Śāntideva’s Bodhicaryāvatāra: A Mahāyāna Path to Altered States of Consciousness Randall Studstill

Śāntideva’s Śāntideva’s BodhicaryāvatāraBodhicaryāvatāra::A Mahāyāna Path to Altered States of ConsciousnessA Mahāyāna Path to Altered States of Consciousness

Randall StudstillRandall Studstill

Question:Question:

How might the bodhisattva path as presented in theHow might the bodhisattva path as presented in theBodhicaryāvatāraBodhicaryāvatāra11 transform the consciousness of transform the consciousness ofthe practitioner and create altered states ofthe practitioner and create altered states ofconsciousness?consciousness?

Method:Method:

Assessing the potential psychological effects of the Assessing the potential psychological effects of the text’s teachings using a systems-based model of text’s teachings using a systems-based model of mind.mind.

ContentsContents

1. Preliminaries and Background

2. Mind as a System

3. Śāntideva on Forbearance

4. Conclusions

5. Appendix 1: Tibetan Hagiography

6. Appendix 2: Themes and Topics in the Bodhicaryāvatāra Organized by Chapter

PreliminariesPreliminaries

andand

BackgroundBackground

Who was Śāntideva?Who was Śāntideva? 88thth century Indian, Mahāyāna Buddhist monk century Indian, Mahāyāna Buddhist monk Affiliated with the Madhyamaka schoolAffiliated with the Madhyamaka school Resident of NālandāResident of Nālandā In addition to the In addition to the BodhicaryāvatāraBodhicaryāvatāra

(“Introduction to the Conduct that Leads to (“Introduction to the Conduct that Leads to Enlightenment” or “Undertaking the Way to Enlightenment” or “Undertaking the Way to Awakening”), author of the Awakening”), author of the ŚikṣāsamuccayaŚikṣāsamuccaya (“Compendium of Doctrines” or “Compendium of (“Compendium of Doctrines” or “Compendium of the Training”)the Training”)

Beyond these few details, no historically reliable Beyond these few details, no historically reliable informationinformation

An overview of the textAn overview of the text Part of the text used in Mahāyāna ritual Part of the text used in Mahāyāna ritual

((anuttara-pūjāanuttara-pūjā)) Primarily, the text is a guide for contemplative Primarily, the text is a guide for contemplative

reflection aimed at cultivating the reflection aimed at cultivating the pāramitāpāramitā (generosity, morality, forbearance, diligence, (generosity, morality, forbearance, diligence, meditation, wisdom) and the altruistic motivation meditation, wisdom) and the altruistic motivation for enlightenment (for enlightenment (bodhicittabodhicitta))

Key themes:Key themes: Relentless negation of the self (renunciation; abandoning any Relentless negation of the self (renunciation; abandoning any

tendency to protect the self)tendency to protect the self) The rewards of virtue and merit The rewards of virtue and merit The suffering (now and/or in future hell realms) of cyclic The suffering (now and/or in future hell realms) of cyclic

existence, the defilements (greed, anger, and delusion), and existence, the defilements (greed, anger, and delusion), and selfish thought and action in generalselfish thought and action in general

Developing compassion and Developing compassion and bodhicittabodhicitta by extending one’s locus by extending one’s locus of concern to include all beingsof concern to include all beings

The text’s significanceThe text’s significance ““the single greatest Indian poemthe single greatest Indian poem11 about cultivating about cultivating

the Mahāyāna spiritual life”the Mahāyāna spiritual life”22

““the most widely read, cited, and practiced text in the most widely read, cited, and practiced text in the whole of the Indo-Tibetan Buddhist tradition”the whole of the Indo-Tibetan Buddhist tradition”33

““the primary source of most of the Tibetan the primary source of most of the Tibetan Buddhist literature on the cultivation of altruism” Buddhist literature on the cultivation of altruism” and and bodhicittabodhicitta44

99thth chapter on emptiness “one of the principal chapter on emptiness “one of the principal sources for Mahāyāna philosophy”sources for Mahāyāna philosophy”55

One of the Dalai Lama’s principal sources of One of the Dalai Lama’s principal sources of religious inspiration (specifically, religious inspiration (specifically, BodhicaryāvatāraBodhicaryāvatāra 10.55: “As long as space abides, so long may I 10.55: “As long as space abides, so long may I abide, destroying the sufferings of the world”)abide, destroying the sufferings of the world”)66

Canonical, Sanskrit text912 verses (at least some of this extra material is derived from the Śikṣāsamuccaya)10 chapters

Dunhuang, Tibetan text(s)Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra (“Undertaking the Way of the Bodhisattva”)attributed to Akṣayamati701 ½ verses9 chapters

Narrative Structure

Ch. 1 Praise of bodhicitta

(36 verses)

= Ch. 1 (untitled) Part of the Supreme Worship (anuttarapūja)?

Cultivating the altruistic motivation for enlightenment

bodhicitta, stage 1:“the Mind resolved on Awakening “ (1:15)“a person who desires to go” (1:16)

Ch. 2 Confession of Faults

(66 verses)

= Ch. 2 Adopting (or Seizing) bodhicitta

Supreme Worship (anuttarapūjā)Generating merit2

Cultivating bodhicittaCh. 3 Adopting (or Seizing) bodhicitta

(33 verses)

Ch. 4 Vigilance Regarding bodhicitta

(48 verses)

= Ch. 3 Selflessness (nairātmya) “strengthening the aspiring Bodhisattva’s resolve” (p. 11)

Ch. 5 Guarding of Awareness

(109 verses)

= Ch. 4 Bodhisattva training proper;

cultivating the pāramitāGenerosityMorality

Putting the altruistic motivation for enlightenment into practice

bodhicitta, stage 2“the Mind proceeding toward Awakening” (1:15)“a person . . . who is going” (1:16)

Ch. 6 Forbearance (134 verses) = Ch. 5 Cultivating the pāramitā (Forbearance, etc.)

Ch. 7 Vigor (75 verses) = Ch. 6

Ch. 8 Meditative Absorption (dhyāna)

(186 verses)

= Ch. 7

Ch. 9 Understanding (167 verses) = Ch. 8

Ch. 10 Dedication (58 verses) = Ch. 9 Vows (praṇidhāna)

The organization of the The organization of the BodhicāryavatāraBodhicāryavatāra11

Notable passagesNotable passages1

““This world is a confusion of insane people striving to delude themselves.” (8:69b)This world is a confusion of insane people striving to delude themselves.” (8:69b)

““Those who have developed the continuum of their mind . . . , to whom the suffering Those who have developed the continuum of their mind . . . , to whom the suffering of others is as important as the things they themselves hold dear, plunge down into of others is as important as the things they themselves hold dear, plunge down into the Avīci hell as geese into a cluster of lotus blossoms.” (8:107)the Avīci hell as geese into a cluster of lotus blossoms.” (8:107)

““All those who suffer in the world do so because of their desire for their own All those who suffer in the world do so because of their desire for their own happiness. All those happy in the world are so because of their desire for the happiness. All those happy in the world are so because of their desire for the happiness of others. Why say more? Observe this distinction: between the fool who happiness of others. Why say more? Observe this distinction: between the fool who longs for his own advantage and the sage who acts for the advantage of others.” longs for his own advantage and the sage who acts for the advantage of others.” (8:129-130)(8:129-130)

““I make over this body to all embodied beings to do with as they please. Let them I make over this body to all embodied beings to do with as they please. Let them continually beat it, insult it, and splatter it with filth. Let them play with my body; let continually beat it, insult it, and splatter it with filth. Let them play with my body; let them be derisive and amuse themselves. I have given this body to them. What point them be derisive and amuse themselves. I have given this body to them. What point has this concern of mine?” (3:12-13)has this concern of mine?” (3:12-13)

““Whatever suffering is in store for the world, may it all ripen in me.” (10:56a)Whatever suffering is in store for the world, may it all ripen in me.” (10:56a)

MindMindas aas a

SystemSystem1

The mind viewed as an interdependent The mind viewed as an interdependent network of variables/eventsnetwork of variables/events

These variables/events function These variables/events function together to maintain the integrity of the together to maintain the integrity of the system as a wholesystem as a whole

These variables/events include:These variables/events include:1.1. Concepts/schema/beliefsConcepts/schema/beliefs2.2. Internal narrativeInternal narrative3.3. Attention (selective; self-referentially Attention (selective; self-referentially

oriented on the internal narrative)oriented on the internal narrative)4.4. Defense mechanisms (e.g., denial, Defense mechanisms (e.g., denial,

distortion, projection, displacement)distortion, projection, displacement)5.5. Distraction-seeking; addictionDistraction-seeking; addiction

System functionsSystem functions

Constrain awareness within a dualistic Constrain awareness within a dualistic frame of referenceframe of reference Perceptual dualism: a self situated in a world Perceptual dualism: a self situated in a world

of spatially removed and distinct objectsof spatially removed and distinct objects Evaluative dualism: the reflexive evaluation of Evaluative dualism: the reflexive evaluation of

things, persons, conditions, events, etc. as things, persons, conditions, events, etc. as either attractive (“good”) or repellant (“bad”)either attractive (“good”) or repellant (“bad”)

Maintain that state of reference in Maintain that state of reference in response to perturbing influencesresponse to perturbing influences

Constructive processesConstructive processes

Perceptual and evaluative dualism based on Perceptual and evaluative dualism based on two types of mutually-reinforcing two types of mutually-reinforcing concepts/schema/beliefsconcepts/schema/beliefs Perceptual concepts that organize and interpret Perceptual concepts that organize and interpret

sensory data, establishing the background and sensory data, establishing the background and focal dimensions of the perceptual field with focal dimensions of the perceptual field with reference to a substance-based, intuitive reference to a substance-based, intuitive ontology and the objectification and reification of ontology and the objectification and reification of ordinary appearancesordinary appearances

Evaluative concepts that assign positive or Evaluative concepts that assign positive or negative associations to particular things, negative associations to particular things, situations, conditions, etc. (and thereby prompt situations, conditions, etc. (and thereby prompt positive or negative emotional responses)positive or negative emotional responses)

Homeostatic processesHomeostatic processes

Homeostasis or self-stabilization is maintained Homeostasis or self-stabilization is maintained through negative feedbackthrough negative feedback

The content of the experiential stream (a blur of The content of the experiential stream (a blur of thought and sensation) is monitored by the thought and sensation) is monitored by the system in terms of its correspondence with system in terms of its correspondence with system constructs (i.e., its confirmation of system constructs (i.e., its confirmation of positive evaluative associations)positive evaluative associations)

Inputs that contradict evaluative constructs Inputs that contradict evaluative constructs initiate processes to adjust the content of the initiate processes to adjust the content of the input so that it matches those constructsinput so that it matches those constructs

HomeostasisHomeostasis

Inputs regulated in two ways:Inputs regulated in two ways:

1.1. acting to change the self and/or acting to change the self and/or environmentenvironment

2.2. regulating the experiential stream regulating the experiential stream (independent of the environment)(independent of the environment)

Active shaping (fantasy)Active shaping (fantasy) Inhibition of inputs (distraction; “drugs”)Inhibition of inputs (distraction; “drugs”)

The mind’s transformative potential The mind’s transformative potential

Disruption of cognitive variables / Disruption of cognitive variables / boundary conditions may initiate the boundary conditions may initiate the transformation of the cognitive systemtransformation of the cognitive system

This transformation is associated with a This transformation is associated with a qualitative shift in experience that has qualitative shift in experience that has both epistemological and affective both epistemological and affective implicationsimplications

Key pointsKey points Perceptual and evaluative concepts fuel an Perceptual and evaluative concepts fuel an

uninterrupted internal narrative characterized by uninterrupted internal narrative characterized by obsessive self-monitoring and self-concern and obsessive self-monitoring and self-concern and manipulation of the experiential stream (often in manipulation of the experiential stream (often in the service of protecting the self-image) the service of protecting the self-image)

These factors help maintain a person’s ordinary These factors help maintain a person’s ordinary (and, from a Buddhist point of view, (and, from a Buddhist point of view, unsatisfactory) state of consciousnessunsatisfactory) state of consciousness

Undermining these concepts may help pacify the Undermining these concepts may help pacify the internal narrative and play a role in eliciting a shift internal narrative and play a role in eliciting a shift in a person’s state of consciousness, associated in a person’s state of consciousness, associated with altered states of consciousnesswith altered states of consciousness

ŚāntidevaŚāntidevaonon

ForbearanceForbearance

BodhicaryāvatāraBodhicaryāvatāra, Ch. 6, Ch. 6

OverviewOverview Forbearance (Forbearance (kṣāntikṣānti): the 3): the 3rdrd pāramitāpāramitā A means of integrating suffering into the spiritual pathA means of integrating suffering into the spiritual path11

Forbearance described as the highest spiritual practice Forbearance described as the highest spiritual practice (6:102) (perhaps because it is an antidote to anger, one of the (6:102) (perhaps because it is an antidote to anger, one of the most problematic emotions for an aspiring bodhisattva)most problematic emotions for an aspiring bodhisattva)

General concern: developing a non-defensive, open, General concern: developing a non-defensive, open, emotionally positive attitude in response to suffering, attacks emotionally positive attitude in response to suffering, attacks from others, and threats to one’s social status and self-imagefrom others, and threats to one’s social status and self-image

The ideal state is a 180 degree shift from ordinary concerns The ideal state is a 180 degree shift from ordinary concerns oriented around self-protection, e.g., suffering is good and oriented around self-protection, e.g., suffering is good and should be welcomed, enemies are good and should be should be welcomed, enemies are good and should be honored, public humiliation is good and should be embracedhonored, public humiliation is good and should be embraced

Key ideas: the negative consequences of anger and hatred Key ideas: the negative consequences of anger and hatred (suffering and hell), the rewards of patience (happiness and (suffering and hell), the rewards of patience (happiness and buddhahood), cultivating sympathetic joy, giving oneself over buddhahood), cultivating sympathetic joy, giving oneself over to all beings, self-castigation (observing one’s own egotism)to all beings, self-castigation (observing one’s own egotism)

Undermining evaluative associations: Undermining evaluative associations: responding to suffering in generalresponding to suffering in general

As aspiring bodhisattvas, we are at war As aspiring bodhisattvas, we are at war with the defilements; suffering is a with the defilements; suffering is a necessary and inevitable part of war (6:19)necessary and inevitable part of war (6:19)

suffering overcomes complacency, suffering overcomes complacency, awakens compassion, and supports awakens compassion, and supports resolve to follow the path (6:21)resolve to follow the path (6:21)

Undermining evaluative associations: Undermining evaluative associations: responding to offensive or malicious behaviorresponding to offensive or malicious behavior

Offensive behaviors arise through conditioning Offensive behaviors arise through conditioning factors (6: 22-33); they are not willed into being factors (6: 22-33); they are not willed into being (there is no way to intelligibly conceive a (there is no way to intelligibly conceive a relationship between an unchanging Self and relationship between an unchanging Self and changing mental events)changing mental events)

““Since, like a magical display, phenomena do Since, like a magical display, phenomena do not initiate activity, at what does one get angry not initiate activity, at what does one get angry like this?” (6:31)like this?” (6:31)


Anger towards others is unjustified because Anger towards others is unjustified because others are deluded:others are deluded: If others cause themselves great suffering, how can I If others cause themselves great suffering, how can I

expect them not to cause me suffering?expect them not to cause me suffering? ““If it is their very nature to cause others distress, my If it is their very nature to cause others distress, my

anger towards those fools is as inappropriate as it anger towards those fools is as inappropriate as it would be towards fire for its nature to burn.” (6:39)would be towards fire for its nature to burn.” (6:39)

But in fact, this tendency to cause others distress “is But in fact, this tendency to cause others distress “is adventitious. Beings are by nature pleasant. So anger adventitious. Beings are by nature pleasant. So anger towards them is as inappropriate as it would be towards them is as inappropriate as it would be towards the sky if full of acrid smoke.” (6:40) towards the sky if full of acrid smoke.” (6:40)


Anger towards others is nonsensical because it Anger towards others is nonsensical because it is mistakenly directedis mistakenly directed The other person is impelled by hatred, so hatred The other person is impelled by hatred, so hatred

itself is the proper object of anger (if there were a itself is the proper object of anger (if there were a proper object) (6:41)proper object) (6:41)

Emotional upset is ultimately caused by my own Emotional upset is ultimately caused by my own attachment to my body and personal well being (6:43-attachment to my body and personal well being (6:43-44); if the cause of the problem is my own 44); if the cause of the problem is my own attachment, anger at others makes no sense (6:45)attachment, anger at others makes no sense (6:45)

““Some commit offenses out of delusion. Others, Some commit offenses out of delusion. Others, deluded, grow angry. Who among them should we deluded, grow angry. Who among them should we say is free from blame, or who should we say is say is free from blame, or who should we say is guilty?” (6:67)guilty?” (6:67)


Anger towards other is nonsensical Anger towards other is nonsensical because it is often inconsistent with the because it is often inconsistent with the actual offense: “‘Humiliation, harsh actual offense: “‘Humiliation, harsh speech, and disgrace’ . . . does not speech, and disgrace’ . . . does not oppress the body” (6:53)oppress the body” (6:53)

The Buddhist version of “Sticks and stones The Buddhist version of “Sticks and stones . . .”. . .”


Exposing self-deceptive justification for anger: “I Exposing self-deceptive justification for anger: “I become angry at someone speaking ill of me become angry at someone speaking ill of me because they are causing harm to living beings” because they are causing harm to living beings” (see 6:62)(see 6:62)

But if that’s the case . . .But if that’s the case . . . ““why . . . do you feel no anger when he defames why . . . do you feel no anger when he defames

others in the same way?” (6:62) others in the same way?” (6:62) ““You tolerate those showing disfavor when others are You tolerate those showing disfavor when others are

the subject of it, but you show no tolerance tothe subject of it, but you show no tolerance toward someone speaking ill of you . . . .” (6:63)


Exposing self-deceptive justification for Exposing self-deceptive justification for anger: “I hate those who desecrate sacred anger: “I hate those who desecrate sacred images or teachings” (see 6:64)images or teachings” (see 6:64)

Why should you hate them when “the Why should you hate them when “the Buddhas and Bodhisattvas are not Buddhas and Bodhisattvas are not distressed”? (6:64)distressed”? (6:64)


All unpleasant experiences are karmic: the All unpleasant experiences are karmic: the result of the pain I have caused others result of the pain I have caused others (6:42)(6:42)

““Why did you behave before in such a way Why did you behave before in such a way that others now trouble you in this way? that others now trouble you in this way? Everybody is subject to the force of prior Everybody is subject to the force of prior actions. Who am I to change this?” (6:68)actions. Who am I to change this?” (6:68)


Recognizing the negative consequences Recognizing the negative consequences associated with anger/hatred (and, associated with anger/hatred (and, therefore, the need to suppress it the therefore, the need to suppress it the moment it arises)moment it arises)

““. . . when the mind is catching alight with . . . when the mind is catching alight with the fire of hatred . . . , [hatred] must be the fire of hatred . . . , [hatred] must be cast aside immediately for fear that one’s cast aside immediately for fear that one’s body of merit might go up in flames” (6:71)body of merit might go up in flames” (6:71)

Undermining evaluative associations: Undermining evaluative associations: responding to suffering occasioned by the pathresponding to suffering occasioned by the path

The path is the means of avoiding hell; the path The path is the means of avoiding hell; the path involves suffering; therefore, suffering on the path is involves suffering; therefore, suffering on the path is the means of avoiding hell; therefore, suffering is the means of avoiding hell; therefore, suffering is good (6:72)good (6:72)

The path is a means of becoming a buddha and The path is a means of becoming a buddha and benefiting other beings; the path involves suffering; benefiting other beings; the path involves suffering; therefore, suffering on the path is a means of therefore, suffering on the path is a means of becoming a Buddha and benefiting others; therefore becoming a Buddha and benefiting others; therefore “Delight is the only appropriate response to suffering “Delight is the only appropriate response to suffering which takes away the suffering of the universe” which takes away the suffering of the universe” (6:75)(6:75)

Any difficulty you may have enduring suffering now Any difficulty you may have enduring suffering now is all the more reason to restrain anger and hatred, is all the more reason to restrain anger and hatred, since these will cause much greater suffering in hell since these will cause much greater suffering in hell (6:73)(6:73)

Undermining evaluative associations: Undermining evaluative associations: responding to praise and blameresponding to praise and blame

Praise has doubtful tangible benefits (6:90-91)Praise has doubtful tangible benefits (6:90-91) Concern with social status causes suffering : “Like a child that Concern with social status causes suffering : “Like a child that

howls a wail of distress when his sandcastle is broken, so my howls a wail of distress when his sandcastle is broken, so my own mind appears to me at the loss of praise or renown.” (6:93)own mind appears to me at the loss of praise or renown.” (6:93)

Encouraging sympathetic joy: Another person’s delight should Encouraging sympathetic joy: Another person’s delight should cause me to feel delight, regardless of whether or not that cause me to feel delight, regardless of whether or not that person is delighted with me or someone else (6:94-96)person is delighted with me or someone else (6:94-96)

Praise is actually bad (and blame is actually good) for anyone Praise is actually bad (and blame is actually good) for anyone serious about the path: “Praise and so on give me security. They serious about the path: “Praise and so on give me security. They destroy my sense of urgency. They create jealousy towards destroy my sense of urgency. They create jealousy towards those who possess virtue, and anger at success.” (6:98)those who possess virtue, and anger at success.” (6:98)

Attachment to praise is an impediment on the path; so anyone Attachment to praise is an impediment on the path; so anyone “conspiring to . . . destroy my praise” is helping me (6:100-101)“conspiring to . . . destroy my praise” is helping me (6:100-101)


Forbearance is transformative; an enemy is an Forbearance is transformative; an enemy is an occasion for the practice of forbearance; therefore occasion for the practice of forbearance; therefore enemies are goodenemies are good

Longing for an enemy: “since he helps me on the Longing for an enemy: “since he helps me on the path to Awakening, I should long for an enemy like a path to Awakening, I should long for an enemy like a treasure discovered in the home, acquired without treasure discovered in the home, acquired without effort” (6:107)effort” (6:107)

Honoring enemies: “When the transmission of Honoring enemies: “When the transmission of Buddha-qualities comes equally from both ordinary Buddha-qualities comes equally from both ordinary beings and from the Conquerors, what logic is there beings and from the Conquerors, what logic is there in not paying that respect to ordinary beings which in not paying that respect to ordinary beings which one pays to the Conquerors?” (6:113)one pays to the Conquerors?” (6:113)

ConclusionsConclusions

Śāntideva’s teachings on forbearance comprise a set of Śāntideva’s teachings on forbearance comprise a set of concepts that conflict with the evaluative associations that concepts that conflict with the evaluative associations that help maintain a person’s ordinary state of consciousness help maintain a person’s ordinary state of consciousness by fueling self-concern and the internal narrativeby fueling self-concern and the internal narrative

Sustained reflection on (and internalization of) those Sustained reflection on (and internalization of) those teachings may undermine evaluative associations and teachings may undermine evaluative associations and attenuate the internal narrativeattenuate the internal narrative

In the short term, this may manifest as the dissipation of In the short term, this may manifest as the dissipation of emotional upset in the context of daily social interactionsemotional upset in the context of daily social interactions

Over the long term, it may aid in pacifying the internal Over the long term, it may aid in pacifying the internal narrative in the context of meditative practicenarrative in the context of meditative practice

This pacification constitutes the disruption of one of the key This pacification constitutes the disruption of one of the key variables in the cognitive system, creating conditions for variables in the cognitive system, creating conditions for possible transformation and the realization of altered states possible transformation and the realization of altered states of consciousnessof consciousness

Repeated suspension of the internal narrative may have a Repeated suspension of the internal narrative may have a cumulative effect on consciousness, eventually crossing a cumulative effect on consciousness, eventually crossing a critical threshold and initiating a naturally unfolding critical threshold and initiating a naturally unfolding transformation with a corresponding qualitative shift in transformation with a corresponding qualitative shift in experienceexperience

Appendix 1:Appendix 1:Tibetan hagiographyTibetan hagiography

““a prince from North India who fled royal a prince from North India who fled royal consecration for fear of implication in the evils of consecration for fear of implication in the evils of kingship”kingship”11

Became a monk; he was a highly advanced Became a monk; he was a highly advanced practitioner, though his advanced level of realization practitioner, though his advanced level of realization was unrecognized by his fellow monks (“His fellow was unrecognized by his fellow monks (“His fellow monks said that his three ‘realizations’ were eating, monks said that his three ‘realizations’ were eating, sleeping, and shitting”sleeping, and shitting”22))

His spiritual stature was only recognized when he His spiritual stature was only recognized when he was asked – in an attempt to humiliate this “lazy” was asked – in an attempt to humiliate this “lazy” monk – to give a recitation before the monasterymonk – to give a recitation before the monastery

The The BodhicaryāvatāraBodhicaryāvatāra is believed to be the record of is believed to be the record of that recitationthat recitation

Toward the end of his recitation he levitated into the Toward the end of his recitation he levitated into the air and vanished, though his voice was still audibleair and vanished, though his voice was still audible

Appendix 2:Appendix 2:

Themes and Topics in theThemes and Topics in theBodhicaryāvatāraBodhicaryāvatāra

Organized by ChapterOrganized by Chapter

Ch. 1

Praise of bodhicitta

Ch. 2 Confession of Faults1

Ch. 3

Adopting bodhicitta

Ch. 4

Vigilance Regarding bodhicitta

Ch. 5

Guarding of Awareness

Preciousness of a human birth (don’t waste it) (4)

Reflecting on the incomparable value of bodhicitta

Bodhicitta defined (15-16, 18):

Seeking enlightenment motivated by a longing to remove the suffering of all beings

Going for refuge to those who have perfected bodhicitta

Having reflected on the value of bodhicitta (in Ch. 1), worshipping the Buddhas and Bodhisattvas (making offerings) (1-25)

Going for refuge (26, 46-54)

Confession of faults and the horrific consequences of evil (27-45, 55-66)

The horror of imminent death (32-34, 40-45, 59-60)

Rejoicing in merit (1-3)

Requesting the teaching (4)

Begging the Buddhas not to abandon beings (5)

Affirming one’s resolve to relieve others’ suffering; giving oneself over to other beings (6-21)

Arousal of bodhicitta (22-33) ; prayer affirming the incomparable value of bodhicitta (25-33)

The consequences of evil and failing in one’s bodhisattva aspirations: bad rebirths and hell; recognizing and taking advantage of the precious opportunity of a human birth, etc. (4-26)

Encouraging a resolve to destroy the defilements and endure whatever suffering that may entail (27-48)

Practicing mindfulness (smṛti) and awareness (samprajanya) as a means cultivating the pāramitā of generosity and moral discipline

The pāramitā generosity and morality defined as mental attitudes (10-11) (the chapter therefore focuses on guarding mindfulness and awareness )

The necessity to restrain the wandering mind (1)

The negative consequences of an undisciplined mind (e.g., hell, suffering) (2, 17-18, 20, 24-29, 44)

The benefits of a disciplined mind (3-5, 12-16, 21, 33, 44, 100)

The mind as the root cause of suffering (6-8)

Encouraging resolve (19, 22-23, 43, 99)

Recollecting the Buddhas (31-32)

Being like a “block of wood”; behavioral observances; rules taken from the prātimokṣa (34-39, 45, 48-53, 71-98, 102-107)

Mindfulness; the ideal state of mind (40-41, 47, 54-58)

Self-castigation (59-61)

Reflecting on the foulness of the body (60-70, 86)

Awareness defined: “the observation at every moment of the state of one’s body and one’s mind” (108)

Ch. 6

Forbearance (kṣānti)

Ch. 7

Vigor (vīrya)1

Teachings aimed at pacifying emotional reactivity and upset in response to suffering, offensive and malicious behavior from others, and threats to social status and self-image

The negative consequences of anger and hatred; reasons to restrain anger (1-5, 8-9, 70-71, 128-132)

Description of the ideal state; encouraging resolve (9-10; 125-127)

Self-examination; self-castigation at one’s own egoism (7, 11, 76, 79, 82, 93)

The value of patience (kṣamā) and forbearance (2, 6, 102, 128-134)

Rejecting “religious” motives for anger (e.g., blasphemy) (62-65, 102-)

Overcoming envy (76-86)

Praise and blame (90-101)

The value of enemies (99-108)

Honoring one’s enemies (109-118)

Quotation from the Tathāgataguhya Sūtra; honoring the Buddhas by treating others with the same regard that the Buddhas have shown toward others (119-134)

Part 1: “explaining the opposites of vigor and how to overcome them;” Part 2: “the means for increasing the vigor with which one practices”2

The importance of effort/vigor (1)

Vigor defined, and its opposites (sloth, etc.) listed (2)

The causes of sloth (3)

The imminence of death/hell as an antidote to sloth (4-13)

The preciousness of a human birth (14)

Encouraging resolve in the face of despondency and defeatism (16-19, 53)

Overcoming fear of suffering caused by the path (20-27)

The pleasure of the path (28-30, 62-66)

Increasing vigor through desire, pride, delight, giving up, dedication, and control (32)

Self-castigation at one’s own laziness(34, 36-38)

The urgency of overcoming faults and cultivating virtue (33)

The importance of righteous desire; the blissful consequences of virtue, the horrific consequences of evil (39-46)

Cultivating spiritual pride (a fierce determination to overcome obstacles and suffering )(46-61, 67)

Mindfulness (68-71, 73)

Remorse (72)

Ch. 8

Meditative Absorption (dhyāna)1

Renunciation (to calm the mind); self-negation and exchanging self and other as a means of developing compassion (i.e., the extension of self-concern to include all beings) and bodhicitta

The importance of meditative absorption as a means of overcoming distractions and the defilements (1)

Renunciation is the means of calming the mind, which is in turn the basis of insight that destroys the defilements (4)

Renunciation/social isolation to reduce distractions [and therefore support meditative stabilization] (2-38) (p. 79)

Renunciation of persons; the pain and complacency caused by attachment to or association with persons (5-16)

Detachment from alms gifts and popularity; praise and blame (17-24)

Social isolation (26-38, 70, 85-88)

Contemplating death (30-31)

Developing meditative concentration (39) (p. 79) [this leads directly into verses on renunciation: lust, other persons, worldly life, and a renewed resolve to live in isolation]

Encouraging resolve to restrain the mind by reflecting on the negative consequences of the passions (40, 84)

Overcoming lust ; contemplating the foulness of the body (aśubha-bhāvanā) (41-69) (p. 79)

Attachment to one's own body and its safety/well-being; the suffering of worldly life (71-83, 173-182, 185)

Meditative contemplation aimed at developing compassion and bodhicitta (89-186); eradicating self-concern; exchanging self and other; extending concern beyond the self to include all beings; giving oneself over to others out of compassion (p. 80) (some of this from the Tathāgataguhya Sūtra)

Viewing the self and self-concern as enemies; the negative and positive consequences of selfishness and altruism respectively (121-135, 138-139, 155-156, 171)

Treating yourself as a despised "other" or as a new bride (p. 81)(159-167); inspired by a fierce indignation at all the trouble and suffering caused by self-concern, encouraging a relentless assault on the self (168-176)

Ch. 9

Understanding1

Ch. 10

Dedication

All the other pāramitā just preparation for this pāramitā – the perfection of understanding or wisdom (i.e., emptiness2) (1)

A critique of the philosophical views of other Buddhist and non-Buddhist philosophical schools (Nikāya, Cittamātra, Sāṃkhya , Nyāya-vaiśeṣika) a demonstration of the inconsistencies or contradictions in any view (p. 106)

Emptiness implied based on the incoherence of positing intrinsic existence about anything

Two-truths (saṃvṛtisatya and paramārthasatya) (2-8, 106-111) (p. 111)

Ordinary appearances are illusory (5, 87); “Reality is beyond the scope of intellection” (2)

Emptiness as a means of pacifying the mind (34)

Appeal to scriptural authority and the authenticity of Mahāyāna scriptures (40-51)

True non-grasping depends on emptiness (45-48)

The urgent need to meditate on emptiness (54)

Comments on the fear of emptiness; the non-existence of the ‘I’ and the ‘body’ (55-59, 74, 78-85 )

The interdependence (and therefore, emptiness) of phenomena (60-74)

If everything is empty, who has compassion for whom? (75-76)

Critique of ‘atoms’ (86, 94-95), sensations (88-91, 98-101, 129-137), ‘contact’ (93-97), mind , consciousness, and the object of cognition (102-105, 111-115), cause and effect (116-117), God (118-125), primal matter (126-128)

Emptiness and causation (141-154)

A description of the misery of cyclic existence (155-165)

Affirmations “in which [Śāntideva] dedicates to the benefit of all beings the merit that he has generated through the training.” (p. 133)

Affirmations for those in hell (4, 6-16)

Affirmations for animals, hungry ghosts, the blind, the deaf , the fearful, etc.(17ff)

Affirmations that all beings encounter the Dharma (37-38)

Affirmations for the Sangha (42-46)

Affirmations that all attain buddhahood (47)

Affirmations for Buddhas and Bodhisattvas (48-49)

Affirmations for non-Mahāyāna practitioners (50)

Affirmations for himself, to progress on the path (51-56)

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modern therapeutic approaches to suffering’s silver lining. In J. Powers & C. modern therapeutic approaches to suffering’s silver lining. In J. Powers & C. S. Prebish (Eds.), S. Prebish (Eds.), Destroying Mara forever: Buddhist ethics essays in honor Destroying Mara forever: Buddhist ethics essays in honor of Damien Keownof Damien Keown (pp. 207-220). Ithaca, N.Y: Snow Lion Publications. (pp. 207-220). Ithaca, N.Y: Snow Lion Publications.

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Documents

Śāntideva’s Bodhicaryāvatāra: A Mahāyāna Path to Altered States of Consciousness Randall Studstill