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Schermerhorn - Chapter 12 1
Motivation and Human Needs
Hierarchy of Needs Theory– Developed by Abraham Maslow– Lower order and higher order needs affect
behavior• deficit principle
– satisfied need is not a motivator of behavior
• progression principle– need at one level does not become activated until the next
lower need is satisfied
Schermerhorn - Chapter 12 2
Motivation and Human Needs
Two-Factor Theory– Developed by Frederick Herzberg
• satisfier factors (job content)– things related to the nature of the job itself
– source of job satisfaction and motivation
• hygiene factors (job context)– things related more to the work setting
– source of job dissatisfaction
Schermerhorn - Chapter 12 3
Motivation and Human Needs
Acquired Needs Theory– Developed by David McClelland
• Need for Achievement (nAch)– desire to do something better, solve problems, master
complex tasks
• Need for Power (nPower)– desire to control, influence or be responsible for others
• Need for Affiliation (nAff)– desire to establish and maintain friendly relations with
others
Schermerhorn - Chapter 12 4
Content Theories of Motivation
Acquired Needs Theory– People develop these needs over time– Each need is associated with a distinct set of
work preferences• managers are encouraged to recognize the strength
of each need in themselves and others
• create work environments responsive to the strength of each need
Schermerhorn - Chapter 12 5
Process Theories of Motivation
Equity Theory– Developed by J. Stacy Adams
• Perceived inequity is a motivating state– People who feel underpaid experience a sense of anger.– People who feel overpaid experience a sense of guilt.
• People respond to perceived inequity by changing:– work inputs– rewards received– comparison points– situation
Schermerhorn - Chapter 12 6
Process Theories of Motivation
Expectancy Theory (con’t)– Motivation (M), expectancy (E),
instrumentality (I) and valence (V) are related to another in a multiplicative fashion
M = E x I x V
– If either E, I or V is low, motivation will be low!
Schermerhorn - Chapter 12 7
Process Theories of Motivation
Goal-Setting Theory– Developed by Edwin Locke– Task goals are clear and desirable performance
targets.– Motivational effects of task goals:
• Provide direction to people in their work.• Clarify performance expectations.• Establish a frame of reference for feedback.• Provide a foundation for behavioral self-
management. (MBO, Management by Objectives is an outgrowth of this theory)
Schermerhorn - Chapter 12 8
Reinforcement Theory of Motivation Operant conditioning strategies:
– Positive reinforcement• Increases the frequency of a behavior through the
contingent presentation of a pleasant consequence.
(Give a that-a-boy (girl) you start game
– Negative reinforcement• Increases the frequency of a behavior through the
contingent removal of an unpleasant consequence.
(do not have to run laps if you did well in practice)
Schermerhorn - Chapter 12 9
Reinforcement Theory of Motivation Operant conditioning strategies:
– Punishment• Decreases the frequency of a behavior through the
contingent presentation of an unpleasant consequence. (moved to second team)
– Extinction• Decreases the frequency of a behavior through the
contingent removal of a pleasant consequence.
(get out of practice early)
Schermerhorn - Chapter 12 10
Reinforcement Theory of Motivation Guidelines for using positive reinforcement
– Clearly identify desired work behaviors.– Maintain a diverse inventory of rewards.– Inform everyone about what must be done to
get rewards.– Recognize individual differences when
allocating rewards.– Follow the laws of immediate and contingent
reinforcement.
Schermerhorn - Chapter 12 11
Reinforcement Theory of Motivation Guidelines for using punishment:
– Tell the person what is being done wrong.– Tell the person what is being done right.– Match the punishment to the behavior.– Administer punishment in private.– Follow the laws of immediate and contingent
reinforcement.
Schermerhorn - Chapter 12 12
Motivation and Job Design Job
– collection of tasks performed in support of organizational objectives
Job Design– process of creating or defining jobs by
assigning specific work tasks to individuals and groups
Job PerformanceAlso called performance evaluation quantity and quality of tasks accomplished by an individual or group at work value-added criterion
Schermerhorn - Chapter 12 13
•Motivation and Job Design
We want workers to be satisfied
Job Satisfaction– degree to which an individual feels positively
or negatively about various aspects of the job• less turnover and absenteeism among satisfied
workers
Schermerhorn - Chapter 12 14
•Motivation and Job Design
Job Simplification– standardizing work procedures– employing people in well-defined tasks– can result in boredom– extreme form is automation
Schermerhorn - Chapter 12 15
Motivation and Job Design Job Rotation and Job Enlargement
– Job Rotation• increases task variety by shifting workers between
different jobs (regularly and periodically)
• Job Enlargement increases task variety by combining two or more tasks previously assigned to other workers
– Horizontal loading– Vertical loading
Schermerhorn - Chapter 12 16
Motivation and Job Design
Job Enrichment– building more opportunities for satisfaction into
a job• job depth (vertical loading)
Schermerhorn - Chapter 12 17
Motivation and Job Design
Job Characteristics Model– diagnostic approach to job enrichment– five core job characteristics– job high in core characteristics is enriched
Schermerhorn - Chapter 12 18
Motivation and Job Design
Core Characteristics of Job Characteristics Model– skill variety– task identity– task significance– autonomy– feedback
Schermerhorn - Chapter 12 19
Motivation and Job Design
Improving Core Characteristics– form natural work units– combine tasks– establish client relationships– open feedback channels– practice vertical loading
Schermerhorn - Chapter 12 20
Alternative Work Arrangements
Compressed Workweek– schedule that allows a full-time job to be
completed in less than standard 5 days of 8-hour shifts
4-40 (also known as 4-10) – employees work 4 days, 10 hours each
day
Schermerhorn - Chapter 12 21
Alternative Work Arrangements
Flexible Working Hours– any work schedule which gives
employees some choice in daily work hours• core time - all employees must be at work• allows employees to schedule around
personal and family responsibilities• daily, weekly or monthly arrangements
Schermerhorn - Chapter 12 22
Alternative Work Arrangements
Job Sharing– One full-time job is split between two or more
persons.– Organizations benefit by employing talented
people who would otherwise be unable to work.
Schermerhorn - Chapter 12 23
Alternative Work Arrangements
Telecommuting– work arrangement that allows a portion of
scheduled work hours to be completed outside of the office
– Advantages• reduced commuting• increase productivity• fewer work distractions• flexible hours
Schermerhorn - Chapter 12 24
Alternative Work Arrangements
Telecommuting– Disadvantages
• loss of visibility for promotion• working too much• difficulty separating work and personal life
Schermerhorn - Chapter 12 25
Independent Contracting and Part-Time Work (Govt. looking into)
Independent Contracting– specific tasks or projects are assigned to
outsiders
Contingency Workers (permatemps)– part-timers who supplement full-time
workforce, often on a long term basis– increase staffing flexibility– often paid less, receive fewer benefits