook printing industry descended into crisis, the number of printed book copies dropped several

times in comparison to oviet era, and it took about a decade to revive.

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mong the most discussed authors of this period were &ictor 8elevin, who gained popularity

with first short stories and then novels, novelist and playwright &ladimir orokin, and the poet

mitry 8rigov. relatively new trend in Russian literature is that female short story writers

Tatyana Tolstaya or 6yudmila 8etrushevskaya, and novelists 6yudmila <litskaya or ina Rubina 

have come into prominence. The tradition of the classic Russian novel continues with such

authors as #ikhail hishkin and &asily ksyonov.

etective stories and thrillers have proven a very successful genre of new Russian literatureL in

the !!3s serial detective novels by le$andra #arinina, 8olina ashkova and arya ontsova 

were published in millions of copies. In the ne$t decade a more highbrow author  *oris kunin 

with his series about the !th century sleuth )rast Aandorin became widely popular.

cience fiction is still among bestEselling, albeit second to fantasy, that was relatively new to

Russian readers. These genres boomed in late !!3s, with authors like ergey 6ukyanenko, ;ick 

8erumov, #aria emenova, &era (amsha, le$ey 8ekhov and &adim 8anov. good share of

modern Russian science fiction and fantasy is written in <kraineJ>3K, especially in (harkivJ>K,

home to -. 6. Oldie, le$ander 1orich, :uri ;ikitin and ndrey &alentinov. #any others hail

from (iev, including #arina and ergey yachenko and &ladimir renev. ignificant

contribution to Russian horror literature has been done by <krainians ndrey ashkov and

le$ander &argo.

The leading poets of the young generation are arguably mitry &odennikov and ndrey

Rodionov, both famous not only for their verses, but also for their ability to artistically recite

them. In the late >333s 2decade7 a new generation of young poets came, who prefer the classic

style of writing, which inherits the traditions of the ilver geL #aria #arkova 2owner of theRussian presidential award7, ndrey ;itchenko 2winner of many authoritative literary contests7

and many others.

Trent Fohnson was a leading critic of Russian literature during this time.

External infuences

ritish ro!antic poetry

Robert *urns became a [peopleXs poetX in Russia. In Imperial times the Russian aristocracy were

so out of touch with the peasantry that *urns, translated into Russian, became a symbol for theordinary Russian people. In oviet Russia *urns was elevated as the archetypical poet of the

 people G not least since the oviet regime slaughtered and silenced its own poets. new

translation of *urns, begun in !>@ by amuil #arshak , proved enormously popular selling over

33,333 copies.J>>KJ>9K In !4, the oviet <nion became the first country in the world to honour

*urns with a commemorative stamp. The poetry of *urns is taught in Russian schools alongside

their own national poets. *urns was a great admirer of the egalitarian ethos behind the Arench

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Revolution. ?hether *urns would have recognised the same principles at work in the oviet

tate at its most repressive is moot. This didnXt stop the Communists from claiming *urns as one

of their own and incorporating his work into their state propaganda. The post communist years of 

rampant capitalism in Russia have not tarnished *urns' reputation.J>@K

6ord *yron was a maBor influence on almost all Russian poets of the "olden )ra, including

8ushkin, &ya+emsky, 1hukovsky, *atyushkov, *aratynsky, elvig and, especially, 6ermontov.J>4K

"rench #iterature

?riters such as &ictor -ugo and -onor de *al+ac were widely influential.

A$road

Russian literature is not only written by Russians. In the oviet times such popular writers as

*elarusian &asil *ykaZ, (yrgy+ Chinghi+ itmatov and bkha+ Aa+il Iskander  wrote some of

their books in Russian. ome renowned contemporary authors writing in Russian have been born

and live in <kraine 2ndrey (urkov, #arina and ergey yachenko7 or *altic tates 2"arros

and )vdokimov7. #any, if not the most, <krainian fantasy and science fiction authors write in

RussianJ>3K, which gives them access to a much broader audience, and usually publish their books

via Russian publishers such as )ksmo, +buka and T.

number of prominent Russian authors such as novelists #ikhail hishkin, Rubn "allego, 

vetlana #artynchik  and ina Rubina, poets le$ei Tsvetkov and *akhyt (enBeev, though born

in <R, live and work in ?est )urope, ;orth merica or Israel.

$0th century

•

#ikhail 6omonosov

•

le$ander umarokov

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•

"avrila er+havin

•

le$ander Radishchev

•

 ;ikolay (aram+in

•

Ivan (rylov

.olden Age

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&asily 1hukovsky

 

le$ander 8ushkin

 

Ayodor Tyutchev

 

 ;ikolai "ogol

 

le$ander -er+en

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Ivan "oncharov

#ikhail *akunin

#ikhail 6ermontov

Ivan Turgenev

fanasy Aet

 ;ikolai ;ekrasov

Ayodor ostoyevsky

le$ander Ostrovsky

#ikhail altykovEchedrin

6eo Tolstoy

 ;ikolai 6eskov

8eter (ropotkin

nton Chekhov

1ilver Age

mitry #ere+hkovsky

Ivan *unin

6eonid ndreyev

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Osip #andelstam

&ladimir #ayakovsky

ergei :esenin

&alery *ryusov

ndrey *ely

le$ander *lok 

:evgeny 1amyatin

nna khmatova

&alery *ryusov

ndrey *ely

le$ander *lok 

:evgeny 1amyatin

nna khmatova

23th century

 

leksey Tolstoy

 

*oris 8asternak 

 

#ikhail *ulgakov

#arina Tsvetaeva

Isaak *abel

Ilya Ilf and :evgeny 8etrov

&ladimir ;abokov

#ikhail holokhov

aniil (harms

le$ander *elayev

leksandr ol+henitsyn

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)duard 6imonov

 

&ladimir orokin

*oris kunin

 

&ictor 8elevin

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  ergei 6ukyanenko

Middle Ages /lothing ::

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Middle Ages /lothing ::

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Middle Ages /lothing ::

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