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School of Criminology and Criminal Justice

Doctor of Philosophy in Criminology and Criminal Justice

Criminal Justice Comprehensive Exam

Reading List and Instructions

Criminology and Criminal Justice at the University of Nebraska Omaha refers to the scientific study of causes of crime and societal responses to crime and deviant behavior. The reading list for the criminal justice comprehensive examination is designed to provide students with a substantive knowledge base pertaining to the societal responses to crime. The list is not exhaustive in any area, but includes the readings that the faculty has deemed essential knowledge for students who graduate from the university with the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Criminology and Criminal Justice.

The criminal justice comprehensive examination tests students on how well they critically evaluate the extant literature in the field and requires them to integrate knowledge drawn from different scholars and perspectives and articulate their understanding of central issues facing the discipline. To this end, there are three main goals of the reading list for the criminal justice comprehensive examination.

1) Aid students in passing the exam.

The list is inclusive of the readings you must be familiar with to pass the exam. However, the reading list is not meant to be exhaustive. It should be viewed as a very good starting point. You may also want to be familiar with relevant literature that has been published in the major journals in the past five years as well as other materials that you have covered in your course work, even if these readings do not appear on the list. Major journals include Criminology, Journal or Research in Crime and Delinquency, Crime and Delinquency, Justice Quarterly, Journal of Quantitative Criminology, Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, Law and Society Review, American Sociological Review, American Journal of Sociology, Social Problems, Social Forces, Criminal Justice and Behavior, and Journal of Criminal Justice.

A successful examination demonstrates a student’s ability to apply their understanding of the criminal justice literature to broad questions facing the field of criminology and criminal justice. Rarely is the inclusion of any single article or book “pass or fail.” Instead, you need to be familiar with relevant issues and the extant literature. In other words, you do not need to memorize what the authors of the items on the list say, but instead, read them, take notes, and think about how the materials on the list might fit together. The idea is that when confronted with a question, you should have the knowledge base to produce an informed and well thought out answer.

2) Aid students in thinking about their research interests more broadly.

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In conducting their research, criminologists often fall victim to overspecialization and fail to think about how the broader criminological research may be relevant to their particular research interest. As you read through the materials on this list, you should think about how these readings could be used to develop your own research agenda. If you are still unsure what your research interests are, reading the materials on this list will expose you to a variety of research areas that may be of specific interest to you. Regardless of whether you know what you want to study or whether you are still figuring it out, you will (or should) learn that grounding your research in the broader theoretical and methodological traditions in criminology and criminal justice will help you become a more successful researcher and scholar (e.g., publications in major journals, securing extramural grants). The readings on this list will provide you with the knowledge base to do just that.

3) Aid students in preparing their courses.

In a perfect world, all Ph.D. graduates would obtain a job at a university that only required them to teach about their specific area(s) of interest. Unfortunately, this is rarely the case. It is highly likely that you will be required to prepare and teach a variety of courses within criminology and criminal justice, but outside of your specific area(s) of interest. The readings on this list will provide you with the background knowledge to teach a number of courses that fall within criminal justice. Taking thorough notes and/or preparing detailed summaries of the readings on this list will not only aid you in passing the exam, but will also provide you with a wealth of knowledge from which you can draw from when you are preparing to teach the courses you are assigned at your eventual academic appointment.

ADMINISTRATION OF THE EXAMINATION

The exam will be given on one day in both the fall and the spring semester. The exam will have two sessions (a morning session and an afternoon session). Each session will be 4 hours long. During each session you will be asked to answer two of three questions prepared by the grading committee.

TAKING THE EXAMINATION

There is no advice that will ensure a passing grade on the comprehensive examination. Even so, it might be helpful to share some general suggestions on the factors that are likely to be considered in the grading of the examination.

In order to pass, your answer must respond to the test questions. You should expect to write a detailed, thorough, and well-integrated answer to each question you address. A successful answer will not only refer specifically to the relevant literature, but also demonstrate an understanding of the material. Generally speaking, in writing a well-structured answer, you should first tell the grading committee how you plan to answer the question, then tell the committee what you said you would tell them, and lastly, sum up and conclude what you wrote.

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If a question requires knowledge of a criminal justice theory or theories, it is essential that you know the theory or theories accurately. An answer that only demonstrates surface knowledge of the theoretical material is not acceptable. Answers that show scholarly depth will be more likely to pass. Answers that are filled with broad statements that are not supported with appropriate citations to the literature do not show convincingly that a student truly knows the subject matter…Remember this simple but important point: only what is written on the exam can be graded. Professors cannot “fill in the blank” or “assume you know the answer.”

Related to the discussion above, citations to textbooks are not recommended. Textbooks or readers that contain overviews or summaries of theories may be useful in helping you to organizing main points about different theories and/or learning about a given theory’s empirical status. These works, however, are not replacements for reading the original theoretical or empirical contributions of the authors listed on your reading list. In your answers, you should cite the original theoretical works and research studies.

With all of the above in mind, you should take a moment to reflect on what you are about to do. On the one hand, preparing for and eventually taking comprehensive examinations is a stressful and very time consuming endeavor. On the other hand, this will be the only time in your academic career that you will be afforded the time (and be expected to use the time) to immerse yourself in the criminology and criminal justice literature. Faculty members are here to guide you if needed, but this is also the time during which you will train yourself to 1) read literature and pick out relevant points; 2) think about a large body of literature and how different works may or may not fit together; and, 3) develop ideas that can be used to answer questions on a comprehensive examination or in your own research areas once you pass.

Good luck!

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READINGS

The readings below are organized into different subareas. However, as you read the literature, you will become aware that many of the readings that are listed under one subarea also could fit within other subareas. As you read, you should think about whether particular readings might be useful to answer potential questions pertaining to several the subareas. General Overview

Beckett, K. (1997). Making Crime Pay: Law and Order in Contemporary American Politics. New York: Oxford University Press. Chambliss, W. and R. Seidman. (1971). Law, Order, and Power. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company. Crank, J. P. (2002). Imagining Justice. Cincinnati, Ohio: Anderson. Currie, E. (1985). Confronting Crime: An American Challenge. New York, NY: Pantheon Books. Currie, E. (1998). Crime and Punishment in America. New York, NY: Metropolitan Books. Davis, K. C. (1971). Discretionary Justice: A Preliminary Inquiry. Chicago, IL: University of Illinois Press (chapter 1). Feeley, M. (1973). Two models of the criminal justice system: An organizational perspective. Law & Society Review, 7(3): 407-426. Feeley, M. and J. Simon. (1992). The new penology: Notes on the emerging strategy of corrections and its implications. Criminology, 30(4): 449-474. Foucault, M. (1979). Discipline and Punishment: The Birth of Prison. New York: Vintage Books. Frankel, M. (1972). Criminal Sentences: Law without Order. New York: Hill and Wang.

Garland, D. (2001). The Culture of Control: Crime and Social Order in Contemporary Society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Gottfredson, M. R. and D. M. Gottfredson. (1988). Decision Making in Criminal Justice: Toward the Rational Exercise of Discretion. (2nd ed.). New York: Plenum.

Lipsky, M. (1980). Street-Level Bureaucracy: The Dilemmas of the Individual in Public Services. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.

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Packer, H. L. (1968). The Limits of the Criminal Sanction. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. Petersilia, J. (2003). When Prisoners Come Home: Parole and Prisoner Reentry. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Reiman, J. (2007). The Rich Get Richer and the Poor Get Prison: Ideology, Class, and Criminal Justice. Boston: Pearson/Allyn & Bacon. Rothman, D. (1980). Conscience and Convenience: The Asylum and its Alternatives in Progressive America. Boston: Little Brown. Scheingold, S. A. (1984). The Politics of Law and Order: Street Crime and Public Policy. New York: Longman. Simon, J. (2007). Governing Through Crime: How the War on Crime Transformed American

Democracy and Created a Culture of Fear. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Skogan, W. (1990). Disorder and Decline: Crime and the Spiral Decay in American Neighborhoods. New York: Free Press. Tanenhaus, D. S. (2004). Juvenile Justice in the Making. New York: Oxford University Press. Tonry, M. H. (2004). Thinking About Crime: Sense and Sensibility in American Penal Culture. New York: Oxford University Press. Walker, S. (1992). Origins of the contemporary criminal justice paradigm: The American Bar

Foundation survey, 1953-1969. Justice Quarterly, 9(1): 47-76. Western, B. (2006). Punishment and Inequality in America. New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation. Criminal Justice Theory

Albonetti, C. (1987). Prosecutorial discretion: The effects of uncertainty. Law & Society Review, 21(2): 291-313.

Albonetti, C. (1991). An integration of theories to explain judicial discretion. Social Problems, 38(2): 247-266. Andrews, D. A., I. Zinger, R. D. Hoge, J. Bonta, P. Gendreau and F. T. Cullen. (1990). Does

correctional treatment work? A clinically-relevant and psychologically-informed meta-analysis. Criminology, 28(3): 369-404.

Bernard, T. J. and R. S. Engel. (2001). Conceptualizing criminal justice theory. Justice

Quarterly, 18(1): 1-30.

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Bernard, T. J., E. A. Paoline and P. P. Pare. (2005). General systems theory and criminal justice. Journal of Criminal Justice, 33(3): 203-211. Bittner, E. (1967). The police on skid-row: A study of peace keeping. American Sociological Review, 32: 699-715. Black, D. (1976). The Behavior of Law. New York: Academic Press. Black, D. (1983). Crime as social control. American Sociological Review, 48(1): 34-45. Blumberg, A. (1967). The practice of law as a confidence game: Organizational cooptation of a

profession. Law & Society Review, 1(2): 15-39. Church, T. (1985). Examining local legal culture. American Bar Foundation Research Journal,

10(3): 449-518.

Clear, T. R. (2007). Imprisoning Communities: How Mass Incarceration Makes Disadvantaged Neighborhoods Worse. New York: Oxford University Press. Crank, J. and R. Langworthy. (1992). An institutional perspective of policing. Journal of Criminal Law & Criminology, 83: 338-363. DiIulio, J. (1987). Governing Prisons: A Comparative Study of Correctional Management. New York, NY: The Free Press. Duffee, D. (1990). Explaining Criminal Justice: Community Theory and Criminal Justice Reform. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press. Duffee, D. and E. R. Maguire. (2007). Criminal Justice Theory: Explaining the Nature and

Behavior of Criminal Justice. New York, NY: Routledge. Eisenstein, J., R. Flemming and P. Nardulli. (1988). The Contours of Justice: Communities and their Courts. Boston: Little Brown and Company. Eisenstein, J. and H. Jacob. (1977). Felony Justice: An Organizational Analysis of Criminal Courts. Boston: Little, Brown and Company. Emerson, R. (1983). Holistic effects in social control decision-making. Law & Society Review,

17(3): 425-455. Farrell, R. and M. Holmes. (1993). The social and cognitive structure of legal decision-making. Sociological Quarterly, 32: 529-542. Goldstein, H. (1979). Improving policing: A problem-oriented approach. Crime & Delinquency, 24: 236-258.

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Goldstein, J. (1960). Police discretion no to invoke the criminal process: Low visibility decisions in the administration of justice. Yale Law Journal, 69(4): 543-594.

Hagan, J. (1989). Why is there so little criminal justice theory? Neglected macro-level links

between organization and power. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 26(2): 116-135.

Hawkins, D. (1987). Beyond anomalies: Rethinking the conflict perspective on race and criminal punishment. Social Forces, 65(3): 719-745. Jacobson, M. (2005). Downsizing Prisons: How to Reduce Crime and End Mass Incarceration.

New York: New York University Press. Klinger, D. A. (1997). Negotiating order in patrol work: An ecological theory of police response to deviance. Criminology, 35(2): 277-306. MacKenzie, D. L. and R. Brame. (2001). Community supervision, pro-social activities, and recidivism. Justice Quarterly, 18(2): 429-444. Mears, D. and S. Field. (2000). Theorizing sanctioning in a criminalized juvenile court.

Criminology, 38(4): 983-1019. Morris, N. (1992). Between Prison and Probation: Intermediate Punishment in a Rational Sentencing System. New York: Oxford University Press. Sherman, L. W. (1993). Defiance, deterrence, and irrelevance: A theory of the criminal sanction. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 30(4): 445-473. Simon, J. (1993). Poor Discipline: Parole and Its Social Control of the Underclass, 1890-1990. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Steffensmeier, D., J. Ulmer and J. Kramer. (1998). The interaction of race, gender and age in

criminal sentencing: The punishment cost of being young, black, and male. Criminology, 36(4): 763-797.

Sudnow, D. (1965). Normal crimes: Sociological features of the penal code in a public defender office. Social Problems, 12(3): 255-276. Sykes, G. (1958). The Society of Captives. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Tyler, T. R. (1990). Why People Obey the Law. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Van Maanen, J. (1973). Observations on the making of policemen. Human Organization, 33: 407-418.

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Wilson, J. (1968). Varieties of Police Behavior: The Management of Law and Order in Eight Communities. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Wilson, J. and G. Kelling. (1982). Broken windows: The police and neighborhood safety. Atlantic Monthly, 249(3): 29-38. Correlates of Decision-Making across the System Albonetti, C. (1998). Direct and indirect effects of case complexity, guilty pleas, and offender

characteristics on sentencing for offenders convicted of a white-collar offense prior to sentencing guidelines. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 14(4): 353-378.

Baumer, E., S. Messner and R. Felson. (2000). The role of victim characteristics in the

disposition of murder cases. Justice Quarterly, 17(2): 281-307. Black, D. (1971). The social organization of arrest. Stanford Law Review, 23: 1087-1111. Black, D. (1979). Common sense in the sociology of law. American Sociological Review, 44(1):

18-27. Braithwaite, J. and D. Biles. (1980). Empirical verification and Black's The Behavior of Law.

American Sociological Review, 45(2): 334-338. Britt, C. (2000). Social context and racial disparities in punishment decisions. Justice Quarterly,

17(4): 707-732. Engen, R. and R. Gainey. (2000a). Modeling the effects of legally relevant and extralegal factors

under sentencing guidelines: The rules have changed. Criminology, 38(4): 1207-1229. Engen, R. and R. Gainey. (2000b). Conceptualizing legally relevant factors under guidelines: A

reply to Ulmer. Criminology, 38(4): 1245-1252. Engen, R., R. Gainey, R. Crutchfield and J. Weis. (2003). Discretion and disparity under

sentencing guidelines: The role of departures and structured sentencing alternatives. Criminology, 41(1): 99-130.

Engel, R. and E. Silver. (2001). Policing mentally disordered suspects: A reexamination of the criminalization hypothesis. Criminology, 39(2): 225-252.

Felson, R., S. Messner and A. Hoskin. (1999). The victim-offender relationship and calling the

police in assaults. Criminology, 37(4): 931-947. Gottfredson, M. and M. Hindelang. (1979a). A study of the behavior of law. American

Sociological Review, 44(1): 3-18.

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Gottfredson, M. and M. Hindelang. (1979b). Theory and research in the sociology of law. American Sociological Review, 44(1): 27-37.

Gottfredson, M. and M. Hindelang. (1980). Trite but true. American Sociological Review, 45(2):

338-340. Hembroff, L. (1987). The seriousness of acts and social contexts: A test of Black's theory of the

behavior of law. American Journal of Sociology, 93(2): 322-347. Heumann, M. (1978). Plea Bargaining: The Experiences of Prosecutors, Judges, and Defense

Attorneys. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. Holleran, D. and C. Spohn. (2004). On the use of the total incarceration variable in sentencing

research. Criminology, 42(1): 211-240.

Huebner, B. M. and T. S. Bynum. (2006). An analysis of parole decision making using a sample of sex offenders: A focal concerns perspective. Criminology, 44(4): 961-991.

Johnson, B. (2006). The multilevel context of criminal sentencing: Integrating judge- and

county-level influences. Criminology, 44(2): 259-298. Kingsnorth, R., R. MacIntosh and S. Sutherland. (2002). Criminal charge or probation violation?

Prosecutorial discretion and implications for research in criminal court processing. Criminology, 40(3): 553-577.

Kingsnorth, R., R. MacIntosh and J. Wentworth. (1999). Sexual assault: The role of prior

relationship and victim characteristics in case processing. Justice Quarterly, 16(2): 275-302.

Klinger, D. (1994). Demeanor or crime? Why "hostile" citizens are more likely to be arrested.

Criminology, 32(3): 475-493. Kurlychek, M. and B. Johnson. (2004). The juvenile penalty: A comparison of juvenile and

young adult sentencing outcomes in criminal court. Criminology, 42(2): 485-517. Lichtenstein, M. (1984). Public defenders: Dimensions of cooperation. Justice System Journal,

9(1): 102-110. Lin, J., R. Grattet and J. Petersilia. (2010). "Back-end sentencing" and reimprisonment:

Individual, organizational, and community predictors of parole sanctioning decisions. Criminology, 48(3): 759-795.

Mastrofski, S., J. Snipes, J., R. Parks and C. Maxwell. (2000). The helping hand of the law:

Police control of citizens on request. Criminology, 38(2): 307-342.

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Mastrofski, S., J. Snipes and A. Supina. (1996). Compliance on demand: The public's response to specific police requests. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 33(3): 269-305.

Nardulli, P., R. Flemming and J. Eisenstein. (1985). Criminal courts and bureaucratic justice:

Concessions and consensus in the guilty plea process. Journal of Criminal Law & Criminology, 76(4): 1103-1131.

Piliavin, I. and S. Briar. (1964). Police encounter with juveniles. American Journal of Sociology, 70(2): 206-214.

Prottas, J. (1978). The power of the street-level bureaucrat in public service bureaucracies.

Urban Affairs Quarterly, 13(3): 285-312. Rosecrance, J. (1988). Maintaining the myth of individualized justice: Probation presentence reports. Justice Quarterly, 5(2): 235-256. Smith, D. (1986). The plea bargaining controversy. Journal of Criminal Law & Criminology,

77(3): 949-968. Smith, D. (1987). Police response to interpersonal violence: Defining the parameters of legal

control. Social Forces, 65(3): 767-782. Terrill, W., E. Paoline and P. Manning. (2003). Police culture and coercion. Criminology, 41(4):

1003-1034. Ulmer, J. (2000). The rules have changed --so proceed with caution: A comment on Engen and

Gainey's method for modeling sentencing outcomes under guidelines. Criminology, 38(4): 1231-1244.

Ulmer, J. and B. Johnson. (2004). Sentencing in context: A multilevel analysis. Criminology,

42(1): 137-177. Wooldredge, J. (1998). Analytical rigor in studies of disparities in criminal case processing.

Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 14(2): 155-179. Worden, A. (1996). The judge's role in plea bargaining: An analysis of judges' agreement with

prosecutors' sentencing recommendations. Justice Quarterly, 12(2): 257-278. Worden, R. and R. Shepard. (1996). Demeanor, crime, and police behavior: A reexamination of

the Police Services Study data. Criminology, 34(1): 83-105. Sex, Race/Ethnicity, and Class and Criminal Justice Processing Alexander, M. (2010). The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness. New York, NY: The New Press.

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Belknap, J. (2007). The Invisible Woman: Gender, Crime, and Justice (3rd edition). Belmont, CA, Wadsworth Publishing Company. Bishop, D. M. and C. E. Frazier. (1988). The influence of race in juvenile justice processing.

Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 25(3): 242-263. Blumstein, A. (1982). On the disproportionality of the United States' prison populations. Journal of Criminal Law & Criminology, 73: 1259-1281. Conley, D. (1994). Adding color to a black and white picture: Using qualitative data to explain

racial disproportionality in the juvenile justice system. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 31(2): 135-148.

Crew, B. K. (1991). Sex differences in criminal sentencing: Chivalry or patriarchy? Justice Quarterly, 8: 59-83. Demuth, S. (2003). Racial and ethnic differences in pretrial release decisions and outcomes: A

comparison of Hispanic, Black, and White felony arrestees. Criminology, 41(3): 873-907. Eitle, D. (2000). Regulatory justice: A re-examination of the influence of class position on the

punishment of white-collar crime. Justice Quarterly, 17(4): 809-839. Engel, R., J. Calnon and T. Bernard. (2002). Theory and racial profiling: Shortcomings and

future directions in research. Justice Quarterly, 19(2): 249-274. Feld, B. (1999). Bad Kids: Race and the Transformation of the Juvenile Court. New York: Oxford. Huizinga, D. and D. Elliot. (1987). Juvenile offenders: Prevalence, offender incidence, and arrest

rates by race. Crime & Delinquency, 33(2): 206-223. Johnson, B. (2003). Racial and ethnic disparities in sentencing departures across modes of

conviction. Criminology, 41(2): 449-489. Kennedy, R. (1997). Race, Crime, and the Law. New York: Vintage Books Kleck, G. (1981). Racial discrimination in criminal sentencing: A critical evaluation of the

evidence with additional evidence on the death penalty. American Sociological Review, 46(6): 783-805.

Koons-Witt, B. (2002). The effect of gender on the decision to incarcerate before and after the

introduction of sentencing guidelines. Criminology, 40(2): 297-327. Kruttschnitt, C. and R. Gartner. (2005). Marking Time in the Golden State: Women's Imprisonment in California. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

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Langan, P. (2001). Effect of choice of measure on the size of a racial disparity. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 17(3): 273-290.

Leiber, M. and K. Mack. (2003). The individual and joint effects of race, gender, and family

status on juvenile justice decision-making. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 40(1): 34-70.

Lizotte, A. (1978). Extra-legal factors in Chicago's criminal courts: Testing the conflict model of

criminal justice. Social Problems, 25(5): 564-580. Myers, M. and S. Talarico. (1986). The social contexts of racial discrimination in sentencing.

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Paternoster, R. (1984). Prosecutorial discretion in requesting the death penalty: A case of victim- based racial discrimination. Law & Society Review, 18(3): 437-478.

Poole, E. and R. Regoli. (1980). Race, institutional rule breaking, and disciplinary response: A

study of discretionary decision making in prison. Law & Society Review, 14(4): 931-946. Radelet, M. and G. Pierce. (1985). Race and prosecutorial discretion in homicide cases. Law &

Society Review, 19(4): 587-621. Sampson, R. and J. Laub. (1993). Structural variations in juvenile court processing: Inequality,

the underclass, and social control. Law & Society Review, 27(2): 285-311. Simpson, S. (1989). Feminist theory, crime, and justice. Criminology, 27(4): 605-631. Smith, D., C. Visher and L. Davidson. (1984). Equity and discretionary justice: The influence of

race on police arrest decisions. Journal of Criminal Law & Criminology, 75(1): 234-249.

Spohn, C. (2000). Thirty years of sentencing reform: The quest for a racially neutral sentencing process. Criminal Justice, 3: 427-501.

Spohn, C. and D. Holleran. (2000). The imprisonment penalty paid by younger, unemployed

black and Hispanic male offenders. Criminology, 38(1): 281-306. Steen, S., R. Engen and R. Gainey. (2005). Images of danger: Racial stereotyping, case processing, and criminal sentencing. Criminology, 43: 435-468. Steffensmeier, D. and C. Britt. (2001). Judges' race and judicial decision making: Do black

judges sentence differently? Social Science Quarterly, 82(4): 749-764. Steffensmeier, D. and S. Demuth. (2001). Ethnicity and judges sentencing decisions: Hispanic-

Black-White comparisons. Criminology, 39(1): 145-178.

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Visher, C.A. (1982). Gender, police arrest decisions and notions of chivalry. Criminology, 21(1): 5-28. Walker, S., C. Spohn, C. and M. DeLone. (2012). The Color of Justice: Race and Ethnicity in

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