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LOK SABHA SECRETARIAT
PARLIAMENT LIBRARY AND REFERENCE, RESEARCH, DOCUMENTATION AND INFORMATION SERVICE (LARRDIS)
MEMBERS’ REFERENCE SERVICE
REFERENCE NOTE . No. 24 /RN/Ref./August/2013
For the use of Members of Parliament Not for Publication
School Education in India
– An Overview
.------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- The reference material is for personal use of the Members in the discharge of their Parliamentary duties, and is not for publication.
This Service is not to be quoted as the source of the information as it is based on the sources indicated at the end/in the text.
This Service does not accept any responsibility for the accuracy or veracity of the information or views contained in the
note/collection.
Contents
1. Introduction 1
2. Indian School System 2
i) Elementary Education 3
ii) Secondary Education 3
3. Various Centrally Sponsored Schemes 4
4. Institutions in School Education 13
5. Enrolment in School Education 17
6. Expenditure on School Education 19
7. Achievement of 11th Plan in Education 21
8. 12th Five Year Plan : Targets 22
9. Conclusion 23
SCHOOL EDUCATION IN INDIA – An Overview
1. Introduction
Education is the most important lever for social, economic and political
transformation. A well-educated population, equipped with the relevant knowledge,
attitudes and skills is essential for economic and social development in the twenty-first
century. Education is the most potent tool for socio-economic mobility and a key
instrument for building an equitable and just society. Education provides skills and
competencies for economic well-being. Education strengthens democracy by imparting
to citizens the tools needed to fully participate in the governance process. Education
also acts as an integrative force in society, imparting values that foster social cohesion
and national identity1.
Before 1976, education was the exclusive responsibility of the States. The
Constitutional Amendment of 1976, which included education in the concurrent List,
was a far-reaching step. The substantive, financial and administrative implication
required a new sharing of responsibility between the Union Government and the
States. While the role and responsibility of the States in education remained largely
unchanged, the Union Government accepted a larger responsibility of reinforcing the
national and integrated character of education, maintaining quality and standard
including those of the teaching profession at all levels, and the study and monitoring of
the educational requirements of the country.
The Central Government plays a leading role in the evolution and monitoring of
educational policies and programmes, the most notable of which are the National
Policy on Education (NPE), 1986 and the Programme of Action (POA), 1986 as updated
in 1992. The Government has taken a number of major initiatives during the 11th Five
Year Plan. Some of the new initiatives in the School and literacy sector include:
Enactment of Right to Education, Launching of Saakshar Bharat, Evolving a National
1 India, Planning Commission, Draft Twelfth Five Year Plan (2012-2017) Volume-III, p. 48
3
The pre-primary education as a part of the education ladder is not compulsory.
Governmental intervention in the pre-primary sector is through the Early Child Care
and Education (ECCE) programme which includes universalizing the programme of
Integrated Child Development Scheme (ICDS) to provide a functional Anganwadi in
every settlement and ensure full coverage for all children4.
i) Elementary Education: Free and compulsory education to all children up to
the age of fourteen is a constitutional commitment in India5.
Article 21-A of the Constitution of India and its consequent legislation, the right
of Children to Free and Compulsory Education (RTE) Act 2009, become operative in
the country on 1st April 2010. This development has far reaching implications for
elementary education and for the implementation of Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan, in the
years to come. This development implies that every child has a right to elementary
education of satisfactory and equitable quality in a formal school which satisfies certain
essential norms and standards. The reform processes initiated in 2010-11 perusal to
this important development, were continued during the year 2011-12. The provision
also includes admission of 25 per cent children from disadvantaged groups and
weaker sections in class I in private unaided schools6.
ii) Secondary Education: Secondary Education is a crucial stage in the
educational hierarchy as it prepares the young persons for higher education and also
for the world of work. The Government of India’s intervention in secondary education
4 Ibid, p. 14 5 Ibid, p. 18 6 India. Ministry of Human Resource Development, Department of School Education & Literacy Department of Higher Education, Annual Report, 2011-12, pp. 22 & 186
The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Bill, 2008
The Constitutional (Eighty Six) Amendment Act, 2002, notified on
13th December 2002 inserted Article 21-A in the Constitution, which provides
that ‘the State shall provide free and compulsory education to all children of
the age of 6-14 years in such manner as the State, may, by law, determine’.
4
is at two levels: (i) Through apex national level bodies like National Council of
Educational Research and Training (NCERT), Central Board of Secondary Education
(CBSE), National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS), Navodaya Vidyalaya Samiti
(NVS), Kendriya Vidyalaya Sangthan (KVS), and Central Tibetan School Administration
(CTSA); and (ii) Through centrally sponsored schemes, such as (a) Scheme of
Boarding and Hostel Facilities for Girl Students of secondary and Higher Secondary
Schools, (b) Integrated Education for Disabled Children, (c) Information and
Communication Technology in Schools, and (d) Quality Improvement in Schools7.
With a dramatic growth in elementary education enrolments and improvements
in retention and transition rates in recent years, particularly amongst the more
disadvantaged groups, there is an increasing pressure on the secondary schools to
admit more students. With the enforcement of RTE Act and further improvement in
retention and transition rates, demand for secondary schooling will grow rapidly in the
coming years. Meeting this demand is critical for three reasons. First, the secondary
education fulfils large manpower needs of the semi-organised and the organised
sectors of the economy. Second, it is the supply chain for higher education. And,
finally, it caters to the needs of teachers for primary schooling. Low participation rates
and poor quality at the secondary stage are a bottleneck in improving both the higher
education participation and the schooling at the elementary stage8.
3. Various Centrally Sponsored Schemes
In order to achieve UEE (Universalisation of Elementary Education, the
Government of India has initiated a number of programmes and projects9. The
Government adopts an integrated approach in the implementation of the various
centrally sponsored schemes, in keeping with principles of the National Policy on
Education, to ensure that the education of equitable quality for all to fully harness the
7 op.cit., Status of Education in India, p. 20 8 op.cit., Draft Twelfth Five Year Plan (2012-2017), p. 67 9 op.cit., Status of Education in India, p. 18
5
nation’s human resource potential. The common objectives are to enhance access
through the expansion of quality school education; to promote equity through the
inclusion of disadvantaged groups and weaker sections, and to improve the quality of
education.
Following is the list of Centrally sponsored programmes being implemented in
the Education Sector under Ministry of Human Resource Development10:
Sl. No. Name of the Scheme
1. Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan(SSA)
2. Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya
3. National Programme for Education of Girls at elementary Level (NPEGEL)
4. Mid Day Meal Scheme(MDMS)
5. Mahila Samakhya
6. Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan(RMSA)
7. Scheme for setting up of 6000 Model Schools at Block level as Benchmark of Excellence
8. Scheme for construction and running of Girl’s Hostel for Secondary and Higher Secondary
Schools
9. Scheme of Vocationalisation of Secondary Education at +2 level
10. Scheme of ICT @ School
11. Inclusive Education for the Disabled at Secondary School (IEDSS)
12. Quality Improvement in School
13. Strengthening of Teachers’ Training Institutions
14. Adult Education and Skill Development Scheme
15. Scheme for providing a Quality Education in Madarsas (SPQEM)
16. National Means cum Merit Scholarship Scheme
17. Scheme for Infrastructure Development in Minority Institutions (IDMI)
18. National Scheme for Incentive to the Girl Child for Secondary Education
19. Appointment of Language Teachers
20. Setting up of New Polytechnics and Strengthening of Existing Polytechnics
21. Pre-matric Scholarship Scheme
22. Eklavya Model Residential School (EMRS)
10 Rajya Sabha Starred Question no.2886 dated 22.3.2013
6
Some of the above schemes are discussed below:
i) Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan: Launched in 2001 Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan(SSA) is
one of India’s major flagship programmes for universalisation of elementary education.
Its overall goals include universal access and retention, bridging of gender and social
category gaps in elementary education, and achieving significant enhancement in
learning levels of children.
SSA is being implemented in partnership with the State Governments and
reaches out to 192 million children in 1.1 million habitations across the country.
SSA Goals are (a) Enrolment of all children in school, Education Guarantee Centres,
Alternative school; (b) Retention of all children till the upper primary stage; (c)
Bridging of gender and social category gaps in enrolment, retention and learning; and
(d) Ensuring that there is significant enhancement in the learning achievement levels
of children at the primary and upper primary stage.
Provisions of Right to Education Act are being implemented through SSA.
Accordingly, norms have been revised / modified to align them with the requirement of
RTE Act, 2009.
Central Government has approved an outlay of `2,31,233 crore for
implementation of the combined RTE-SSA programme for the five year period of
2010-11 to 2014-15. The annual requirement of funds for the combined RTE-SSA
programme will be approximately in the range of `40,000 to `49,000 crore both for
the Central and State Governments.
Under SSA India has not only been able to improve access to 99 per cent of
primary level but has also been able to reduce out of school children to 3-4 per cent of
the age cohort of 6-14 years. Under this programme, special focus is on girls, children
belonging to SC/ST Communities, other weaker Sections, Minorities and urban
deprived children11.
11 op.cit., Reference Annual, 2013, p. 234
7
Details of cumulative progress made under the SSA up to 2011-12 are given in
Table below12.
Cumulative Progress under SSA up to 2011-12
Sl. No. Item Sanctions
1. Opening of New Schools 2,09,914
2. Opening of New Upper Primary Schools 1,73,969
3. Construction of Primary Schools 1,92,392
4. Construction of Upper Primary Schools 1,05,562
5. Construction of Additional Classrooms 16,03,789
6. Toilets 5,83,529
7. Drinking Water facilities 2,23,086
8. Teachers 19,65,207
Source: India, Ministry of Human Resource Development
ii) Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya: KGBVs are residential upper primary
schools for girls from SC, ST, OBC and Muslim communities. KGBVs are set up in areas
of scattered habitations where schools are at great distances and are a challenge to
the security of girls. This often compels girls to discontinue their education. KGBV
addresses this through setting up residential schools, in the block itself. KGBVs
reach out to :
Adolescent girls who are unable to go to regular schools. Out of school girls in the 10+ age group who are unable to complete primary
school. Younger girls of migratory populations in difficult areas of scattered habitations
that do not qualify for primary/upper primary schools.
KGBVs provide for a minimum reservation of 75 per cent seats for girls from
SC/ST/OBC and minorities communities and 25 per cent to girls from families that live
below the poverty line. Till 2009-10 there were 2570 KGBVs in the country. After the
RTE Act came into operation, an additional 1030 KGBVs were sanctioned, taking the
total number of KGBVs in the country to 3600.
iii) National Programme for Education of Girls at Elementary Level
(NPEGEL): NPEGEL is implemented in educationally backward blocks (EBB) and
12 op.cit., Draft Twelfth Five Year Plan (2012-2017), p. 54
8
addresses the needs of girls who are ‘in’ as well as ‘out’ of school. NPEGEL also
reaches out to girls who are enrolled in school, but do not attend school regularly.
NPEGEL emphasizes the responsibility of teachers to recognize vulnerable girls
and pay special attention to bring them out of their state of vulnerability and prevent
them from dropping out.
Both NPEGEL and KGBV are expected to work in tandem to complement efforts
under SSA to ensure ‘inclusion’ of all girls and provide them ‘quality’ education. While
NPEGEL is designed to work through the day schools, KGBV establishes residential
schooling facilities for the girls in remote areas that are un-served by upper primary
schools or in areas with educational disadvantage amongst certain social groups13.
iv) Mid-Day Meal Scheme (MDMS): In keeping with the Constitutional
provisions to raise the level of nutrition of children and enable them to develop in a
healthy manner, the National Programme of Nutritional Support to Primary Education
(NP-NSPE) was launched as a Centrally sponsored scheme in 1995. Commonly referred
to as MDMS, this was expected to enhance enrolment, retention, attendance of
children in schools apart from improving their nutritional levels. This was extended to
upper primary (classes VI to VIII) children in 3,479 Economically Backwards blocks
(EBBs) in 2007 and then universalised at the elementary level in the year 2008. The
scheme is implemented through the States/UTs. MDMS is managed and implemented
by School Management/Village Education Committees, Panchayati Raj Institutions, and
Self-Help Groups. MDMS now includes madrasas and maktabs supported under the
SSA as well as children under the National Child Labour Projects. A detailed survey of
implementation of intended nutritional values including calorific value, protein
inclusion, additional nutritional supplements and vitamins, as detailed in the scheme,
needs to be carried out to ensure that the nutrition scheme is implemented in both
spirit and letter.
13 op.cit., Annual Report, 2011-12, pp. 27-28
9
MDMS is the world’s largest school meal programme and reaches an estimated 11 crore children across 12 lakh schools in India. (www.mdms.nic.in)
MDMS covered 7.18 crore primary school children and 3.36 crore upper
primary school children in 2010–11. The coverage of children in the States of Bihar (43
per cent), UP (57 per cent) and Jharkhand (58 per cent) is below the national
average of 72 per cent, whereas it is well above the national average in Chhattisgarh
(83 per cent) and Odisha (82 per cent). Based on the Annual Work Plan and
Budget of the States/UTs for the year 2012–13, the district-wise performance of the
MDMS in all the States/UTs has been analysed and the poor performing districts (144)
have been identified for focused attention. Of the poor performing districts, 17 are in
areas affected by the Left Wing Extremism (LWE); 11 in the North Eastern States
(Tripura—3, Meghalaya—4, Assam—4); 17 in tribal districts, and 13 in the hilly areas
(Uttarakhand—4, J&K—9).
Achievement of MDMS during the period 2005-06 to 2011-12
Components 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08* 2008-09* 2009-10* 2010-11* 2011-12*
Children covered (in Crore)
11.94 10.68 11.37 11.19 11.36 10.46 10.35 up to
30.09.11
Food grain
allocated (in lakh MTs)
22.51 21.60 24.79 29.30 27.71 29.40 29.09
Budget allocation (in Crore)
3345.26 5348.00 6678.00 8000.00 7359.15 9440.00 10380.00
Total Exp. (in Crore)
3186.33 5233.47 5835.44 6688.02 6937.79 9128.44 7697.24 up to
29.12.11
*Primary and Upper Primary combined
Source: Annual Report,2011-12, Department of School Education & Literacy Department of Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Govt. of India, p.42
During the Twelfth Plan, MDMS will be expanded to cover pre-primary schooling in a
progressive manner, private unaided schools, particularly in the SC/ST and minority-
concentrated areas, and poor children admitted in neighbourhood private schools
against the 25 per cent earmarked seats as per provisions of the RTE Act. Partnerships
with panchayats and municipalities, as well as with other NGOs and government
agencies may be developed to ensure good-quality, nutritious and regular supply of
food to all children. Over a period of time, this will provide good longitudinal data on
the impact of MDMS. (source: op.cit, Twelfth Five-Year Plan, p. 66)
10
v) The Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan: A Centrally sponsored scheme
with a funding pattern of 75:25 between Centre and States (90:10 for Special Category
and North Eastern States), was launched in 2009–10. The major objectives of the
RMSA are to (i) raise the minimum level of education to class X and universalise access
to secondary education; (ii) ensure good-quality secondary education with focus on
Science, Mathematics and English; and (iii) reduce the gender, social and regional gaps
in enrolments, dropouts and improving retention. The interventions supported under
RMSA included (i) upgrading of upper primary schools to secondary schools; (ii)
strengthening of existing secondary schools; (iii) providing additional classrooms,
science laboratories, libraries, computer rooms, art, craft and culture rooms, toilet
blocks and water facilities in schools; (iv) providing in-service training of teachers; and
(v) providing for major repairs of school buildings and residential quarters for teachers.
Despite being launched in the third year of Plan, there was good progress under the
RMSA during the Eleventh Plan (Table given below). Against a target of enrolling an
additional 3.2 million students, 2.4 million additional students were enrolled in
secondary schools during the Eleventh Plan period14.
RMSA : Achievement in the Eleventh Plan
Sl. No. Items Target Achievement
(Approved)
1. Sanction of New Schools 11,188 9,636
2. Strengthening of existing Schools 44,000 34,311
3. Additional Classrooms 88,500 49,356
4. Additional Teachers 1,79,000 59,000
5. In-Service Training for All Teachers 100 per cent 100 per cent
6. Annual Grants to Schools Full coverage 75,394
7. Minor Repair to Schools Full coverage 62,221
Source: India, Ministry of Human Resource Development
14 Ibid, pp. 70-71
11
vi) Scheme for Setting up of 6000 Model Schools at Block Level: The
Scheme envisages providing quality education to talented rural children through setting
up 6000 model schools as benchmark of excellence at block level at the rate of one
school per block. The scheme was launched in 2008-09 and is being implemented
from 2009-10. The objectives are:
To have at least one good quality senior secondary school in every block.
To have a pace setting role.
To try out innovative curriculum and pedagogy
To be a model in infrastructure, curriculum, evaluation and school governance.
The scheme has two modes of implementation, viz., (i) 3500 model schools are
to be set up in educationally backward blocks (EBBs) under State/UT Governments;
and (ii) the remaining 2500 schools are to be set up under Public-Private Partnership
(PPP) mode in the blocks which are not educationally backward. Presently, only the
component for setting up of 3500 model schools in EBBS under State/UT
Governments is operational. The component for setting up of 2500 model schools
under PPP mode will be operational in 12th Five Year Plan15.
vii) Scheme of Vocationalisation of Secondary Education at +2 level:
Initiated in 1988, this centrally sponsored scheme of Vocationalisation of Secondary
Education provides for diversification of educational opportunities so as to enhance
individual employability, reduce the mismatch between demand and supply of skilled
manpower and provides an alternative for those pursuing higher education16.
viii) Scheme of ICT @ School: The Information and Communication Technology in
School Scheme was launched in December 2004 to provide opportunities to secondary
stage students to mainly build their capacity of ICT skills and make them learn through
computer aided learning process. The Scheme provides support to States/Union
15 op.cit., Annual Report, 2011-12, p. 57 16 Ibid, P. 241
12
Territories to establish enabling ICT infrastructure in Government and Government
aided secondary and higher secondary schools. It also aims to set up Smart schools in
KVs and Navodaya Vidyalayas wich are pace setting institutions of the Government of
India to act as “Technology Demonstrators” and to lead in propagating ICT skills
among students of neighbourhood schools17.
ix) Inclusive Education for Disabled at Secondary stage: The Scheme of
Inclusive Education for Disabled at Secondary Stage (IEDSS) has been launched from
the year 2009-10. This Scheme replaces the earlier scheme of Integrated Education
for Disabled Children (IEDC) and would provide assistance for the inclusive education
of the disabled children in classes IX-XII.
The aim of the Centrally Sponsored Scheme of IEDSS is to enable all students
with disabilities, after completing eight years of elementary schooling, to pursue
further four years of secondary schooling (classes IX to XII) in an inclusive and
enabling environment18.
x) Quality Improvement in Schools: During the 10th Five Year Plan, “Quality
Improvement in Schools” was introduced as a composite centrally sponsored scheme
having the following components:
i) National Population Education Project,
ii) Environmental Orientation to School Education,
iii) Improvement of Science Education in Schools,
iv) Introduction of Yoga in Schools, and
v) International Science Olympiads.
17 Ibid, pp. 241-42 18 op.cit., Reference Annual 2013, p. 242
13
A decision was taken to transfer four of these components to National Council of
Educational Research and Training (NCERT) w.e.f. APRIL 2006, except the component
of improvement of Science Education in school that was transferred to states19.
xi) Eklavya Model Residential Schools (EMRSs): These schools are funded by
the Government for the welfare of Scheduled Tribes. Proposals for setting of EMRS are
received from the State Government. The Ministry of Tribal Affairs administers special
area programme of grant under Art 275 (1) of the Constitution of India. Under this
programme State wise allocation to 26 States including 9 Left Wing Extremism (LWE)
States is made on the basis of percentage of Scheduled Tribes population in the State
with reference to total ST population in the Country. A part of the grant can be used
for setting up of Eklavya Model Residential Schools (EMRS). Priority for the
development schemes including setting up of EMRS is fixed and executed by the State
Government within the allocation depending on the felt need of the local area and its
people in accordance with the guidelines issued by the Ministry in June 2010. (LS USQ
NO.2770 dated 30.3.2012)
xii) Pre-matric Scholarship Scheme: Pre-matric is the Scholarship for students
from Minorities Communities. The Scholarship at Pre-matric level will encourage
parents from minority communities to send their school going children to school,
lighten their financial burden on school education and sustain their efforts to support
their children to complete school education. The scheme will form the foundation for
their educational attainment and provide a level playing field in the competitive
employment arena. Empowerment through education, which is one of the objectives of
this scheme, has the potential to lead to upliftment of the socio economic conditions of
the minority communities. (www.minoritiesaffairs.gov.in).
19 Ibid, pp. 242-43
14
INSTITUTIONS IN SCHOOL EDUCATION
For the development of the Education Sector, the Government intervenes in
school education through various institutions which are given below:
i) Kendriya Vidayalaya Sangathan: The Scheme of Kendriya Vidayalaya
Sangathan (KVS) was approved by Government of India in November 1962 to provide
uninterrupted education to the wards of the transferable central government
employees.
The salient features of the KVs are: primarily cater to the educational needs of
the wards of transferable central government employees; all KVs are co-educational;
all KVs are affiliated to CBSE; in case of girl students, tuition fee is not charged; tuition
fee is also not charged for boys up to class VIII, the wards of KVs staff and SC/ST
students upto class XII20.
This organisation in India administering 1093 schools (including 3 schools
abroad – Kathmandu, Moscow and Tehran) as on 1.5.2013 with 11,21,012 students
as on 31.03.2013. The Kendriya Vidyalayas are placed under “specified category of
schools” under Section 2(p). Such schools are obliged to grant admission in class I to
the extent of 25 per cent of class strength to the children belonging to weaker
section and disadvantaged group in the neighborhood and provide free and
compulsory elementary education till its completion (Section 12(1)(c) of the Right of
Children to Free and Compulsory Education (RTE) Act, 200921.
ii) Central Board of Secondary Education: Set up in 1929, the second
oldest Board of the country, Central Board of Secondary Education is an autonomous
body working under the aegis of the Ministry of Human Resource Development. The
main objectives of the CBSE include: affiliating institutions in and outside the country,
conduct annual examinations at the end of Class X and XII, conducting entrance
examinations to professional courses for admission into medical and engineering
20 Ibid, p. 244 21 op.cit., Annual Report, 2011-12, p. 64
15
colleges, updating and designing curriculum and empowering the teachers and heads
of institutions22.
There are 11922 schools affiliated with CBSE as on 30.09.2011 which include
KVs, Government, Independent and JNV schools located in India and 24 other
countries of the world. The following examinations are conducted by the Board.
a) Senior School Certificate Examination (Class XII)
b) Secondary School Examination (Class X)
c) All India pre-Medical / pre-Dental Entrance Examination (AIPMT)
d) All India Engineering Entrance Examination (AIEEE)
e) Central Teacher Eligibility Test (CTET)
f) Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalaya Selection Test
g) Students Global Aptitude Index (SGAI)
h) Optional proficiency Test23
iii) National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS): Initiated as a project in
1979 under the Central Board of Secondary Education, the Open Schooling
programmes have now taken shape as an independent system of education in India.
Re-christened as the National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS) in July 2002.
The Institute provides opportunities to interested learners by making available
various courses/programmes through open and distance learning mode. It offers 27
subjects at the Secondary level and 21 subjects at Senior Secondary level24.
Enrolment of students in 2011-12 in Academic was 493534 and in Vocational
26354. Courses offered are: Open Basic Education, (Courses are offered through
accredited agencies), Secondary, Senior Secondary, Open Vocational Education, Life
Enrichment Programmes.
22 op.cit., Reference Annual 2013, p. 244 23 op.cit., Annual Report, 2011-12, p. 75 24 op.cit., Reference Annual 2013, p. 244
16
Total numbers of learners certified since 1991 was 3.14 million.
NIOS provides Professional support to States to set up and develop State Open
Schools particularly with Regional Mediums25.
iv) National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT):
Established in 1961, National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) is
an apex resource organization of Government of India in the field of school education.
It is an autonomous organization registered under Societies Registration Act to advise
and assist the Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India and
Departments of Education in States/Union Territories in formulation and
implementation of their policies and major programmes in the field of education,
particularly for qualitative improvement of school education.
NCERT undertakes programmes related to research, development, training,
extension, international cooperation, publication and dissemination of educational
information. Besides, NCERT acts as major agency for implementing the bilateral
cultural exchange programmes with other countries in the field of school education.
The agency also interacts and works in collaboration with international
organizations26.
v) Navodaya Vidyalaya Samiti: The National Policy on education-1986
envisaged setting up of model schools, one in each district of the country.
Accordingly, a scheme was formulated under which it was decided to set up co-
educational residential schools now called Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalayas. Efforts are
made to ensure that at least 33 per cent of the Students enrolled are girls27.
The opening of a Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalaya is based on the proposal from
the concerned State / UT Governments offering about 30 acres of suitable land, free of
cost. The State Government has also to provide sufficient temporary building and other
25 www.nic.ac.in 26 op.cit., Reference Annual 2013, p. 245 27 Ibid
17
infrastructures, free of rent, to accommodate 288 students and staff for three to four
years or till such time the Samiti constructs its own building at the permanent site.
As on date, out of 612 districts (excluding Tamil Nadu State), the Samiti has
sanctioned Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalayas for 576 districts out of which 570 are
functional. In addition, the Government of India approved opening of 20 Jawahar
Navodaya Vidyalayas in districts having large concentration of Schedule Caste /
Schedule Tribe population during 2008-09. The Samiti has sanctioned 19 Jawahar
Navodaya Vidyalayas in districts having large concentration of Schedule Caste /
Scheduled Tribe population out of which 16 Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalayas are
functional. Thus, the total functional JNVs on 05.01.2012 are 586 JNVs (570+16)
against 595 (576+19) sanctioned28.
The Twelfth Plan will work towards shaping JNVs into pace setting schools as
smart schools, providing training of students for participation in international
assessment and allow the use of school premises for the purpose. The JNVs will also
be able to avail funding for additional sports activities from the scheme of Urban sports
infrastructure.
All facilities, provisions, and quality initiatives stipulated for JNVs hall be made
available to Eklavya and Sainik Schools, which are residential schools. The respective
Ministries would be required to provide financial resources for these initiatives29.
4. Enrolments
The country has made significant progress in improving access to education in
recent years. The mean years of schooling of the working population (those over 15
years old) increased from 4.19 years in 2000 to 5.12 years in 2010. Enrolment of
children at the primary education stage has now reached near-universal levels. The
growth of enrolment in secondary education accelerated from 4.3 per cent per year
during the 1990s to 6.27 per cent per year in the decade ending 2009–10. Youth
28 op.cit., Annual Report, 2011-12, p. 74 29 op.cit., Draft Twelfth Five Year Plan (2012-2017), p. 81
18
literacy increased from 60 per cent in 1983 to 91 per cent in 2009–10 and adult
literacy improved from 64.8 per cent in 2001 to 74 per cent in 201130.
The GER at upper primary level is low, even though it improved by 11.8 per
cent in the four years between 2006–07 and 2009-10. At 62 per cent the NER at
upper primary level is also a cause for concern. This varies from 47 per cent in UP and
53.1 per cent in Bihar to 91 per cent in Tamil Nadu and 83 per cent in Himachal
Pradesh. It is evident that although a larger number of children are entering the
educational system, all of them are not progressing through the system and this
progression is uneven across the States.
A large number of children are still Out of School. Of the 8.1 million Out of
School Children in the country in 2009, UP (34per cent), Bihar (17 per cent), Rajasthan
(12 per cent) and West Bengal (9 per cent) account for 72 per cent. Although surveys
have reported a decline in the proportion of OoSC to the corresponding child
population of various communities such as SCs, STs and Muslims, these estimates
need to be taken with caution, keeping in mind the steep decline in absolute numbers
of OoSC reported in the corresponding period. A recent study for rural India places the
proportion of children not enrolled in schools at 3.5 per cent. However, in a few
States like Rajasthan and UP, the percentage of OoS girls in the age group of 11–14
years is as high as 8.9 per cent and 9.7 per cent, respectively31.
Gross Employment Ratio (GERs) at the secondary (Class IX–X) and senior
secondary (Class XI– XII) levels are 62.7 per cent and 35.9 per cent, respectively,
leading to a combined GER for Class IX–XII at a considerably low 49.3 per cent. The
significant dip in GERs from secondary to senior secondary level for all categories is
driven by a number of factors including general lack of access, paucity of public
schools, high cost of private senior secondary education and poor quality of education,
30 Ibid, p. 47 31 Ibid, pp. 52-53
19
along with the very important factor of high opportunity cost of deferred entry into the
workforce32.
Due to launching of various schemes / programmes by Government at school
level, The enrolment of students in schools at primary, upper primary and Secondary /
Senior Secondary / Intermediate level in all category (including SC / ST) has increased
many times from the year 1980-81 to 2009-10, and there has been reduction in drop
out and gender gap in respect of SC/ST Students as indicated below: (op.cit, Annual
Report, 2011-12, pp. 95-96)
Enrolment in School Education (all category)
32 Ibid, pp. 68-69
20
Comparison of Enrolment among SC/ST Students and other Students in School Education
5. Expenditure on School Education
Recognising the importance of education, public spending on education
increased rapidly during the Eleventh Plan period. Education expenditure as a
percentage of gross domestic product (GDP) rose from 3.3 per cent in 2004–05 to
over 4 per cent in 2011–12. Per capita public expenditure on education increased from
`888 in 2004–05 to `2,985 in 2011–12. The bulk of public spending on education is
incurred by the State Governments and their spending grew at a robust rate of 19.6
per cent per year during the Eleventh Plan. Central spending on education increased
even faster at 25 per cent per year during the same period. Aggregate public
spending on education during the Eleventh Plan period is estimated at `12,44,797
crore for both the Centre and States taken together. Of this, 35 per cent was
accounted for by Plan expenditure and 65 per cent by non-Plan expenditure. About
43 per cent of the public expenditure on education was incurred for elementary
education, 25 per cent for secondary education and the balance 32 per cent for
higher education. About half of the Central Government’s expenditure was incurred for
higher education and the remaining for elementary (39 per cent) and secondary (12
per cent) education. In the State sector, about 75 per cent of education expenditure
is for school education, of which 44 per cent is on elementary education and 30 per
cent on secondary education33.
33 Ibid, p. 47
21
Public expenditure on secondary education has increased from `35,806 crore in
2007–08 to `94,183 crore in 2011–12, leading to an increase in its share as a
percentage of GDP from 0.78 per cent to 1.05 per cent. Per capita expenditure on
secondary education has gone up from `315 to `784 during this period. The Central
Government’s expenditure has gone up from `2,578 crore in 2007–08 to `13,278 crore
in 2011–12, a five-fold increase. There is significant private expenditure as well. The
average private expenditure on secondary education in private schools is as high as
`893 per month as compared to only `275 per month in Government Schools. This
difference is primarily due to high tuition fees in private schools.
During the Eleventh Plan, the Central Plan outlay for secondary education was
`54,945 crore. Against this, an amount of `17,723 crore (or 32.26 per cent of the
outlay) was actually spent. Elaborate consultation process with stakeholders including
the State Governments preceded launch of the new schemes, resulting in sub-optimal
utilisation of planned resources in the first three years of implementation. However, in
the last two years of the Eleventh Plan period, the Ministry was fully geared to
implement schemes rapidly, but only limited resources were made available34.
The Plan allocation and expenditure of Ministry of Human Resource
Development during 2010-11 and 2011-12 and its percentage is as under:
(` in crore)
Budget Estimate / Allocation (Plan) and Expenditure(Plan)
2010-11 2011-12
Departments Allocation Expenditure Percentage Allocation Expenditure Percentage
Department of
School Education and Literacy
31036.00 34156.22 110.05 38957.00
38122.50 97.86
Department of
Higher Education
11000.00
9356.77 85.06
13103.00
12641.98 96.48
Total 2036.00 43512.99 103.51 52060.00 50764.48 97.51
Source : Rajya Sabha Unstarred Question no.2120 dated 15.3.2013
34 Ibid, p. 70
22
The allocation (Plan) for education as percentage of Gross Domestic Product
(GDP) is 0.58% and 0.62% during 2010-11 & 2011-12 respectively.
6. Achievements of Eleventh Plan in Education
There are 1,740 schools (Kendriya Vidyalayas—1,092, Jawahar Navodaya
Vidyalayas—586 and Central Tibetan Schools-62) with an enrolment of about 13
lakh students that are directly under the Central Government. These schools usually
outperform other schools both academically and otherwise and hence there is demand
for more such schools all over the country. During the Eleventh Plan, over 100 new
schools were set up. In addition, there are Sainik Schools and Eklavya Residential
Schools under Ministry of Defence and Ministry of Tribal Welfare under the Central
Government, respectively35.
7. Twelfth Five-Year Plan (2012-2017) and School Education Targets for the Twelfth Five-Year Plan:
1. Ensure universal access and, in keeping with letter and spirit of the RTE Act,
provide good-quality free and compulsory education to all children in the age
group of 6 to 14 years;
35 Ibid, p. 53
23
2. Improve attendance and reduce dropout rates at the elementary level to
below 10 per cent and lower the percentage of Out of School Children at the
elementary level to below 2 per cent for all socio-economic and minority
groups and in all States;
3. Increase enrolments at higher levels of education and raise the Gross
Enrolment Ratio (GER) at the secondary level to over 90 per cent, at the
Senior Secondary level to over 65 per cent;
4. Raise the overall literacy rate to over 80 per cent and reduce the gender gap
in literacy to less than 10 per cent;
5. Provide at least one year of well-supported/well-resourced pre-school
education in primary schools to all children, particularly those in educationally
backward blocks (EBBs); and
6. Improve learning outcomes that are measured, monitored and reported
independently at all levels of school education with a special focus on
ensuring that all children master basic reading and numeracy skills by class 2
and skills of critical thinking, expression and problem solving by class36.
8. Conclusion
Having achieved near-universal enrolment at the lower primary level, it is critical
to turn the focus on the poor levels of learning outcomes achieved by children who
complete five years of primary schooling. Several independently conducted national
studies including the Annual Status of School Education Report (2005 to 2011) and the
School Learning Study (2010) have reported very low levels of learning among Indian
school children. The ASER 2011 findings illustrate that over half the children in class V
are unable to read even at class II level. In the recent Organisation for Economic Co-
operation and Development–Programme for International Student Assessment (OECD–
PISA) study, India has been placed at the tail-end in international comparisons rating
36 Ibid, p. 51
24
(PISA-2009+). These results underscore the fact that quality of education should be
the key focus of attention in the Twelfth Plan. Improving learning outcomes, with a
focus on supplemental instruction for disadvantaged children, will directly contribute to
the objective of reducing dropouts, because evidence suggests that children who fall
behind grade-appropriate learning levels are significantly more likely to drop out. The
structure of enrolments in elementary education shows that about 80 per cent of
children are enrolled in government and government-aided institutions; therefore, the
focus on quality improvement in elementary education has to be on government
institutions37.
37 Ibid, p. 53