Salinity in Lake Kinneret

(the Sea of Galilee) –

Its History, Environmental

Challenges, and Management

Alon RimmerIsrael Oceanographic and Limnological Research Ltd., the

Lake Kinneret Limnological Laboratory.

Mount of Beautitud - Dubi Tal and Moni Haramati

Lake Kinneret….Standing atop the Mount

of Beatitudes and observing

the landscape at its feet, it

becomes clear why it was

here, and not anywhere else,

that Christ gave his famed

sermon……

Lake Kinneret salinity in peer reviewed journals- special example

Lake Kinneret, Sea of Galilee, Israel• The most important surface water

resource in Israel,

• Lake Kinneret provides

approximately 35% of the annual

drinking water, through the National

Water Carrier (NWC).

• The area of the Lake Kinneret

Watershed is ~2730 km2, where

~2000 km2 are in Israel, and the rest

of the area is in Syria and Lebanon.

• The average area of the LK surface

is 166 km2, the average volume is

4,100 Mm3, the average annual

available water is ~470 Mm3, and the

average residence time is ~8.3

years. m3 = 0.000810713 ac*ft ; Mm3 = 810.713 ac*ft ; 470 Mm3 = 381,035.11 ac*ft ; About 0.25 of the CAP

Water supplyFishing

Lake Kinneret usages

Recreation and

tourist attraction

Lake Kinneret

Level

The natural water

sources of Israel

Mountain Aquifer

North and East (325)

(70)

(110)Western Galilee

(25)Carmel Aquifer

Coastal Aquifer (250)

Mountain Aquifer west (350)

(600)Galilee and Lake

Kinneret

Annual averages [million m3]

* sum: 1740

* runoff : 30

* Treated waste water 450

• in use 300

• Desalinization: 500

Mountain Aquifer west

(saline - 10)

Negev Aquifer

Arava Aquifer

NWCSapir

The National Water Carrier (NWC)

Sapir Site

NWC Canal

Inflow of saline springs into Lake

Kinneret (Israel)•The salinity of Lake Kinneret (190-

300 ppm Cl-), is significantly higher

than the salinity of the water from

the surface streams that flow to the

lake (10-40 ppm Cl-).

•The relatively high salinity of the

lake is a result of the activity of

saline springs located near the

shoreline, and offshore springs at

the bottom of the lake.

•The salinity of LK is considered as

a major environmental problem in

Israel, and reducing it is of high

interest.

The annual average and standard deviations of water and chloride balances of Lake Kinneret 1987–2010

(1)

(2)

(3)(4)

(5)

(6)(9)

(8)

(7)

(10)

200

220

240

260

280

300

320

340

360

380

400

1950 1960 1970 1980 1989 1999 2009

salinity

Salin

ity (

mg C

l/lit

er)

(11)

(12)

12

The history of Lake Kinneret salinity

measurements

1. During the years 1954-1962 significant increase.

2. Between 1961-1963 reaching peak values of ~390 ppm Cl-;

3. In 1964, the NWC became operative, chloride content began to drop;

4. SWC was fully operated in January 1965, preventing an average of ~55,000 ton Cl- from flowing

to the lake, salinity drop enhanced.

5. Lake salinity further enhanced by the exceptionally rainy winter of 1968-69 (inflows of 200%

compared to an average year).

6. The lowest lake salinity, 192 ppm Cl-, reported in May 1988.

7. Increased to 250 ppm Cl- following three dry winters.

8. Decreased to ~210 ppm Cl- following the exceptionally rainy winter of 1991-1992.

9. Increased to ~290 ppm Cl- from the end of the winter 1993-1994 to the winter of 2001-2002.

10. Following the extreme winter of 2002-2003 the salinity reduced to ~230 ppm Cl-.

11. From 2004 to 2011 the salinity bounced again to ~280 ppm Cl-.

[Cl-] mass exported from Lake Kinneret[C

l-]

10

6k

g

25000

50000

75000

100000

125000

150000

1968

-1969

1969

-1970

1970

-1971

1971

-1972

1972

-1973

1973-1

974

1974

-1975

1975

-1976

1976

-1977

1977-1

978

1978-1

979

1979-1

980

1980-1

981

1981

-1982

1982-1

983

1983-1

984

1984

-1985

1985

-1986

1986-1

987

1987-1

988

1988-1

989

1989-1

990

1990-1

991

1991-1

992

1992-1

993

1993-1

994

1994

-1995

1995-1

996

1996-1

997

1997

-1998

1998-1

999

1999

-2000

2000-2

001

2001

-2002

2002-2

003

2003

-2004

2004-2

005

YEAR

• Annual chloride export is 330 million m3. Assuming averageconcentration of 230 mgCl/L it sums up to 75,900 106 kg

What happened to

the salinity of the

Coastal Aquifer

[Cl-] concentration in the Coastal

Aquifer •The Cl concentration in the coastal

aquifer is 50 – 600 mg/l. This salinity

increase annually with 1 mg/l.

•The irrigation with the relatively high Lake

Kinneret water, and the strong evaporation

processes in the region adds significantly

to the salinization of the aquifer

•Domestic use usually adds 100 mg/l of Cl

to the waste water.

•Irrigation with treated waste water, and

the techniques of storing them in ground

water (SHAFDAN project) adds salinity to

groundwater

•Regular waste water treatment plants do

not remove salinity from the water, and

therefore waste water are usually more

saline than original Lake Kinneret water.

Note that the

more saline

areas are in

the east of

the aquifer,

which is far

from the sea

shore

16

[Cl-] concentration changes in the

Coastal Aquifer 1950-2008C

l co

ncen

trati

on

mg

/L

Year

Right: Map of lakes from the

past (20,000 years ago) and

present along the Dead Sea

Rift. Maximum coverage of

Lake Lisan, with salinity of

100 to 300 g\liter. Maximum

lake level was about 180

meters below sea level, for

few thousand years.

Left: Salinity and flow

directions during the stage

that Lisan level was 180

meters below sea level. The

development of salinity profile

within 1200 meters deep

bedrock, for 3,000 years as a

result of the penetration of

high salinity water from the

surface. Bottom: 17,000

years since withdrawn Lake

Lisan.

What is the source of the solutesA A’

Lake Kinneret is a fresh water lake

“floating” on a solute groundSalinity measured using TDEM at

different depths (5, 10 15 and 20

meters) below the bottom of the Sea

of Galilee in 1999. Red indicates the

high salinity of ~10,000 mg/liter, and

blue indicates the relative washed

areas where salinity is less than 500

mg/liter. Black dots indicate the

points at which the survey was

conducted.

Hurwitz, S., Stanislavsky, E., Lyakhovsky, V., & Gvirtzman, H.

(2000). Transient groundwater-lake interactions in a continental

rift: Sea of Galilee, Israel. Geological Society of America Bulletin,

112(11), 1694-1702.

Hurwitz, S., Goldman, M., Ezersky, M., & Gvirtzman, H. (1999).

Geophysical (time domain electromagnetic model) delineation of

a shallow brine beneath a freshwater lake, the Sea of Galilee,

Israel. Water Resources Research, 35(12), 3631-3638.

GFM

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How water and solutes flow into

Lake Kinneret? (side view)

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20

How water and solutes flow

into Lake Kinneret? (top view)

Practices to reduce Lake Kinneretsalinity

1. Capture the most saline springs in the west side of the lake and divert it around the lake to the Lower Jordan River (the saline water carrier SWC)

2. Pump the saline water near the lake directly from the aquifer, and direct it to the SWC.

3. Study the mechanism of salinization and decide on water management rules that will minimize lake salinization.

1. The saline

water carrier

(SWC)

2. Pump the

saline water

directly to the

SWC

Gravitational flow model (GFM)

Self potential model (SPM)

maximal level

low level

maximal level

low level

maximal level

low level

maximal level

low level

Dry winter Low runoff

Low lake level

Small dilution

with saline

discharge

low lake

level

small hydraulic

pressure on the

brine

High discharge

from saline

springs

Lake Salinity

increase

3. Study the mechanism of salinization

24

Lake Salinity increase

Self potential model (SPM)-

Major arguments 1. Fresh groundwater levels in the Eastern

Galilee (west of the lake) make a

counterbalance to the driving pressure

and therefore should not be decreased.

Consequently, pumping of groundwater

from this area should be limited.

2. The lake level should not be reduced

below a prescribed level. Lowering the

water levels in both the lake and adjacent

aquifers will increase the hydraulic

gradient between the saline water and

lake, and thus intensive seepage of saline

water through the lake sediments will take

place.

Gravitational flow model (GFM)

Major arguments

1. The flow of saline springs depends

on a ~ 100-m head difference

between aquifers in the Eastern

Galilee and Lake Kinneret, and

therefore the 1–4 m change in the

lake water level has negligible effect

on this flow.

2. Reduced hydraulic heads in deep

aquifers in the Galilee will lead to

reduction of the pressure applied on

the deep saline reservoir, and

therefore salt flux into the lake will

decrease.

The implications of the SPM-GFM

arguments on operational decisions

1. The SPM theory was dominating.

2. Pumping of groundwater from the Eastern

Galilee area was limited by the Israeli Water

Authority for four decades (1960–2000).

3. The lake level should not be reduced below

a prescribed “red line,” which was posed for

many years on − 212 m, and later on − 213

m a.m.s.l.

New studies in 1995–2000

A series of studies during the years 1995–

2000 came up with an important

understanding that the GFM mechanism

controls the discharge of the saline

springs. These findings resulted in the

decision to lower the “red line” during

1999–2001 without the fear of enhanced

salinization.

Incoming monthly solute mass vs

lake level for the years 1969-2000

Incoming monthly solute

mass increase with

increased lake level

-215.5

-215.0

-214.5

-214.0

-213.5

-213.0

-212.5

-212.0

-211.5

-211.0

-210.5

-210.0

-209.5

-209.0

-208.5

-208.0

1926 1931 1936 1941 1946 1951 1956 1961 1966 1971 1976 1981 1986 1991 1996 2001 2006 2011

Le

ve

l (m

)

Year

National Water carrier

-208.9

B. -212.0

C. -213.0

D. -214.87

A

Over decades the Water Authority's

policy was dictated by the SPM. The

“red line” of the lake was determined

by law, and pumping groundwater in

the eastern Galilee was prohibited.

Lake Kinneret level

and the Red Line

(1)

(2)

(3)(4)

(5)

(6)(9)

(8)

(7)

(10)

200

220

240

260

280

300

320

340

360

380

400

1950 1960 1970 1980 1989 1999 2009

salinity

Salin

ity (

mg C

l/lit

er)

(11)

(12)

31

Understanding the historic salinity

pattern of Lake Kinneret

1. During the years 1954-1962 significant increase.

2. Between 1961-1963 reaching peak values of ~390 ppm Cl-;

3. In 1964, the NWC became operative, chloride content began to drop;

4. SWC was fully operated in January 1965, preventing an average of ~55,000 ton Cl- from flowing

to the lake, salinity drop enhanced.

5. Lake salinity further enhanced by the exceptionally rainy winter of 1968-69 (inflows of 200%

compared to an average year).

6. The lowest lake salinity, 192 ppm Cl-, reported in May 1988.

7. Increased to 250 ppm Cl- following three dry winters.

8. Decreased to ~210 ppm Cl- following the exceptionally rainy winter of 1991-1992.

9. Increased to ~290 ppm Cl- from the end of the winter 1993-1994 to the winter of 2001-2002.

10. Following the extreme winter of 2002-2003 the salinity reduced to ~230 ppm Cl-.

11. From 2004 to 2011 the salinity bounced again to ~280 ppm Cl-.

Lake Salinity Model (LSM)

1. Rimmer, A. (2003). The Mechanism of Lake Kinneret

Salinization as a Linear Reservoir. Journal of Hydrology, 281/3

pp. 177-190.

2. Rimmer A., M. Boger, Y. Aota and M. Kumagai, 2006. A Lake

as a Natural Integrator of Linear Processes: Application to

Lake Kinneret (Israel) and Lake Biwa (Japan). Journal of

Hydrology, 319/1-4, pp. 163-175.

Sout: Cl outflow

from pumps and

water release

The Lake Salinity Model (LSM)

Cl and water inflow from saline springs

Cl and water

inflows from

surface sources

Sin

InputOutput

It is assumed that the

lake is completely mixed

Lakesolute flux

through the

outlet of the

lake is

proportional

with solute

storage

Schematic lake salinity response to change in solute inflow (Sin)

t0

Sin

So

lute

mass i

n t

he l

ake,

S S0

Sin1Sin0

t (year)

Sudden drop in solute inflows (operation of the SWC) will cause an exponential decrease of solute mass and salinity. The full change takes ~25 years

solute inflow

year

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000

So

lute

in

flu

x (

106

kg

)

50

100

150

200

250

Average Cl inflows 1964-2000Calculated annual Cl inflows

Step function starting in 1964

Diverted to the SWC

The actual step change in solute inflow (Sin) starting in 1964

Model result for 1964-87

1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990

0.9

1.0

1.1

1.2

1.3

1.4

1.5

1.6

1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990

220

240

260

280

300

320

340

360

380

sa

lin

ity

(pp

m C

l-)

So

lute

ma

ss

(10

9k

g)

year

S0=1,550 106 kg

q=0.127

Sin=95106 kg

Model

Measured

The reduction in solute mass and salinity between 1964 and

1987 is an obvious result of the operation of the SWC in 1964

Schematic lake salinity response to gradual change in water inflow (Qin)

Qin

So

lute

ma

ss

in

th

e la

ke

, S

S0

Qin0

t (Year)

Gradual decrease in

water inflows will

cause an non linear

increase of solute mass

and salinity.

The actual gradual change in water inflow (Qin) since 1951

Annual exchange of water in the lake is reducing

continuously in the last 60 years

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

1951/52 1961/62 1971/72 1981/82 1991/92 2001/02 2011/12

An

nu

al d

isch

arg

e (

Mm

3)

Year

Available Water

AW = -3.54xYear + 576.55

Changes in solute mass in Lake

Kinneret 1963-2010

Year

So

lute

mass i

n t

he l

ake (

To

n) S0=1,655,000 ton

q= -0.0011 x year+ 2.319

Sin=107,000 ton

Measured

Model

Step change in solute inflows

Increase in salinity is

controlled by a constant

reduction in the quantity

of water that enters the

lake

Decrease in salinity

is controlled by a

step-change in the

quantity of incoming

solute (salt carrier

operation)

1964

7.50E+05

8.50E+05

9.50E+05

1.05E+06

1.15E+06

1.25E+06

1.35E+06

1.45E+06

1.55E+06

1.65E+06

1.75E+06

1962 1966 1970 1974 1978 1982 1986 1990 1994 1998 2002 2006 2010

Conclusions• Salinity changes are the full lake salinity response to both

gradual reduction in water inflows and step reduction of solute inflows

• Since the middle of the 1980s a slow increase in lake salinity is observed as a result of reduced amount of inflows (and outflows).

• During the the 1980s the influence of the reducing water inflows became more significant than the effect of the step reduction of solute, 20 years earlier.

• We are now witness of the gradual increase of lake salinity due to the continuous reduction of inflows

0.75

0.85

0.95

1.05

1.15

1.25

1.35

1.45

1.55

1.65

1.75

1962 1972 1982 1992 2002שנה

חלמ

ר וג

א)

וןט

ן יולמ

(

ג

S0=1,655,000 tonא

q= -0.0011 x שנה +

2.319

Sin=107,000 ton

Predictions of future lake salinity:

Example• The salinity of the lake is expected to increase

significantly if reduction of inflows will continue

Lake Kinneret salinity

120

170

220

270

320

370

420

470

520

570

1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040

year

Lak

e K

inn

ere

t sa

lin

ity (

mg

Cl/l)

Predicted C_LAKEClake calculatedC_LAKEClake+ErrorsClake-Errors

(1)

(2)

(3)(4)

(5)

(6)(9)

(8)

(7)

(10)

200

220

240

260

280

300

320

340

360

380

400

1950 1960 1970 1980 1989 1999 2009

salinity

ת רכנ

הת

חולי

מ(

גכמ

(ל" (11)

(12)

42

The historic

record of lake

salinity during

1950-1964

1. During the years 1954-1962 significant increase.

2. Between 1961-1963 reaching peak values of ~390 ppm Cl-;

3. In 1964, the NWC became operative, chloride content began to drop;

4. SWC was fully operated in January 1965, preventing an average of ~55,000 ton Cl- from flowing

to the lake, salinity drop enhanced.

5. Lake salinity further enhanced by the exceptionally rainy winter of 1968-69 (inflows of 200%

compared to an average year).

6. The lowest lake salinity, 192 ppm Cl-, reported in May 1988.

7. Increased to 250 ppm Cl- following three dry winters.

8. Decreased to ~210 ppm Cl- following the exceptionally rainy winter of 1991-1992.

9. Increased to ~290 ppm Cl- from the end of the winter 1993-1994 to the winter of 2001-2002.

10. Following the extreme winter of 2002-2003 the salinity reduced to ~230 ppm Cl-.

11. From 2004 to 2011 the salinity bounced again to ~280 ppm Cl-.

Few more questions

• Why Lake Kinneret salinity increased

during the 1950?

• How it is connected to the LSM theory?

• How it is connected to the “Red Line”

policy?

Why Lake Kinneret salinity increased

during the 1950?Various academic references noted that the 50's and

beginning of the 60’s were relatively dry, and

therefore relatively little fresh water reached the a

lake and caused increased salinization.

/ דוח הידרו. ומאפייניה ההידרולוגים העיקריים2010/2011סיכום עונת הגשמים . 2011, השרות ההידרולוגי

.ירושלים. 2011/07

Is this a complete explanation?Calculations from 1 October 1954 to 1 October 1962

suggest additional solute inflows during this period. From

solute balance calculations, it is possible that during this

8-year period, the input of solutes to the lake increased

to an annual average of ~ 168,000 t of Cl−, i.e., 8,000 t

higher than any calculated average measured since

1960 (see details in the solute balance section).

maximal level

low level

maximal level

low level

maximal level

low level

low lake

level

small hydraulic

pressure on the

brine

High discharge

from saline

springs

Lake

Salinity

increase

Lets test the LSM and GFM through the

eyes of the decision makers at that time:

All conditions to support the SPM were filled: low lake

level, relatively high solutes flow, and increasing salinity!

Conclusion: The lake level drop should be limited in

order to prevent increased solutes input – a red line is

required!

Self potential model (SPM)

During the 1950s, the State

of Israel carried out intensive

research on the Lake

Kinneret salinity, in

preparation to develop and

operate the NWC. As part of

this research effort, at least

60 new boreholes (IHS

database) were drilled in the

region of the west coast of

the lake, from which at least

28 boreholes were drilled

offshore in the bottom of the

lake.

However,

טבחה

פוליה

טבריה

What was the result of drilling

dozens of wells in and around the

Lake Kinneret?Massive drilling during the 1950s

resulted in a temporary

disturbance to the steady

hydrological system of the lake-

aquifer and a temporary increase

in solute flux to the lake (~ 2,000 t

Cl− per offshore borehole). The

effect of these boreholes faded

throughout the years after they

were abandoned,

artificially blocked, or clogged by

natural sedimentation in the lake.

Summary• Since the operation of the “National Water Carrier” in

1964, the Lake Kinneret salinity causes major environmental problem. The following two aspects were discussed:

• Description of the case study: (1) the lake salinity as a source of solute export by the Israeli water supply system; (2) the hydrogeological causes for lake salinity; (3) history of salinity measurements;

• Management and operational aspects: (1) the proposed mechanisms of lake salinization, and the determination of ‘red line’ policy to ensure minimum allowed lake level; (2) a complete mixing type model to predict the future salinity of the lake; (3) summary of the current knowledge and operation of Lake Kinneret salinity. (4) Is there a justification for the ‘red line’ policy from the salinization point of view?

• Abbo H, Shavit U, Markel D, Rimmer A (2003) A Numerical Study on the Influence of Frac-tured Regions on Lake/Groundwater Interaction; the Lake Kinneret

Case. Journal of Hydrology, 283/1-4 pp 225-243

• Assouline S (1993) Estimation of lake hydrologic budget terms using the simultaneous solution of water, heat, and salt balances and a Kalman filtering approach

- application to Lake Kinneret. Water Resources Research, 29(9): 3041-3048

• Bergelson G, Nativ R, Bein A (1998) Assessment of hydraulic parameters in the aquifers sur-rounding and underlying Lake Tiberias. Ground Water 36: 409-417

• Goldman M, Gvirtzman H, Hurwitz S (2004) Mapping of saline groundwater beneath the Sea of Gallilee and its vicinity using the Domain electromagnetic (TDEM)

geophysical technique. Israel Journal of Earth Sciences. 53: 187-197

• Gvirtzman H, Garven G, Gvirtzman G (1997) Hydrogeological modeling of the saline hot springs at the Sea of Galilee, Israel. Water Resources Research, 33(5):

913-926

• Hurwitz S., Goldman M, Ezersky M, Gvirtzman H (1999) Geophysical (time domain electro-magnetic model) delineation of a shallow brine beneath a freshwater

lake. The Sea of Galilee, Israel. Water resources research, 35, 3631-3638

• Hurwitz S, Lyakhovsky V, Gvirtzman H (2000a) Transient salt transport modeling of a shallow brine beneath a fresh water lake, the Sea of Galilee. Water

Resources Research, 36: 101-107

• Hurwitz S, Stanislavsky E, Lyakhovsky V, Gvirtzman H (2000b) Transiet groundwater-lake interactions in a continental rift: Sea of Galilee, Israel. Geological

Society of America Bulletin, 112: 1694-1702

• Issar AS (1993) Recharge and salination processes in the carbonate aquifers in Israel. Environmental Geology, 21, 152-159

• Katz A, Nishri A (2013) Calcium, magnesium and strontium cycling in stratified, hardwater lakes: Lake Kinneret (Sea of Galilee), Israel. Geochimica et

Cosmochimica Acta 105, :372–394

• Klein Ben-David, Saas E, Katz A (2004). The evolution of marine evaporitic brines in Inland Basins: The Jordan-Dead Sea Rift valley. Geochimica et

Cosmochimica Acta 68:1763-1775

• Kolodny Y, Katz A, Starinsky A, Moise T, Simon E (1999). Chemical tracing of salinity sources in Lake Kinneret (Sea of Galilee), Israel. Limnology and

Oceanography 44:1035-1044

• Mazor E, Mero F (1969) Geochemical tracing of mineral resources in the Lake Tiberias basin, Israel. J. Hydrol, 7:276-317

• Mero F (1978) Hydrology, In: C. Serruya [Ed.], Lake Kinneret, Monographiae Biologicae, Dr. W Junk, pp. 88-102

• Mero F, Simon E (1992) The simulation of chloride inflows into Lake Kinneret. J. Hydrol., 138: 345-360

• Nishri A, Stiller M, Rimmer A, Geifman Y, Krom M (1999) Lake Kinneret, The Sea of Galilee): The effects of diversion of external salinity sources and the probable

chemical composition of the internal salinity sources. Chemical Geology 158: 37-52

• Rimmer A (2000) The Influence of lake level on the discharge of the Kinneret saline springs. Advances in Limnology. 55:55-67

• Rimmer A (2003). The Mechanism of Lake Kinneret Salinization as a Linear Reservoir. Journal of Hydrology, 281(3):177-190.

• Rimmer A (2007) System approach hydrology tools for the Upper Catchment of the Jordan River and Lake Kinneret, Israel. The Israel Journal of Earth Science.

56:1–17

• Rimmer A, Gal G (2003) The saline springs in the solute and water balance of Lake Kinneret, Israel. Journal of Hydrology, 284(1-4):228-243

• Rimmer A, Hartmann A (2012) Simplified conceptual structures and analytical solutions for groundwater discharge using reservoir equations. Chapter 10 in

InTech Open Access book, "Water Resources Management and Modeling", ISBN 978-953-51-0246-5

• Rimmer A, Aota Y, Kumagai M, Eckert W (2005) Chemical stratification in thermally stratified lakes: A chloride mass balance model. Limnol. Oceanogr. 50:147-157

• Rimmer A (2007). System approach hydrology tools for the Upper Catchment of the Jordan River and Lake Kinneret, Israel. The Israel Journal of Earth Science.

56: 1–17.

• Rimmer A, Givati A, Samuels R, Alpert P (2011) Using ensemble of climate models to evaluate future water and solutes budgets in Lake Kinneret, Israel. Journal

of Hydrology 410:248–259.

• Rimmer A, Hurwitz S, Gvirtzman H (1999) Spatial and temporal characteristics of saline springs: Sea of Galilee, Israel. Ground Water, 37(5): 663-673

• Simon E, Mero F (1992) The salinization mechanism of Lake Kinneret. Journal of Hydrology, 138: 327-343

• Starinsky A (1974) Relationships between Ca-chloride brines and the sedimentary rocks in Israel. PhD thesis. The Hebrew University Jerusalem (in Hebrew:

English Summary).

• Stiller M (1994) The chloride content of pore water of Lake Kinneret sediments. Israel Journal of Earth Sciences 43:179-185

• Stiller M, Carmi I, Munnich KO (1975) Water transport through Lake Kinneret sediments traced by tritium, Earth Palent.Sci. Lett. 25:297-304

• Stiller M, Rosenbaum JM, Nishri A (2009) The origin of brines underlying Lake Kinneret. Chemical Geology 262 309-325

• Rimmer, A. and A. Nishri, 2014. “Salinity” Chap. 8 in “Lake Kinneret – Ecology and Management”.Zohary T., Sukenik A., Berman T. and, Nishri A. [eds]. Springer,

Heidelberg.

Lake Kinneret salinity in peer reviewed journals (incomplete list)

Thank you