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School-Age Children Raised by Their Grandparents:Problems and Solutions
Oliver W. Edwards and Andrew P. Daire
During the past decade, several studies have been published that investigated thesocial, emotional, and physical functioning of grandparents raising their grandchil-dren. Research suggests grandparents in these families experience high levels ofstress and psychosocial difficulty. In addition, the available data suggest childrenraised by their grandparents often encounter behavioral, emotional, and academicproblems at school. The problems they experience indicate these children requireintervention assistance from psychologists, school counselors, and other school pro-fessionals. This paper provides a brief report of the phenomenon, particularly as itrelates to the grandchildren's school-related functioning. Practical and theory-basedinterventions are described to improve the educational and developmental outcomesof these grandchildren.
During the past decade, several studieshave been published that investigated thesocial, emotional, and physical functioning ofgrandparents raising their grandchildren (cf.Cox, 2003; Emick & Hayslip, 1999; Hayslipet al., 1998; Kropf & Bumette, 2003). Notuntil recently have scholars addressed thebehaviors and school-related functioning ofgrandchildren in these families (cf. Harrison,Richman, & Vittimberga, 2000; Reynolds,Wright, & Beale, 2003).
Grandparents who raise their grandchil-dren can provide a loving, familial homeenvironment that is more positive than afoster care or other such governmental ar-rangement. Nonetheless, raising children isdifficult for grandparents during what shouldbe their golden years. Most grandparentsdo not bargain on having children to raisewhen they should be enjoying a time ofpeace and quiet. It seems that no matter howthe grandchildren behave, they impact thewell-being of their grandparents, for betteror worse, simple because of their presence(Hanison et al, 2000). Grandparents who raise
Oliver W. Edwards and Andrew P. Daire,University of Central Florida.
Correspondence concerning this articleshould be addressed to Oliver W. Edwards [email protected].
their grandchildren also significantly affectthe educational functioning, developmentaloutcomes, and well-being of their grandchil-dren (Edwards, 2003; Hanison et al.). Fewpublications offer practical and theory-basedinterventions to help these families. In thisarticle we review much ofthe available dataand add to the database relative to these newfamily relationships. We focus on the social,emotional, behavioral, and school function-ing of children raised by their grandparents.Practical, theory-based interventions aredescribed to assist these families and improvethe children's school-related functioning.
An Alternate Family StructureThe numbers of grandparents who be-
come surrogate parents to their grandchildrenare increasing substantially (Fuller-Thomson& Minkler, 2000). According to the UnitedStates Census Bureau (2001), approximately5.6 million grandparents live in homes thatinclude grandchildren younger than 18 yearsof age. Almost 6% of children in the UnitedStates live in households maintained bygrandparents (Fuller-Thomson & Minkler).In many of these families, no biologicalparents are present. Nearly four milliongrandchildren have grandparents who serveas their primary caregivers. Almost onemillion of these grandparents have raised
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their grandchildren for five years or more.Children raised by their grandparents can befound among all religions, ethnicities, andsocio-economic classes (Fuller-Thomson &Minkler). Nonetheless, some variation byethnicity is evident with 13.5% of AfricanAmerican, 6.5% of Hispanic, and 4.1% ofCaucasian American children living in suchfamilies (Fuller-Thomson & Minkler).
Grandparents who assume the surrogateparenting role often do so as a result of thedeath of their adult children, their children'sdivorce, unemployment, and teenage premari-tal childbearing. Parental deaths as a resultof violence and AIDS particularly contributeto the increase in these alternate families.Additionally, physical and emotional childabuse as well as drug use and incarcerationamong some parents resulted in social ser-vice agencies removing sizable numbers ofchildren from the homes of these parents andplacing them with a relative, frequently thechildren's grandparents (Fuller-Thomson «feMinkler, 2000; Harden, Clark, & Maguire,1997). Their grandparents are often the onlyfamily members willing to assume care ofthese children (Edwards, 1998). Overall,variables such as poverty, being a woman,being African American, being younger,having more children living in your home,and the death of a child all increase the likeli-hood of grandparents assuming care of theirgrandchildren (Fuller-Thomson & Minkler;Harden et al.).
An Indistinct RoleGrandparenthood is frequently viewed as
a role without any definitive characteristicsbecause there are no explicit or set expecta-tions (Landry-Meyer & Newman, 2004).Several grandparenting styles are evident andit is difficul t to establish what i s or what shouldbe normal Among grandparents, there maybe minimal involvement to extensive involve-ment with their grandchildren. Grandparentsmay believe there is a lack of respect for theelderly and they may reduce the role they play
in their grandchildren's lives because theydo not wish to be rejected by their childrenor grandchildren (Dolbin-MacNab & Targ,2003). Nonetheless, there is some satisfactionnoted with respect to the grandparenting role.This satisfaction is usually seen as a resultof the value given to grandparents becauseof their financial, baby-sitting, safety valve,stabilizing functions, and biological relation-ship (Landry-Meyer & Newman).
Although the relationship of grandparentto grandchild involves a biological linkagethat is second only to the parent-child dyad,grandparents tend to have disadvantageswhen placed in the role of surrogate parents(Edwards, 2001). These disadvantages mayinclude illness, lack of desire for the parent-ing role, decreased energy level, and old age(Minkler, Fuller-Thomson, Miller, & Driver,1997; Minkler, 1999). The noted characteris-tics may limit grandparents' abilities to helptheir grandchildren succeed in school.
Notwithstanding the difficulty of rais-ing one's grandchildren, the experience canbe beneficial. Grandparents wbo raise theirgrandchildren recognize they are needed(Strom, Heeder, & Strom, 2005) and raisingtheir grandchildren may give grandparents agreater purpose for living (Dolbin-MacNab& Targ, 2003). Additional benefits of raisingone's grandchild include the opportunity toraise tbe child more effectively than the child'sparent, the possibility of establishing a closerrelationship with the grandchild, and the abil-ity to keep their biological descendants outofthe foster care system (Dolbin-MacNab &Targ, 2003). Living with someone who lovesand is willing to raise them and the opportunityto maintain tbe family connection and historyare distinct advantages for children in tbesealternate families.
Grandparents' FunctioningTbe series of circumstances associated
witb the increase in the numbers of cbildrenraised by tbeir grandparents presents adaunting challenging. To illustrate, wben tbe
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nuclear family breaks down cbildren may ex-perience social-emotional and scbool-relatedproblems as a result. Subsequently, tbey aresent to live witb tbeir grandparents. Gener-ally, grandparents are more often pbysicallyfragile, sicker, and older tban tbe typicalparent. Researcb indicates tbat wben tbesegrandparents take on a surrogate parentingrole tbey tend to experience stress tbat resultsin increased illness, depression, and anxiety(Emick, & Hayslip, 1999; Poehlmann,2003). Tbese grandparents may encounterproblems providing appropriate care tocbildren wbo manifest difficult adjustment.Furtbermore, raising cbildren wbo evidenceserious bebavioral problems may exacerbategrandparents' emotional and pbysical dif-ficulty. Cbildren raised by caregivers wboexperience emotional and pbysical distressmay concomitantly demonstrate inappropri-ate or delinquent bebavior and problemsin scbool (Rogers & Henkin, 2000). Tbeirgrandparents may bave less energy to assistwitb tbe cbildren's scbool work and social-emotional development. Some grandparentsmay be unable to belp witb bomework becauseof limited expertise witb current scbool sub-jects. Tbey may lack time and patience to belptbeir grandcbildren succeed academically(Rogers & Henkin, 2000). Some custodialgrandparents may feel ambivalence or evenanger regarding tbeir reentry into a parentingrole (Hayslip et al., 1998). In addition, im-poverisbed, pbysically fragile, sicker, or oldergrandparents may bave a difficulty transport-ing tbemselves to tbe scbool, preventingtbem from meeting witb teachers and scboolcounselors and actively involving tbemselvesin tbe cbild's education (Edwards, 1998). Allof tbese issues can foster a difficult scbooland educational experience for cbildren raisedby tbeir grandparents, particularly wben tbecbildren must also cope witb tbe loss of tbeirparents and perbaps otber siblings. Given tbecontext of tbeir stressful development andliving environments (Minkler, 1999), it isnot unexpected tbat cbildren raised by tbeir
grandparents will experience scbool-relatedproblems.
Grandchildren's FunctioningFew studies investigated tbe functioning
of cbildren raised exclusively by tbeir grand-parents. Tbe majority of tbese studies focusedon cbildren raised by any number of relatives,not exclusively grandparents. Cbildren raisedby relatives experienced various bealtb distur-bances including anemia, asthma, and dentalproblems (Dubowitz, Feigleman, & Zuravis,1993). A study utilizing a large sample oflow-income families found cbildren raisedby relatives displayed lower academic scoreswben compared to matcbed peers (Sawyer &Dubowitz, 1994). Tbey exhibited more gradefailures, learning disabilities, and incidentsof mental retardation, presumably becauseof patbogenic care, poverty, and trauma.Cbildren wbo were neglected or abandonedby tbeir parents experienced feelings of loss,rejection, and attachment disorder (Dubowitz& Sawyer, 1994).
Tbe two empirical studies available in tbeliterature tbat exclusively investigate cbildrenraised by tbeir grandparents suggest tbesecbildren function similar to cbildren raisedin otber alternate family structures (Harrisonet al., 2000; Solomon & Marx, 1995). In tbeearliest study, tbe grandcbildren evidencedbetter pbysical bealtb and fewer bebavioralproblems tban cbildren living witb only onebiological parent. Tbe relationsbips betweenstudents and teacbers were similar for botbgroups. However, boys raised by grandparentsdemonstrated more bebavioral problems tbangirls. Tbey evidenced bebavioral disordersand conflicts at bome and at scbool. Cbildrenraised by older grandmothers functionedbetter academically tban cbildren raised byyounger grandmotbers. Tbe autbors suggest-ed younger grandmotbers may bave resentedearly entrance into tbe grandparenting roleand spent less time providing educationalsupport to tbeir grandcbildren (Solomon &Marx, 1995). According to tbis study, tbe
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most significant scbool-related problem forcbildren raised by tbeir grandparents was tbattbey experienced academic problems.
Tbe second empirical study involvedcbildren wbo were referred to an outpatientcbild and family tberapy clinic. Tbe findingsof tbis study revealed cbildren raised by tbeirgrandparents demonstrated elevated levelsof emotional and bebavioral problems, butnot more tban tbe otber cbildren referred totbe clinic because of an apparent need forcounseling. Nonetbeless, tbe grandchildren'semotional and bebavioral problems weresubstantially elevated wben compared to anon-referred population of cbildren living inone and two-parent-beaded bomes (Harrisonet al., 2000).
Despite tbe critical concerns cbildrenraised by tbeir grandparents encounter,traditional and nontraditional interventionsare available to belp tbese grandcbildren andgrandparents reduce tbe beigbtened amountof stress they encounter and improve tbeirwell-being. We will describe next severalcommunity-based interventions and tbenpresent practical interventions tbat can beimplemented in tbe context of scbool.
Intervention ApproachesA number of interventions belpful in
assisting at-risk cbildren may also improvetbe scbool functioning of cbildren raised bytbeir grandparents. Tbe emergence of cbil-dren raised by tbeir grandparents leads to adissolution of grandcbildren's social supportnetworks (Emick & Hayslip, 1999; Fuller-Tbomson & Minkler, 2000). Social supportbas been sbown to serve as a buffer to stressand stress symptomatology (Poeblmann,2003). Tbus, social support tbeory offers auseful framework to provide interventionservices to tbese families. If these familiesare provided emotional and instrumentalsupport, it sbould ease tbe transition from atraditional to alternate caregiver arrangementand limit subsequent social-emotional andscbool-related distress. Grandcbildren and
tbeir grandparents sbould be encouraged todevelop support networks in their communi-ties, schools, and faitb-based organizations asa proactive metbod of attenuating stress.
Effective emotional support provided bya family or community support network couldinclude building an affiliative bond, provid-ing advice and positive feedback, and otberexpressions of appreciation for grandparentswbo fill tbe surrogate parent role. Instrumen-tal support may consist of financial support,respite care, assistance witb transportation,assistance witb discipline, and belping witbbomework (Edwards, 2001). Wben grand-parents wbo raise tbeir cbildren receiveinstrumental and emotional support fromsignificant others, tbis will likely enhancetbeir emotional and pbysical well-being aswell as improve tbe grandcbildren's scbool-related functioning (Gibson, 2005).
As tbe factors wbicb binder tbe familiesand particularly tbe children's function-ing are ascertained, interventions can beimplemented to treat tbe underlying causesof eitber family or individual dysfunction.In addition to social support tbeory, socialrole tbeory provides a framework to belppsychologists design and implement system-atic intervention strategies, particularly witbgrandparents (Landry-Meyer & Newman,2004). For example, due to tbe indistinctgrandparent caregiving role, support groupsfor grandparents could address role tim-ing (caregiving role was unexpected), roleambiguity (parent role, sometimes witb nolegal custody), and role conflict (traditionaland expected role as grandparent vs. surro-gate parent role). Tbe following are belpfulapproacbes psycbologists can apply wbenworking witb grandparents wbo are raisingtbeir grandcbildren:
• Assess grandparents' appraisals of tbesituation, sucb as wbetber tbey focuson tbe stressors, cballenges, or potentialemotional rewards of caregiving.
• Assist tbem in finding meaning in parent-ing again.
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* Identify risks for intergenerational pat-terns of relationsbip dysfunction andfoster experiences leading to alterationof maladaptive cycles.
• Foster grandparents' knowledge ofstrategies for responding tberapeuticallyto grandcbildren witb disrupted attacb-ments (Poeblmann, 2003, p. 154).
Intergenerational counseling and inter-vention approacbes tbat address interactions,affect, communication, and emotional sup-port favorably impact many grandparents'emotional and pbysical well-being (Poebl-mann, 2003). Tbe aforementioned processescan improve grandparents' functioning andtbeir ability to support tbeir grandcbildren'sinterpersonal, emotional, and academic de-velopment (Gibson, 2005; Kropf&Bumette,2003).
School-based InterventionsSchools are excellent resources to belp
manage tbe needs of cbildren raised by tbeirgrandparents. Scbools are located centrallyand are integral components of most commu-nities. Tbey are also comprised of profession-als wbo possess tbe requisite knowledge andskills to develop and implement interventionsfor cbildren raised by tbeir grandparents.Since many bours of a cbild's day are spentin scbool, interventions developed for cbil-dren raised by grandparents sbould include asubstantial scbool-based component.
Psycbologists, scbool counselors, andotber scbool professionals can develop sup-port groups for tbese family members. Meet-ings can be convened at tbe scbool separatelyfor grandcbildren and grandparents, and tbeycan occasionally meet togetber. Supportgroups could focus on building on existingstrengtbs of grandchildren and grandpar-ents. In ligbt of tbe factors tbat led to tbeirplacement witb tbeir grandparents, cbildrenmay need assistance coping witb tbe loss oftbeir parents, tbe associated early cbildboodtrauma, and difficulty establisbing social
networks (Edwards, 2001). Additionally,cbildren may need assistance understandingtbe new relationsbip witb tbeir grandparentsand tbe revised roles tbeir grandparents mustplay in tbeir lives (Hayslip et al., 1998; Gib-son, 2005).
Cbildren raised by tbeir grandparentsmay need substantial stability in tbeir scbool-ing and counselors sbould work to place tbesegrandcbildren witb tbe same teacbers andclassmates in consecutive years. Grandcbil-dren may benefit from social skills trainingand leaming skills to establisb and maintainfriendsbips. Given tbeir reported academicproblems and many grandparents' inability toprovide academic and bomework assistance(Rogers, & Henkin, 2000), grandcbildrenwitb academic concerns sbould be providedtutoring. Tbey sbould also be offered tbeassistance of a peer, adult mentor, or scboolprofessional tbat could provide belp witbbomework completion.
Social workers can also belp grandpar-ents by connecting tbem witb communityagencies and resources tbat provide therapeu-tic, financial, and social service assistance.Grandparents may need information regard-ing referral sources for after-scbool care, med-ical and dental treatment, community-basedcounseling, and legal services to determinewbetber tbey can receive fi nancial assistancefor assuming tbe care of tbeir grandcbildren(Reynolds et al., 2003). Further, tbey mayneed assistance locating appropriate com-munity activities sucb as sports and musicprograms as well as summer camps for tbeirgrandcbildren. Tbese extra-curricular activi-ties are prosocial in nature and can enbancetbe grandcbildren's socialization outcomes(Gibson, 2005).
In addition to offering information onneeded resources and providing or coordinat-ing services for tbese families, psycbologists,scbool counselors, and otber scbool profes-sionals can benefit from increasing tbeirknowledge regarding bow to work moreeffectively witb tbese grandcbildren and
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grandparents (Gibson, 2005; Kropf & Bur-nette, 2003). Scbool professionals need to beaware ofthe potential financial and emotionalstress associated witb tbe caregiving grand-parent role (Reynolds et al., 2003). Scboolprofessionals must consider and be sensitiveto differences in grandparents' understandingof tbe current educational system (Strom etal., 2005). We cannot overstate tbe importanceof a strengtb-based approacb wben workingwitb grandparents. Scbool professionals mustbe empatbetic, avoid blaming, and guardagainst being perceived as judgmental wbencommunicating witb grandparents (Gibson,2005). Tbey sbould ensure grandparents'support and consent before implementinginterventions. Scbool professionals sboulduse language tbat builds on strengtbs (e.g.,"You migbt already know tbis..." and "I'mimpressed you are so committed to belpingyour grandcbild succeed," etc.) in order tobetter connect witb grandparents. As a resultof tbese approacbes, grandparents may take asupportive and strong role in nurturing tbeirgrandcbildren's educational functioning andsocial-emotional development.
ConclusionMany grandparents wbo raise tbeir
grandcbildren endure social-emotional andpbysical distress. Grandcbildren in tbesefamilies also experience academic, bebav-ioral, and otber scbool-related problems.Members of tbese families need systematicand tbeory-based interventions from scboolpersonnel to attenuate tbe difficulties tbeyencounter and improve tbeir educationaloutcomes.
Despite tbe problems experiencedby grandcbildren and grandparents whengrandparents assume fuUtime caregivingresponsibility for their grandcbildren, tbesealternate family structures may be tbe bestsetting to raise tbe cbildren wben tbere is abreakdown in tbe nuclear family. Grandcbil-dren and tbeir grandparents enjoy a ratberclose biological linkage. Grandparents can be
allies witb scbool professionals in ensuringtbeir cbarges' appropriate social-emotionaldevelopment and school-related functioning.We believe tbey will more effectively linkwitb teacbers as sources of support, scboolinvolvement, and assistance (Gibson, 2005)wben psycbologists, scbool counselors, andotber scbool professionals implement some oftbe practical and tbeory-based interventionsoffered in tbis paper.
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