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8/2/2019 Science and Islam Muzaffar Iqbal
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ScienceandIslam
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RecentTitlesinGreenwoodGuidestoScienceandReligion
ScienceandReligion,14501900:FromCopernicustoDarwin
RichardG.
Olson
ScienceandReligion,400B.C.toA.D.1550:FromAristotle
toCopernicus
EdwardGrant
ScienceandNonbelief
TanerEdis
JudaismandScience:AHistoricalIntroduction
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NoahJ.Efron
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ScienceandIslam
MUZAFFARIQBAL
GreenwoodGuidestoScienceandReligion
RichardOlson,SeriesEditor
GreenwoodPress
Westport,ConnecticutLondon
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LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData
Iqbal,Muzaffar.Scienceandislam/MuzaffarIqbal.
p.cm.(Greenwoodguidesto
scienceandreligion)Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.ISBN-13:9780313335761(alk.paper)ISBN-10:
0313335761(alk.paper)1.Islamandscience.I.Title.BP190.5.S3I6722007297.265dc222007000423
BritishLibraryCataloguinginPublicationDataisavailable.
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CopyrightC
2007byMuzaffarIqbalAllrightsreserved.Noportionofthisbookmaybereproduced,byanyprocessortechnique,
withouttheexpresswrittenconsentofthepublisher.
LibraryofCongress
CatalogCardNumber:2007000423ISBN-13:9780313335761ISBN-10:0313335761
Firstpublishedin
2007
GreenwoodPress,88PostRoadWest,Westport,
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CT06881AnimprintofGreenwoodPublishingGroup,Inc.www.greenwood.com
PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica
Thepaper
usedinthisbookcomplieswiththePermanentPaperStandardissuedbythe
NationalInformationStandardsOrganization(Z39.481984).
10987654321
Theauthor
andthepublishergratefullyacknowledgepermissiontoexcerptmaterialfrom
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thefollowingsources:
YaqubibnIshaqal-Kindi,OnFirstPhilosophy(fial-Falsafahal-Ula).TranslatedbyAlfred
L.Ivry.Albany:State
UniversityofNewYorkPress,1974,pp.7075.Reprintedbypermissionofthe
StateUniversityofNewYorkPress.Allrightsreserved.IbnSina-al-BiruniCorrespondence,al-Asilah
wal-Ajwibah.TranslatedbyRafikBerjakandMuzaffarIqbal,Islamand
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Science,Vol.1,Nos.1and2,2003,pp.9198and253-260.CourtesyoftheCenterforIslamandScience.
AbuAli
al-HusaynibnAbdAllahIbnSina,TheCanonofMedicine(al-Qanunfiltibb).
AdaptedbyLalehBakhtiarfromthetranslationbyO.CameronGrunerandMazar
H.Shah.Chicago:KaziPublications,1999,pp.1114.Courtesyof
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theGreatBooksoftheIslamicWorld,KaziPublications.
AbuBakrMuhammadbinTufayl,HayyibnYaqzan,ed.L
eonGauthier,
Beirut,1936,pp.7078,especiallytranslatedfortheCenterforIslamandScience
byYashabTur.
Everyreasonableefforthasbeenmadetotrace
theownersofcopyrightedmaterialsinthisbook,butin
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someinstancesthishasprovenimpossible.Theauthorandpublisherwillbegladtoreceiveinformationleadingtomorecompleteacknowledgmentsinsubsequentprintings
ofthebookandinthemeantimeextendtheirapologiesforanyomissions.
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Contents
SeriesForewordviiPrefacexvAcknowledgmentsxxiiiChronologyofEventsxxv
Chapter1Introduction1Chapter2Aspects
ofIslamicScientificTradition
(theeighthtothesixteenthcenturies)9
Chapter3FacetsoftheIslamandScienceRelationship
(theeighth
tothesixteenthcenturies)29Chapter4TheMosque,the
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Laboratory,andtheMarket
(theeighthtothesixteenthcenturies)61Chapter5Islam,Transmission,andtheDeclineofIslamic
Science103Chapter6IslamandModernScience:TheColonialEra
(18001950)131Chapter7IslamandModernScience:ContemporaryIssues159PrimarySources
189AnnotatedBibliography213Index227
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SeriesForeword
Fornearly2,500years,someconservativemembersofsocietieshaveexpressedconcernabouttheactivitiesofthosewhosought
tofindanaturalisticexplanationfornaturalphenomena.In429BCE,forexample,
thecomicplaywright,AristophanesparodiedSocratesassomeonewhostudiedthephenomenaof
theatmosphere,turningtheawe-inspiringthunderwhichhadseemedto
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expressthewrathofZeusintonothingbutthefartingoftheclouds.Suchactions,Aristophanesargued,wereblasphemousandwouldunderminealltradition,
law,andcustom.AmongearlyChristianspokespersonsthereweresome,suchasTertullian,
whoalsocriticizedthosewhosoughttounderstandthenaturalworldonthe
groundsthattheypersistinapplyingtheirstudiestoa
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vainpurpose,sincetheyindulgetheircuriosityonnaturalobjects,whichtheyoughtrather[direct]totheirCreatorandGovernor.1
Inthe
twentiethcentury,thoughageneraldistrustofsciencepersistedamongsomeconservativegroups,
themostintenseoppositionwasreservedforthetheoryofevolutionbynatural
selection.Typicalofextremeantievolutioncommentsisthefollowingopinion
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offeredbyJudgeBraswellDeanoftheGeorgiaCourtofAppeals:ThismonkeymythologyofDarwinisthecauseofpermissiveness,promiscuity,pills,prophylactics,
perversions,pregnancies,abortions,pornography,pollution,poisoning,andproliferationofcrimesofalltypes.2
Itcanhardlybesurprisingthatthosecommittedtothestudy
ofnaturalphenomenarespondedtotheirdenigratorsinkind,accusing
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themofwillfulignoranceandofrepressivebehavior.Thus,whenGalileoGalileiwaswarnedagainstholdingandteachingtheCopernicansystemofastronomyas
true,hewieldedhisbrilliantlyironicpenandthrewdowna
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SeriesForeword
gauntlettoreligiousauthoritiesinanintroductoryletterTotheDiscerningReaderatthebeginningofhisgreatDialogue
ConcerningtheTwoChiefWorldSystems:
SeveralyearsAgotherewas
publishedinRomeasalutoryedictwhich,inordertoobviatethedangerous
tendenciesofourage,imposedaseasonablesilenceuponthe
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Pythagorean[andCopernican]opinionthattheearthmoves.Therewerethosewhoimpudentlyassertedthatthisdecreehaditsorigin,notinjudiciousinquiry,
butinpassionnonetoowellinformed.Complaintsweretobeheardthat
advisorswhoweretotallyunskilledatastronomicalobservationsoughtnottoclipthe
wingsofreflectiveintellectsbymeansofrashprohibitions.
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Uponhearingsuchcarpinginsolence,myzealcouldnotbecontained.3
NocontemporarydiscerningreadercouldhavemissedGalileosangerand
disdainforthoseheconsideredenemiesoffreescientificinquiry.
Even
morebitterthanGalileowasThomasHenryHuxley,oftenknownasDarwinsbulldog.
In1860,afterafamousconfrontationwiththeAnglicanBishop
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SamuelWilberforce,Huxleybemoanedthepersecutionsufferedbymanynaturalphilosophers,butthenhereflectedthatthescientistswereexactingtheirrevenge:
Extinguishedtheologianslieaboutthecradleofeveryscienceasthestrangledsnakes
besidethatofHercules;andhistoryrecordsthatwheneverscienceandorthodoxyhave
beenfairlyopposed,thelatterhasbeenforcedtoretire
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fromthelists,bleedingandcrushed,ifnotannihilated;scotchedifnotslain.4
Theimpressionleft,consideringthesecolorfulcomplaintsfromboth
sides,isthatscienceandreligionmustcontinuallybeatwarwithone
another.Thatviewoftherelationbetweenscienceandreligionwasreinforcedby
AndrewDicksonWhitesAHistoryoftheWarfareofScience
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withTheologyinChristendom,whichhasseldombeenoutofprintsinceitwaspublishedasatwo-volumeworkin1896.Whitesviewshave
shapedthelayunderstandingofscienceandreligioninteractionsformorethana
century,butrecentandmorecarefulscholarshiphasshownthatconfrontationalstancesdo
notrepresenttheviewsoftheoverwhelmingmajorityofeither
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scientificinvestigatorsorreligiousfiguresthroughouthistory.
Oneresponseamongthosewhohavewishedtodenythatconflictconstitutesthemostfrequent
relationshipbetweenscienceandreligionistoclaimthattheycannotbein
conflictbecausetheyaddresscompletelydifferenthumanneedsandthereforehavenothingto
dowithoneanother.ThiswasthepositionofImmanuel
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Kant,whoinsistedthattheworldofnaturalphenomena,withitsdependenceondeterministiccausality,isfundamentallydisjointedfromthenoumenalworldofhuman
choiceandmorality,whichconstitutesthedomainofreligion.Muchmorerecently,it
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SeriesForeword
wasthepositiontakenbyStephenJayGouldinRocksofAges:ScienceandReligionintheFullnessof
Life(1999).Gouldwrites:
I...donotunderstandwhythe
twoenterprisesshouldexperienceanyconflict.Sciencetriestodocumentthefactualcharacter
ofthenaturalworldandtodeveloptheoriesthatcoordinate
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andexplainthesefacts.Religion,ontheotherhand,operatesintheequallyimportant,bututterlydifferentrealmofhumanpurposes,meanings,andvalues.5
Inordertocapturethedisjunctionbetweenscienceandreligion,Gould
enunciatesaprincipleofNon-overlappingmagisterial,whichheidentifiesasaprincipleof
respectfulnoninterference.6
Inspiteoftheintensedesire
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ofthosewhowishtoisolatescienceandreligionfromoneanotherinordertoprotecttheautonomyofone,theother,orboth,
therearemanyreasonstobelievethattheirsisultimatelyanimpossibletask.
Oneofthecentralquestionsaddressedbymanyreligionsis,whatisthe
relationshipbetweenmembersofthehumancommunityandthenatural
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world.ThisquestionisacentralquestionaddressedinGenesis,forexample.Anyattempttorelatehumanandnaturalexistencedependsheavilyonthe
understandingofnaturethatexistswithinaculture.Sowherenatureisstudied
throughscientificmethods,scientificknowledgeisunavoidablyincorporatedintoreligiousthought.Theneed
tounderstandGenesisintermsofthedominantunderstandingsof
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naturethusgaverisetoatraditionofscientificallyinformedcommentariesonthesixdaysofcreationwhichconstitutedamajorgenreofChristian
literaturefromtheearlydaysofChristianitythroughtheRenaissance.
It
isalsowidelyunderstoodthatinrelativelysimplecultureseventhoseofearlyurban
centersthereisalowlevelofculturalspecialization,soeconomic,
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religious,andknowledgeproducingspecialtiesarehighlyintegrated.InBronzeAgeMesopotamia,forexample,agriculturalactivitiesweregovernedbothbyknowledgeofthephysical
conditionsnecessaryforsuccessfulfarmingandbyreligiousritualsassociatedwithplowing,planting,
irrigating,andharvesting.Thusreligiouspracticesandnaturalknowledgeinteractedinestablishingthe
characterandtimingoffarmingactivities.
Evenin
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verycomplexindustrialsocietieswithhighlevelsofspecializationanddivisionoflabor,thevariousculturalspecialtiesarenevercompletelyisolatedfromoneanother
andtheysharemanycommonvaluesandassumptions.Giventhelinkednatureof
virtuallyallinstitutionsinanycultureitisthecasethatwheneither
religiousorscientificinstitutionschangesubstantially,thosechangesarelikely
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toproducepressuresforchangeintheother.Itwasprobablytrue,forexample,thattheattemptsofpre-Socraticinvestigatorsofnature,withtheir
emphasisonuniformitiesin
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SeriesForeword
thenaturalworldandapparentexamplesofeventssystematicallydirectedtowardparticularends,madeitdifficulttosustainbeliefs
intheoldpantheonofhuman-likeandfundamentallycapriciousOlympiangods.Butit
isequallytruethattheattemptstounderstandnaturepromotedanewnotion
ofthedivineanotionthatwasbothmonotheisticandtranscendent,
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ratherthanpolytheisticandimmanentandanotionthatfocusedonbothjusticeandintellectratherthanpowerandpassion.ThusearlyGreeknaturalphilosophy
undoubtedlyplayedarolenotsimplyinchallenging,butalsointransformingGreek
religioussensibilities.
Transformingpressuresdonotalwaysrunfromscientificto
religiousdomains,moreover.DuringtheRenaissance,therewasadramatic
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changeamongChristianintellectualsfromonethatfocusedonthecontemplationofGodsworkstoonethatfocusedontheresponsibilityoftheChristian
forcaringforhisfellowhumans.Theactivelifeofservicetohumankind,
ratherthanthecontemplativelifeofreflectiononGodscharacterandworks,now
becametheChristianidealformany.Asaconsequenceof
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thisnewfocusontheactivelife,Renaissanceintellectualsturnedawayfromthethen-dominantAristotelianviewofscience,whichsawtheinabilityoftheoretical
sciencestochangetheworldasapositivevirtue.Theyreplacedthisunderstanding
withanewviewofnaturalknowledge,promotedinthewritingsofmen
suchasJohannAndreaeinGermanyandFrancisBaconin
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England,whichviewednaturalknowledgeassignificantonlybecauseitgavehumankindtheabilitytomanipulatetheworldtoimprovethequalityoflife.
Naturalknowledgewouldhenceforthbeprizedbymanybecauseitconferredpowerover
thenaturalworld.Modernsciencethustookonadistinctlyutilitarianshapeat
leastinpartinresponsetoreligiouschanges.
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Neithertheconflictmodelnortheclaimofdisjunction,then,accuratelyreflecttheoftenintenseandfrequentlysupportiveinteractionsbetweenreligiousinstitutions,practices,ideas,
andattitudesontheonehand,andscientificinstitutions,practices,ideas,andattitudes
ontheother.Withoutdenyingtheexistenceoftensions,theprimarygoalof
thevolumesofthisseriesistoexplorethevast
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domainofmutuallysupportiveand/ortransformativeinteractionsbetweenscientificinstitutions,practices,andknowledgeandreligiousinstitutions,practices,andbeliefs.Asecondgoalisto
offertheopportunitytomakecomparisonsacrossspace,time,andculturalconfiguration.The
serieswillcovertheentireglobe,mostmajorfaithtraditions,hunter-gatherersocietiesin
AfricaandOceaniaaswellasadvancedindustrialsocietiesin
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theWest,andthespanoftimefromclassicalantiquitytothepresent.Eachvolumewillfocusonaparticularculturaltradition,aparticular
faithcommunity,aparticulartimeperiod,oraparticularscientificdomain,sothat
eachreadercanenterthefascinatingstoryofscienceandreligioninteractionsfrom
afamiliarperspective.
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SeriesForeword
Furthermore,eachvolumewillincludenotonlyasubstantialnarrativeorinterpretivecore,butalsoasetofprimary
documentsthatwillallowthereadertoexplorerelevantevidence,anextensiveannotated
bibliographytoleadthecurioustoreliablescholarshiponthetopic,anda
chronologyofeventstohelpthereaderkeeptrackof
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thesequenceofeventsinvolvedandtorelatethemtomajorsocialandpoliticaloccurrences.
SofarIhaveusedthewords
scienceandreligionasifeveryoneknowsandagreesabouttheirmeaningand
asiftheywereequallyappropriatelyappliedacrossplaceandtime.Neitherof
theseassumptionsistrue.Scienceandreligionaremodernterms
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thatreflectthewaythatweintheindustrializedWestorganizeourconceptuallives.EveninthemodernWest,whatwemeanbyscience
andreligionislikelytodependonourpoliticalorientation,ourscholarlybackground,
andthefaithcommunitythatwebelongto.Thus,forexample,Marxistsand
Socialiststendtofocusontheapplicationofnaturalknowledge
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asthekeyelementindefiningscience.AccordingtotheBritishMarxistscholar,BenjaminFarrington,Scienceisthesystemofbehaviorbywhichman
hasacquiredmasteryofhisenvironment.Ithasitsoriginsintechniques...
invariousactivitiesbywhichmankeepsbodyandsoultogether.Itssource
isexperience,itsaims,practical,itsonlytest,thatit
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works.7Manyofthosewhostudynaturalknowledgeinpre-industrialsocietiesarealsoprimarilyinterestedinknowledgeasitisusedandarerelatively
openregardingthekindofentitiespositedbythedevelopersofculturallyspecific
naturalknowledgesystemsorlocalsciences.Thus,inhisZapotecScience:Farmingand
FoodintheNorthernSierraofOaxaca,RobertoGonz
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alezinsiststhat
Zapotecfarmers...certainlypracticescience,asdoesanysocietywhosemembersengageinsubsistenceactivities.Theyhypothesize,theymodel
problems,theyexperiment,theymeasureresults,andtheydistributeknowledgeamongpeersand
toyoungergenerations.Buttheytypicallyproceedfrommarkedlydifferentpremisesthatis,from
differentconceptualbasesthantheircounterpartsinindustrializedsocieties.8
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AmongthedifferentpremisesisthepresumptionofZapotecscientiststhatunobservablespiritentitiesplayasignificantroleinnaturalphenomena.
Those
morecommittedtoliberalpluralistsocietyandtowhatanthropologistslikeGonz
alezareinclinedtoidentifyascosmopolitansciencetendtofocusonscience
asasourceofobjectiveordisinterestedknowledge,disconnectedfrom
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itsuses.Moreover,theygenerallyrejectthepositingofunobservableentities,whichtheycharacterizeassupernatural.Thus,inanamicuscuriaebrieffiledin
connectionwiththe1986SupremeCourtcasethattestedLouisianaslawrequiringthe
teachingofcreationscience
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SeriesForeword
alongwithevolution,forexample,seventy-twoNobellaureates,seventeenstateacademiesofscience,andsevenotherscientificorganizationsargued
that
Scienceisdevotedtoformulatingandtestingnaturalisticexplanationsfor
naturalphenomena.Itisaprocessforsystematicallycollectingandrecordingdataabout
thephysicalworld,thencategorizingandstudyingthecollecteddata
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inanefforttoinfertheprinciplesofnaturethatbestexplaintheobservedphenomena.Scienceisnotequippedtoevaluatesupernaturalexplanationsfor
ourobservations;withoutpassingjudgementonthetruthorfalsityofsupernaturalexplanations,
scienceleavestheirconsiderationtothedomainofreligiousfaith.9
No
referencewhatsoevertousesappearsinthisdefinition.Andits
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specificunwillingnesstoadmitspeculationregardingsupernaturalentitiesintosciencereflectsasocietyinwhichculturalspecializationhasproceededmuchfartherthaninthe
villagefarmingcommunitiesofsouthernMexico.
Inasimilarway,secular
anthropologistsandsociologistsareinclinedtodefinethekeyfeaturesofreligionin
averydifferentwaythanmembersofmodernChristianfaith
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communities.Anthropologistsandsociologistsfocusoncommunalritualsandpracticesthataccompanymajorcollectiveandindividualeventsplowing,planting,harvesting,threshing,hunting,preparationforwar
(orpeace),birth,theachievementofmanhoodorwomanhood,marriage(inmanycultures),
childbirth,anddeath.Moreover,theytendtoseethemajorconsequenceofreligious
practicesastheintensificationofsocialcohesion.ManyChristians,on
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theotherhand,viewtheprimarygoaloftheirreligionaspersonalsalvation,viewingsocietyasatbestasupportivestructureandatworst
adistractionfromtheirownprivatespiritualquest.
Thus,scienceand
religionarefarfromuniformlyunderstood.Moreover,theyaremodernWesternconstructsor
categorieswhoseapplicabilitytothetemporalandspatialothermust
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alwaysbejustifiedandmustalwaysbeunderstoodastheimpositionofmodernwaysofstructuringinstitutions,behaviors,andbeliefsonacontextin
whichtheycouldnothavebeencategoriesunderstoodbytheactorsinvolved.Nonetheless
itdoesseemtousnotsimplypermissible,butprobablynecessarytouse
thesecategoriesatthestartofanyattempttounderstand
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howactorsfromothertimesandplacesinteractedwiththenaturalworldandwiththeirfellowhumans.Itmayultimatelybepossibleforhistorians
andanthropologiststounderstandthepracticesofpersonsdistantintimeand/orspace
intermsthatthosepersonsmightuse.Butthatprocessmustbeginby
likeningtheactionsofotherstothosethatweunderstand
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fromourownexperience,evenifthelikenessesareinexactandinneedofqualification.
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SeriesForeword
Theeditorsofthisserieshavenotimposedanyparticulardefinitionofscienceorofreligionontheauthors,
expectingthateachauthorwilldevelopeitherexplicitorimplicitdefinitionsthatare
appropriatetotheirownscholarlyapproachesandtothetopicsthattheyhave
beenassignedtocover.
RichardOlson
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NOTES
1.Tertullian.18961903.Adnationes,inPeterHolmes,trans.,TheAnti-NiceneFathers,ed.AlexanderRobertsandJamesDonaldson,vol.3(New
York:CharlesScribnersSons),p.133.2.ChristopherToumey,GodsOwnScientists:Creationists
inaSecularWorld.(NewBrunswick,NJ:RutgersUniversityPress,1994),p.94.
3.GalileoGalilei,DialogueConcerningtheTwoChiefWorldSystems:
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PtolemaicandCopernican(BerkeleyandLosAngeles:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1953),p.5.4.JamesR.Moore,ThePost-DarwinianControversies:AStudyof
theProtestantStruggletoCometoTermswithDarwininGreatBritainand
America,18701900.(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1979),p.60.5.StephenJayGould,
RocksofAges:ScienceandReligionintheFullnessof
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Life(NewYork:TheBallantinePublishingGroup,1999),p.4.6.Ibid.,p.5.7.BenjaminFarrington,GreekScience(Baltimore:PenguinBooks,1953).8.
RobertoGonzales,ZapotecScience:FarmingandFoodintheNorthernSierraofOaxaca
(Austin:UniversityofTexasPress,2001),p.3.9.72NobelLaureates,17
StateAcademiesofScienceand7OtherScientificOrganizations.Amicus
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CuriaeBriefinsupportofAppellesDonAguilardetal.v.EdwinEdwardsinhisofficialcapacityasGovernorofLouisianaetal.(1986),
p.24.
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Preface
ThestoryoftherelationshipbetweenIslamandsciencecanbetoldfromavarietyofperspectives,rangingfromthe
sociologicaltothehistoricalandfromthemetaphysicaltothescientific.Themethodology
usedforthisnarrativedepends,toalargeextent,onhowoneperceives
thenatureoftherelationshipbetweenIslamandscience.It
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is,therefore,importanttostateattheoutsetthewayinwhichthisstorywillbetoldinthisbook.
Thisquestion
ofperspectiveandmethodologyhasbecomeevenmoreimportantinrecentyears,because
theenormousamountoftheoreticalworkpublishedbyscholarsworkinginthefield
ofscienceandChristianityintheWesthasestablisheda
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certainmodelforexploringissuesrelatedtotheinteractionbetweenscienceandreligion,andthismodelseemstohavegainedgeneralacceptability.Inthis
model,whichcanbecalledthetwo-entitymodel,scienceandreligionaretaken
astwoseparateentities.Thesetwodefinitivelydistinctentitiesarethenpositedagainst
eachotherandareallowedavarietyofpossiblemodes
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ofinteraction,suchasconflict,independence,dialogue,andintegration(Barbour2000).Thisvariety,however,iswithinthetwo-entitymodel;inotherwords,theseways
ofexplainingtherelationshipbetweenscienceandreligionallassumethatscienceand
religionaretwoseparateentitiesthathaveafinitenumberofpossiblemodes
ofinteraction.Eachofthesemodescanbefurthersubdivided
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intovariouspossibilities,refined,classified,andgradedintermsofthedegreeofinteractionbeingstrongorweak,butthemodelitselfremainsanchored
inthefoundationalparadigmthatconsidersthetwophenomenaseparateanddistinctentities.
Thetwo-entitymodelhasevolvedfromaspecificcultural,historical,and
scientificbackground,anditissupportedbyepisodesfromthe
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history
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xviPreface
ofinteractionbetweenscienceandChristianityintheWesternworld.Itis,however,nowbeingclaimedthatthismodel
isuniversal,andcanbeusedtounderstandtherelationshipbetweenallscientific
traditionsandallreligions(Barbour2002).Whilethismodelhasbeencriticizedfor
certainshortcomings,thiscriticismhasforthemostpartitself
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remainedwithinthetwo-entityframework(CantorandKenny2001).Sincescienceasweunderstandittodayisgenerallytakentobethatenterpriseborne
oftheEuropeanScientificRevolutionoftheseventeenthcentury,andsincethisparticular
scientifictraditionhashadaseriesofconflictswithChristianity,theconflictmodel
hasgainedcredibilitybothinthescholarlyworldaswell
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asinthepopularmind.Furthermore,sincethesciencebegottenbytheEuropeanScientificRevolutionhasnowspreadtoallcornersoftheworld,
theparticularhistoryoftheinteractionofscienceandthefaithalsoseems
tohaveaccompaniedthisspreadofscience:theonlyadjustmentdeemednecessaryis
thesubstitutionofChristianitywithIslamorotherreligionsof
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theworld.
Thismodelisbeingappliedretroactivelytothehistoricalinteractionbetweenvariousreligionsandphilosophiesforexample,theGreek,Roman,and
Islamicscientifictraditions.Ithasthusbecomepopulartosearchout,forexample,
instancesofconflictorcooperationbetweenIslamandthescientifictraditionthatemerged
inIslamiccivilization.Thisapproachmakesnodistinctionbetweenpremodern
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andmodernscienceasfarastheirphilosophicalfoundationsareconcerned,despitethebasicdifferencesbetweentheworldviewsthatgavebirthtothetwo
scientifictraditions.
Giventhisbackground,wemustfirstaskabasic
question:isthetwo-entitymodelarisingoutofaparticularcultural,historical,and
scientificbackgroundtrulyapplicabletoallreligionsandallscientifictraditions?
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Thismodelcanonlybeapplicabletoallreligiousandscientifictraditionsif
1.naturethesubjectmatterofscienceandits
relationshipwithbothGodandhumanityisunderstoodinthesamewayin
allreligioustraditions;2.thefoundationalsourcetextsofallreligionsareparallel
totheBibleintheepistemological,metaphysical,andsemanticstructures
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theyimply;and3.scienceinallcivilizationsisanenterprisethathasremainedthesameovercenturiesastoitsfoundations.Whatwe
have,however,isasituationwhereeventhetermsciencehasnoacceptable
universaldefinition(Ratzsch,2000,11).Furthermore,neithernaturenorsciencenortheirmutual
relationshipsareconceiveduniformlyacrossreligioustraditionsorevenwithin
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asingletraditionovercenturies.Thetwo-entitymodelbecomesespeciallyproblematicwhenwe
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Prefacexvii
takeintoaccountdevelopmentsinthehistoryofphilosophyofscience.Mostphilosophersofscienceagreethatwhatwe
nowtermscienceisnotalabelthatcanbeevenlyappliedto
theinvestigationofnatureinallerasandallcivilizations:thatis,the
termscience(howeveronedefinesit)restsuponanumber
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ofconceptualpresuppositionspeculiartothatcivilization,formedbythesocial,cultural,andhistoricalethosofthatspecificcivilization.Whatisknownasscience
todayisgenerallyunderstoodtobethatenterprisebegunintheseventeenthcentury,
builtonthespectacularexperimentsandtheoriesofGalileo(15641642),Kepler(15711630),and
Newton(16421727),andlaterentrenchedinthesocial,economic,academic,
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andculturalinstitutionsofWesterncivilization.Infact,theemergenceofthisparticularscientifictraditionhaschangedtheveryconceptofscienceasit
existedpriortotheseventeenthcentury.Manycontemporaryhistoriansofsciencetendto
termscientificactivitypriortotheemergenceoftheseventeenthcenturyanddating
backtwothousandyearstoGreeceasNaturalPhilosophyrather
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thanscience.
Furthermore,theparticularhistoryoftherelationshipbetweenmodernscienceandChristianityisespeciallyinapplicabletoIslam,sincethereis
nochurchinIslam,noecclesiasticauthoritythatcouldhaveenteredintointeraction
withscientistsandscientificinstitutionsinanyformalizedconcreteform.Thereisno
PopewhocouldhaveestablishedtheHolyOfficeofthe
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Inquisition,asPopePaulIIIdidin1542,orwhocouldhaveissuedanIndexofProhibitedBooksorencyclicsonIslamandscience.
ThisisnottosaythatIslamicreligiousthoughtiswithoutitsown
internalconflictsandtherewillbemuchmentionoftheseinsubsequentchaptersbut
tounderscorethereasonswhythetwo-entitymodel,oftenused
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todescribetheinteractionofChristianityandscience,isinapplicabletothecaseofIslam(andpossiblyotherreligioustraditions).
Thereis
noknownscientistorreligiousscholarbetweentheeighthandseventeenthcenturieswho
felttheneedtodescribetherelationshipbetweenscienceandreligionbycomposing
abookonthesubject.ThisabsenceofIslamand
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scienceasadifferentiateddisciplineisproofinitselfthatduringtheselongcenturieswhentheIslamicscientifictraditionwastheworldsmostadvancedenterprise
ofsciencenoonefelttheneedtorelatethetwothroughsomeexternal
construct.Whentheneeddidarise,itaroseinanentirelydifferentcontext
andinanentirelydifferenterathatis,withthe
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arrivalofmodernscienceinthelandsofIslamduringcolonizationoftheMuslimworld.
Asmentioned,Islamdoesnotviewnature
asaself-subsistingentitythatcanbestudiedinisolationfromitsall-embracing
viewofGod,humanity,andthecosmologicalsettinginwhichhumanhistoryis
unfolding.Furthermore,inIslamicclassificationofknowledge,sciencethedisciplinethat
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studiesnatureistakenasbutonebranchofknowledge,integrally
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xviiiPreface
connectedwithallotherbranchesofknowledge,allofwhicharelinkedtotheconceptofTawhid,theOneness
ofGod.Thus,theIslamictraditiondoesnotregardanydisciplineofknowledge
independentofotherdisciplines.Forthisreason,theconnectorandinthephrase
Islamandsciencedoesnotattempttoconnecttwoseparate
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entities,rather,itisusedhereasacopula.ThereisalsoafundamentaldifferencebetweenthenatureofsciencethatexistedinIslamic
civilizationbetweentheeighthandsixteenthcenturiesandmodernscience;theyapproachnature
intwoverydifferentmannersandhenceonecannotusethesamemethodology
fornarratingthestoriesoftheinteractionofIslamwith
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bothpremodernandmodernscience.
Thisdivisionisnotarbitrarybutisborneoutofthesubjectmatteritself:thescienceprior
tothearrivalofmodernscienceintheMuslimworldhaditsown
distinctmodeofinteractionwithIslambecauseitarosefromwithinthegreater
matrixofIslamiccivilization.Ofcourse,thesewaysofinteraction
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didnotexistinvacuum;theyexistedwithinthelargerintellectualuniverseofIslamauniversethathaditsshareofsharpedgesanddiscordant
voices,butwhichwas,nonetheless,auniverseshapedbytheQuranicworldview.
WiththearrivalofmodernWesternscienceintheMuslimworld,Islam
andsciencediscourseenteredanewperiod.Becausethisarrival
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coincidedwiththecolonizationoftheMuslimworlditwasaccompaniedbynumerousotherfactors,includingtheeconomic,political,andmilitaryagendasofthe
colonizingpowers.Thisdestroyedtheinstitutionsthathadproducedtheeight-hundred-year-oldIslamiceducational
tradition.Thestrangulationofcenturies-oldinstitutionsandtheimplantationofnewscientificinstitutions
withagendasthatsuitedtheinterestsofthecolonizingpowers
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changedthedynamicsofthepracticeofscienceintheMuslimworld.NowIslamhadtointeractwithasciencebasedonaphilosophy
ofnatureforeigntoitsownconception.Inordertoexplainthisnew
relationshipwewillhavetotakeintoconsiderationcertainfoundationalepistemologicalassumptionsof
modernscience,aswellasdevelopmentsthatledtothe
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emergenceofthesenewconceptsofnatureinthepost-BaconianWesternworld,andseehowtheseradicalchangesshapedthediscourseonIslamand
science.Alsoimportantforourpurposeisthecomplexprocessofintellectualcolonization
oftheMuslimmind,whichproducedadeep-seatedinferioritycomplexwithrespectto
Westernscienceandtechnologythefactorsperceivedasthemainreasons
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fortheWestsdominationoftheworldandthecolonizationofMuslimlands.
FinallythisbookwilldiscussthepostWorldWarII
era,whichhasproducedacertaindegreeofclarityinthedisciplineand
whichpromisestoopennewvistasinthefuture.Thecurrentfervorof
intellectualactivity
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Prefacexix
intheMuslimworldasitreshapesandreconfiguresinaworldlargelyconstructedbyWesternscienceandtechnologyisaccompanied
byatremendousamountofintellectualandphysicalviolenceandchaos,butsuch
ataxicdisorderisnotnewtotheIslamictradition.Therehavebeenseveral
suchperiodsinhistorywhenMuslimswereforcedtoreshape
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theirintellectualtradition,physicalborders,andtheirrelationshipswithothercommunitiesandtraditions.Someoftheseperiodswereparticularlystarkandaccompaniedbymuch
bloodshed,othersproducedintellectualdisplacements,but,throughoutthelastfourteenhundredyears,the
Islamictraditionhasremainedresilientandabletocopewithapparentlyinsurmountableobstacles.
Whetheritwastheintellectualencounterwiththelegacyof
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Greekphilosophyandscienceanencounterwewilldiscussindetailinthenextchapterorthelarge-scalephysicaldestructioncausedbymaraudingtribessweepingfrom
thesteppesofCentralAsia,Islamictraditionwasalwaysabletoreemergewith
renewedvigor.
ThecurrentIslamandsciencediscourseneedstobe
viewedinthelargercontextoftheencounterofIslam
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withmodernityanditsintellectual,social,cultural,political,andeconomicoutlooks,andsothelastpartofourstoryhastobenarratedwithin
thisbroadersetting.Ofcourse,itremainstobeseenhowIslamictradition
willfareinthisnewencounter,asthisisasituationofanother
kind;modernscienceandtechnologyarerapidlyreshapingtheentire
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spectrumofhumanexistencefromthewayhumanbeingsareborntothewaytheyprocuretheirfood,travel,communicate,establishinterpersonalrelationships,anddie.
Tobesure,itisafascinatingstorythatdeservesourfullattention,
astheworldaroundusreshapesthroughencountersofakindneverbefore
witnessedinhumanhistory.
Thequestionswewish
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toexploreinthefollowingchaptersincludethefollowing:WhatwasIslamicinIslamicscience?HowdidIslamaffectthecourseofdevelopmentof
theIslamicscientifictradition?WerethereanytensionswithintheIslamictraditionthat
mayhaveinhibitedthefullblossomingofthisscientificactivity?Whatwerethe
distinctcontributionsoftheIslamicscientifictraditiontobroaderscientific
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knowledge?When,why,andhowdidthistraditioncometoanend?HowwasthisscientificknowledgepassedontoEurope?Whatarethe
newfacetsoftheIslamandsciencerelationship,whichhaveappearedinthe
postScientificRevolutionera?Whataresomeofthefundamentalissuesinthecontemporary
Islamandsciencediscourse?
Throughanexplorationof
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theseandrelatedquestionsthisbookattemptstopresentaspectrumofIslamicopinionsonsomeofthemostimportantquestionsinthereligion
andsciencediscourse.
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xxPreface
ANOTEONNAMES,DATES,TRANSLATEDTEXTS,ANDTECHNICALTERMS
TheArabicwordAllahisusedwhenever
itisnecessarytomentionGodbyHispersonalname.Itiscustomary
tocapitalizetherecognizedfairnamesofAllahandpronounsdenotingGod.It
isalsocustomarytocapitalizethewordcompanion(s)whenused
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forthosemenandwomenwhoweretheCompanionsoftheProphetofIslam,whoseownmentioniscustomarilyfollowedbysalutationbyMuslims.
Thisbookfollowsallthese,butthelast-mentioned,asitisgenerallyabsent
fromworkssuchasthiswiththeprovisothatreadersshouldneverthelesssend
thecustomarysalutationsontheProphetwheneverhisnameis
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mentioned.PassagesoftheQurancitedinthetextareitalicized;alltranslationsaremine,thoughnecessarilybasedonanumberofothertranslations
andcommentaries.AllreferencestotheQuraninthetextoccurwithinparentheses
()andareprefixedwithQ.andtwonumbersseparatedbyacolon,
ofwhichthefirstnumberreferstothechapterand
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vowels,andacircumflex()ontopofthelettertodistinguishtwosimilarsoundingletters(e.g.,stodistinguishsadfromsn).
ThenamesofmanyMuslimscientistsandscholarsofpremoderntimes
havebeencorruptedforvariousreasons,atraditionstemmingfrommedievaltranslations.Al-Ghazali,
forinstance,becameAlgazel;AbuMasharbecameAlbumasar;IbnTufayl
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reasonsofexpediency,thisbookalsodoesnotuseatransliterationsystemforArabicwords,butitdoespreserveoriginalnames.
Arabic
namescanbeconfusingforreadersunfamiliarwiththissystem.Manynamescited
inthisbookarenotreallythepersonalnames(suchasMuhammad,Husayn,
orAli)ofthescientistorscholarbecauseinmost
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Prefacexxi
Anickname,anoccupationalname,oratitlecanalsobecomethemostwellknownnameofaperson
(al-Jahiz,thegoggle-eyed;al-Khayyam,thetentmaker).Inthisbook,thefullname
isgivenatfirstuseandthemostwellknownnameisused
thereafter.
Anotherpointofimportisthepronoun
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usedbythewriter.InIslamictradition,thepluralfirst-personweratherthanIispreferred,foravarietyofreasons.Iisconsidered
impolitebecauseoftheemphasisthispronounhasontheindividual,whereaswe
takestheemphasisawayfromthesinglepersontheadditionalpersonaisleftambiguous,
butitisassumedthatthewriterisnotalone
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intheprocessofwriting;thatheorsheisbeingaidedbyothers;thattheDivinepresenceisthereintheveryact
oftransmissionofknowledgeandideas;thatawholehostofscholarsare
incompany.Fortheseandotherreasonsweseldomfindtheuseof
IinIslamicscholarlytradition,andthisbookfollowsprecedent.
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Acknowledgments
Likeallbooks,ScienceandIslamhascomeintoexistencethroughtheeffortsofnumerousindividualswhoparticipatedinits
publicationinvariouscapacities.Thisparticipationrangesfromthemostpracticaltaskof
copyeditorswhoimproveditsmanuscripttomenandwomenofbygoneeras
whocontributedtothemakingoftheIslamicscientifictradition.
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Thentherearethehistoriansofthattraditionwho,overthelastthreecenturies,haveunearthedcountlessmanuscripts,instruments,andbookswhichallowus
toreconstructthecontoursoftheenterpriseofscienceinIslamiccivilizationprior
totheemergenceofmodernscience;withouttheirpainstakingeffortswewouldnot
knowwhatwedonowaboutthistraditionwhichwas
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untilrecentlyconsideredamereappendixtotheGreekscience.
RecenttrendsintellingthestoryofIslamicscientifictraditionarerevisionist
innature,attemptingamajorreconstructionofthenarrativethatdominatedthefield
untilthecloseofthetwentiethcentury.Thisbookattemptstohighlightthese
effortsaimedatamoreaccuratedescriptionofsciencein
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Islamiccivilization.Assuch,Iamparticularlyindebtedtothosehistorianswhoareattheforefrontofthiseffort.
Anynewwork
ontherelationshipbetweenIslamandscienceisboundtoraisemorequestions
thanitcananswer.Thecomplexmatrixfromwhichthisrelationshipemergesinvolves
history,politics,economics,sociology,and,ofcourse,subhistoriesofvarious
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branchesofscience.Anyconclusionsdrawninaworkofthisnatureareboundtoremainprovisionaluntilmoreinformationbecomesavailableaboutthe
scientific,social,political,andculturalconditionsofthosecenturiesduringwhichIslamicscientific
enterpriseflourishedinlandsasfarapartasCentralAsiaandal-Andalus.
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Acknowledgments
Butevenwhenthisinformationbecomesmoreaccessible,therewillalwaysbedisagreementamongscholarsabouthowtointerpretdata,
andthisbookhighlightsanumberofsuchdisagreements.I,nevertheless,appreciatethe
workofthosescholarswithwhomIhavedisagreedincertainfundamentalways,
astheyhavecontributedtothediscoursejustasthose
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whoseopinions,interpretations,andfindingsareinconsonancewithmyownviews.
InwritingthisbookIhavebenefitedfromthework
ofscholarsinsuchdiversefieldsasthehistoryofscience,Quranicexegesis,
hadithstudies,generalhistoryofIslam,sociology,linguistics,andphilosophyofscience,to
nameonlyafew.Theirrichcontributionshavegreatlyenhanced
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ourunderstandingofthevariousaspectsofIslamiccivilization,includingtheenterpriseofscience.
Inparticular,IamthankfultoRichardOlson,
serieseditor,forinvitingmetocontributethisvolumetotheGreenwoodGuides
toScienceandReligion,andtoKevinJ.DowningofGreenwoodPress,whose
promptnessinrespondingtonumerousqueriesduringthecourseof
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greatlyimprovedthisbook;mywifeElma,whosesustainedinvolvementinthisprojecthasenricheditinnumerousways;tomydaughterNoorand
sonUsman,whoseindirectcontributionstothisprojectrangefromthesheerpleasure
whichtheirpresenceevokestothenurturingofideasthroughvariousdiscussions.It
isbecauseofthesecontributionsthatitwaspossibleto
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devotesomuchtimeandefforttothisbookintheenrichingandblissfulenvironmentofWuddistanaplacewhereitispossibletopreclude
distractionsoftheworldanddevotelonghourstoasolitarylaborof
loveinthereconstructionofapastwhichmayslipfromhumanmemory
ifnotpreserved.Itisneedlesstosaythatonly
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ChronologyofEvents
SixthCentury570632ProphetMuhammad,borninMakkah,diedinMadinahSeventhCentury610MuslimsmigratedfromMakkah
toMadinah(ThismarkedthebeginningoftheHijricalendar)632655Muslimconquests
ofSyria,Iraq,andEgypt661EstablishmentofUmayyaddynasty691Domeof
theRockbuiltinJerusalemEighthCentury706GreatMosque
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oftheUmayyadsbuiltinDamascus710MuslimforcesenteredSpain712MuslimsreachedSamarqandal-Asmai(739831),thefirstMuslimscientistknowntocontribute
tozoology,botany,andanimalhusbandry750EstablishmentofAbbasiddynasty;endof
Umayyaddynasty754775Thereignofcaliphal-Mansur,patronofearlytranslationsof
scientifictextsfromGreek762BaghdadfoundedbyAbbasids
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whoemphasizedscientificexperimentationandleftanextensivecorpusofalchemicalandscientificworks
TeachinghospitalestablishedinBaghdadBanuMusabrothers
(ca.800873)supervisedthetranslationofGreekscientificworksintoArabic,foundedArabic
schoolofmathematics,wroteovertwentybooks
onsubjectssuchas
astronomy,ingeniousdevices,onthemeasurementofplaneandspherical
8/2/2019 Science and Islam Muzaffar Iqbal
132/309
figuresIbnIshaqal-Kindi(801873),philosopher,mathemati
cian,specialistinphysics,optics,medicine,andmetal
lurgyHunaynibnIshaq(809873)
collectedandtranslatedGreekscientificandmedicalknowledgeintoArabic
Abbas
ibnFirnas(810887),technologistandchemist,thefirstmaninhistorytomake
ascientificattemptatflying
FlourishingofMutazilite
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133/309
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TenthCentury
874999
931
936
ChronologyofEvents
al-Farghani(d.after861),astronomer,
civilengineerwhosupervisedconstructionoftheGreatNilometercanalofCairo
SaburibnSahl(d.868),pharmacistal-Tabari(b.ca.808andd.
ca.861),physician,natural
scientistwhowroteon
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medicine,embryology,surgery,toxicology,psychotherapy,andcosmogonyAbbasibnFirnas(d.888)studiedmechanicsofflight,
developedartificialcrystals,builtaplanetarium
SamaniddynastyinTransoxania
IshaqibnHunayn(d.910),
physicianandscientifictranslatorfromGreekandSyriactoArabicAbdulIbnKhuradadhbih
(d.912),geographerwhode
velopedafull
8/2/2019 Science and Islam Muzaffar Iqbal
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mapoftraderoutesoftheMuslimworldAbuBakrZakariaal-Razi(b.ca.854d.925or935),
philosopherand
physicianwithspecialtyinophthalmology,smallpox,andchemistryal-Battani(b.before858d.929),
mathematicianof
trigonometryandastronomeral-Farabi(b.ca.870d.950),metaphysician,
musicolo
gist,philosopherofsociology,logic,politicalscience,
8/2/2019 Science and Islam Muzaffar Iqbal
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andmusical-Sufi(903986),astronomerrenownedforhisobser
vationsanddescriptionsoffixedstarsIbrahimibnSinan(908946),mathematicianandastronomer,
whostudiedgeometry,particularlytangentstocircles,alsoadvancedtheoryofintegration,appar
entmotionsofthesun,opticalstudyofshadows,solarhours,
andastrolabesBaghdadinitiatedalicensingexaminationforphysi
8/2/2019 Science and Islam Muzaffar Iqbal
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cians,attendedby869doctors
al-Zahrawi(9361013),fatherofsurgery,wroteathirty-volumeworkofmedicalpracticeal-Buzjani(940998),astronomerand
mathematician
whospecializedintrigonometryandgeometryMadinatal-Zahrapalacecomplex
builtinCordoba
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9691171
EleventhCentury
ChronologyofEvents
al-Ashari(d.936),founderofschoolofIslamic
theology
IbnYunus(9501009),astronomerknownforhismanytrigonometricalandastronomicaltables
AbuHasanAlial-Masudi(d.956or957),geographerandhistorianwho
conceivedofgeographyasanessentialprerequisiteofhistory
8/2/2019 Science and Islam Muzaffar Iqbal
141/309
al-Khazin(d.971),astronomerandmathematician,whoseZijal-safaih(TablesoftheDisksoftheAstrolabe)werethebestinhisfield
al-Khujandi(d.1000),mathematicianandastronomerwhodiscoveredthesinetheoremrelative
tosphericaltriangles
Ibnal-Haytham(9651040),astronomer,mathematician,optician,andphysicist
Al-AzharUniversityfoundedinCairoal-Baghdadi(9801037),mathematician,
8/2/2019 Science and Islam Muzaffar Iqbal
142/309
8/2/2019 Science and Islam Muzaffar Iqbal
143/309
Ibnal-Thahabi(d.1033),physician,whowrotethefirstknownalphabeticalencyclopediaofmedicinewithlistsofthenamesofdiseases,medicines,thephysiological
processortreatment,andthefunctionofthehumanorgans
Abu
Rayhanal-Biruni(9731048),oneofthegreatestscientistsinhistory,astronomerandmathematician
whodeterminedtheearthscircumference
IbnSina(9801037),
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thegreatestphysicianandphilosopherofhistime,theauthorofCanonofMedicine
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wellknownintheWestforhispoetry
AbuHamidal-Ghazali(10581111),philosopherandtheologian,themostinfluentialscholar,whoremainsan
importantintellectualfiguretothisday
IbnalTilmidh(b.ca.
10731165),pharmacistwhowrote
alAqrabadhinIbnBajjah(d.ca.1138),
philosopher,scientist,physician,musician,commentatoronAristotle
al-Idrisi
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(11001166),geographerandcartographer,whoconstructedaworldglobemapof400kgpuresilver,preciselyrecordingonitthesevencontinentswithtrade
routes;hisworkwasthebestofArab-Normanscientificcollaboration
Ibn
Tufayl(11051186),Andalusianphysician,author
ofHayybinYaqzanGerardof
Cremona(b.ca.11141187),translatorofworksonsciencefrom
8/2/2019 Science and Islam Muzaffar Iqbal
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ArabictoLatin
al-Khazini(b.ca.1115d.ca.1130),astronomer,engineer,inventorofscientificinstruments,wroteaboutthescienceofweightsand
artofconstructingbalances,renownedforhishydrostaticbalance
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xxxChronologyofEvents
IbnRushd(11261198),Andalusianphysician,philosopher,judge,astronomer,commentatoronAristotle;themostpopularMuslimphilosopherin
theLatinWest
al-Samawal(11301180),mathematician,extendedar
ithmetic
operationstohandlepolynomialsal-Bitruji(fl.ca.1190),astronomer,naturalphilosopher,andmathematician
CrusadersdefeatedbySalahal-DinAyyubi(d.1193)
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al-Suhrawardi(d.1191),oneofthegreatestmysticsofIslamwhointegratedphilosophicalcosmologieswithIslamicworldview
ThirteenthCentury
Ibn
al-Baytar(b.ca.1190d.1248),pharmacologistandbotanistwhosystematizedtheknownanimal,
vegetable,andmineralmedicines
al-Jazari(fl.ca.1204),inventoroftechnologies,
wroteTheBookofKnowledgeofIngeniousDevices
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1217),philosopher,geographer,andtraveler
12191329Mongolraidscausedenormousdestructionofcities
andeconomiesal-Maghribi(12201283),trigonometristandastronomer
1236ChristianstookCordoba
Ibnal-Arabi(d.1240),exponent
ofSufimonism,wroteimportantworksoncosmologyal-Suri(d.1241),pharmacologistwho
documented
everyknownmedicinalplant
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ChronologyofEventsxxxi1258126112321492BaghdaddestroyedbyMongols,endedtheAbbasidCaliphateMamlukdynastyestablishedinEgyptNasiral-Dinal-Tusi
(12011274),astronomerandmathematicianwhospecializedinnon-Euclideangeometryal-Qazwini(b.ca.12031283),
cosmographerandgeographerConstructionofal-Hambra1236FallofCordobatoChristians1244
CrusaderslostJerusalemforthelasttime1254151712611258
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1267MamlukruleinEgyptFoundationofthegaziprincipalitiesinWesternAnatolia,thebeginningoftheOttomanEmpireBaghdadtakenbyMongolsFirst
MuslimstateofSamudraPasaiinIndonesia1271Latinempirecollapsed;Byzantinerule
restoredinConstantinopleJalalud-DinRumi(d.1273),Sufi,theauthorofMasnavi
FourteenthCentury
1300Timbuctu,Mali,and
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Gaobecameimportantcentersoflearning13001453GrowthofOttomanEmpire
1303MongolsdefeatedbyMamluksinEgyptIbnal-Shatir(13041375),Damascene
astronomerwhodevelopedtheconceptofplanetarymotionandastronomicallydefinedthetimes
ofprayer
Ibnal-Banna(d.1321),poet,scholaral-Jawziyyah(d.1350),
QuranscholarIbnBattutah(1304d.1368or1377),famedtraveler,
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covered75,000milesin22yearsacrossEurope,Africa,theMiddleEast,andAsia,madeextensivecontributionstogeography
13081312
MalisultanstraveledacrosstheAtlantic,exploredthelandsaroundtheGulfof
MexicoandtheAmericaninteriorviatheMississippiRiver
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ca.1313
FifteenthCentury
14531455
1492
1498
ChronologyofEvents
al-Khalili(13201380),astronomerwhocompiledex
tensivetablesforastronomicaluse
KamaluddinFarsi(d.1320),astronomerwhoimprovedIbnal-HaythamsOptics,studiedreflectionand
therainbow
IbnKhaldun(13321406),philosopherofhistory
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and
society,wroteauniversalhistoryMuqaddimahQutbal-DinShirazi(12361311),astronomerwhoperfectedPtolemaicplanetarytheory
GoldenHordeMongol
khansconvertedtoIslamIzzalDinnalJaldaki(d.1360),chemistUlugh
Beg(13941449),rulerofSamarqandandanac
complishedastronomer;his
astronomicalobservatorycompletedin1429
Timur(d.1405)
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ruledfromtheGangestotheMediter
raneanal-Umawi(14001489),mathematicianwhowroteworksonarithmeticandmensuration
al-Qalasida(14121486),
mathematicianwhointroducedideasofalgebraicsymbolismbyusinglettersinplaceof
numbers
Ghiyathud-DinKashi(d.1429),astronomerandmathematicianwhoworked
atSamarqandObservatory
OttomanstookConstantinoplePapalBull
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(b.1432)whowrotetheencyclopedicKitabal-FawaidfiUsulIlmal-BahrwalQawid(BookofUsefulInformationonthePrinciplesandRulesofNavigation)
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ofthepost-IbnSinaera,theauthorofthe
FourIntellectualJourneys
1683SiegeofViennabyTurks1688Fall
ofBelgradetoOttomans
EighteenthCentury
17811925QajarEmpire
inIranAurangzeb(d.1707),Mughalemperor1722AfghansconqueredIranandended
theSafaviddynasty1736NadirShah(d.1747)assumedthe
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titleofShahofPersiaandfoundedtheAfshariddynasty,defeatedtheMughalsandsackedDelhi17391757BattleofPlasseymarkedthebeginning
ofBritishruleinIndia1789NapoleonarrivedinEgyptHajjiMullaHadi
Sabziwari(b.1797or17981873),philosopher,mostprominentoftheQajarperiod
NineteenthCentury
MostoftheMuslimworld
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xxxivChronologyofEvents
SayyidJamalal-Dinal-Afghani(18381897),MuslimthinkerwhodebatedwiththeFrenchphilosopherErnstRenanonreligion
andscience
NewscientificinstitutionsmodeledonEuropeanpatternswereestablished
inthecolonies;officiallanguageschangedtoEnglishorFrenchinmostof
theMuslimworld
1857IndiabecameaBritish
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colonyMuhammadibnAhmadal-Iskandarani,anEgyptianphysicianpublishedthefirstcompletescientifictafsiroftheQuranin1880
TwentiethCentury
19001920NationalisticmovementsemergedinmanypartsoftheMuslimworld
19201950StruggleforindependencethroughouttheMuslimworld
19501965Decolonization
andrapidemergenceofnewnationstatesintheentire
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I,manyMuslimstatesmadeeffortstoacquiremoderndefensetechnology
19902000ExponentialincreaseinthenumberofMuslimwebsitesdealingwith
Islamandscience
1998Pakistansuccessfullytestedanuclearweapon
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theInternet,moreweb-sitesmakingclaimsaboutthepresenceofmodernscientifictheoriesandfactsintheQuran;simultaneousmaturityofIslamand
sciencediscourseasmorescholarspayattentiontothefundamentalissuesinthe
discourse
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arbitrary;rather,itarisesfromtheverynatureofthescientificenterprise,whichhasgonethroughafoundationalchangesincetheScientificRevolutionof
theseventeenthcentury.Beforeweembarkonthisexplorationoftherelationshipbetween
Islamandscience,however,somethingmustbesaidaboutIslamitself,fordespiteits
ubiquitouspresenceinthemediaitremainsoneofthemost
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poorlyunderstoodreligionsintheworld.AlongwithcontemporaryeventscontributingtothegeneralperceptionofIslamintheWest,thereisalsosilent
historicalbaggageunderlyingnon-Muslimperspectivesonthereligion,makingtheunderstandingofIslam
acomplicatedaffair.Thespanofthetwentiethcenturyrevealsaphenomenalshift:
atitsdawn,Islamwasconsideredbymanytohave
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lostitsappeal,oratleastwasareligionwithoutadefinablepolity,asmostofitsadherentsthenlivedincoloniesoccupiedand
ruledbyEuropeanpowers.Atthedawnofthetwenty-firstcentury,theword
IslamhasbecomecommonplaceandhardlyadaypasseswithoutmentionofIslam
andMuslimsinheadlinenews.Thisenormousattentionhas,however,
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ScienceandIslam
THEEMERGENCEOFISLAM
Makkah,whereMuhammad,thefutureProphetofIslam,wasborn,wasnot
locatedonthecrossroadsofanymajorcivilizationofthetime.Itwas
neverthelessatownofconsiderableimportanceowingtothepresenceoftheKabah,
aSanctuarybuilttherebyAbrahamandhissonIshmael
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Syriainsummer.Shortlyafterhisbirth,thechildwastakentotheKabahandnamedMuhammadbyhisgrandfather,AbdulMuttalib,adescendent
ofAbrahamthroughhissonIshmael.
Attheageofforty,
whenMuhammadhadbeenmarriedtoawealthywidowofMakkahforalmost
fifteenyears,hereceivedhisfirstrevelationwhileinretreat
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inacaveatthesummitoftheMountainofLight,aboutfivekilometerssouthoftheancientSanctuary:Recite!Reciteinthename
ofthySustainerWhocreated;CreatedManfromaclotofblood;Recitefor
thySustaineristheMostBountifulWhotaughtbythepen;taughtManwhat
heknewnot(Q.96:1-5).Thiswasthebeginningof
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northernborderofthenascentstate.Withinacenturyofhisdeath,IslamhadspreadthroughouttheMiddleEast,muchofAfricaandAsia,
andasfarasNarbonneinsouthernFrance.Thisexpansionofthegeographical
boundariesoftheMuslimworldoccurredintwosuccessivewaves.Thefirsttook
placebetween632and649andthesecondbetween693
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and720.
ThisrapidexpansionofthegeographicalboundariesoftheIslamicstatehasoftenledWesternhistorianstoviewIslamas
areligionthatspreadbythesword.ThisimageofIslamwasconstructed
duringtheMiddleAgesagainstthebackgroundoftheCrusadesandhasremained
entrenchedintheWesttothisday(Grant2004,231).
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AsfarasMuslimsareconcerned,itwastheinherenttruthofthemessageofIslam,ratherthanmilitaryvictories,thatestablishedIslamacross
thisvastregion,extendingfromMakkahtosouthernFranceontheonehand
andfromthesteppesofCentralAsiatothebarrendesertsofAfrica
ontheother.Aseriousinquiryintotherapidspread
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ofIslamduringitsfirstcenturyisboundtoproduceadifferent
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aretworevolutionsofanotherkind:avastsocialrevolutionthattookplaceduringthisfirstcenturyofIslam,andanintellectualrevolutionof
thefirstorderthattransformedthenomadicArabsocietywithintwogenerations.
THETWOREVOLUTIONS
Thesocialrevolutionwascatalyzedbythe
rapidincorporationofnumerousculturesintothefoldofIslam.
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changeintheeighthcenturywastheresultofmassconversions,migrations,theestablishmentofnewcitiesandnewadministrativeandfiscalinstitutions,and
anewsocialcontractthatIslamestablishedwithJewishandChristiancommunities.The
beliefsystemofIslamwasabletoincorporatevariedsocialandculturaltraditions
becauseofitsoverarchinguniversalnature.Thus,whetheritwas
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thehuntingritesofthenomadictribesofCentralAsiaortheritualsofmarriageanddeathoftheancientcitydwellersofMesopotamia,
Islamwasabletorecastthesesocialandculturalaspectsofvariouspeoples
throughreorientingthemtoitsuncompromisingmonotheism,aprocessthatoftenleftthe
outerformuntouchedwhileremovinganytraceofpolytheism.This
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ofthenewlyconvertedmassesandimmigrants,andtheemergenceofnewadministrativeandfinancialarrangementsbetweenthestateanditscitizens.Therapid
geographicalexpansionalsoposednewquestionsrelatedtothepracticeoffaithand
thatrequiredimmediateattention:howtodeterminethecorrectqiblah(directiontowardthe
KabahinMakkah)forthefiveobligatorydailyprayersfrom
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adistantcity;howtocalculatethecorrectamountofzakah(obligatorycharityonwealthandmaterialgoods)ongoodsthatdidnotexist
inMadinahduringthelifeoftheProphetandforwhichnoclear-cut
ruling
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ScienceandIslam
couldbefoundintheQuranorPropheticprecedent;howtoapplytheprinciplesofinheritanceoutlinedin
theQurantocomplexsituationsthathadnotexistedinthelifeof
theMuslimcommunityinMadinah.Theseandnumerousotherissuesarisingoutof
arapidlyexpandingsocial,political,andeconomiclandscapeproduceda
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traditionsoftheancientworld.AlreadyduringthelifeoftheProphet,thesciencesoftheQuran(Ulumal-Quran)hademergedasadifferentiated
branchoflearning.Shortlyafterhisdeath,focusedeffortsweremadetopreserve,
annotate,andverifytheHadith(narratedsayingsoftheProphet).
The
Quranconsistsofabout70,000words,and,forallpractical
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indirectways.Thus,bythetimethestudyofnatureappearedinIslamiccivilizationasanorganizedandrecognizableenterprise,thereligiousscienceshad
alreadybeenfirmlyestablished;thissequenceaffectedtheframeworkusedtoexplorenature.
TheQuranitselflaysoutawell-definedandcomprehensiveconceptof
thenaturalworld,andthisplayedafoundationalrolein
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themakingofthescientifictraditioninIslamiccivilization.Itisthereforeincumbenttobriefly
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aspectsofcreation,theirconceptsofthe
Anillustratedpagefromathirteenth-centuryQuranmanuscriptinThulthandRayhanscripts.The
QuranwasrevealedtoProphetMuhammadoveraperiodoftwenty-threeyears(610632).
TheQuranicviewofnatureinfluencedthedevelopmentofscienceinIslamiccivilization.
Al-QalamPublishing.
c
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ScienceandIslam
naturalworldanditsrelationshiptohumanityhasconsiderabledivergences(Nasr1996,53).InthecaseofIslam,
theQuranicviewofnatureischaracterizedbyanontologicalandmorphologicalcontinuity
withtheveryconceptofGodalinkagethatimpartsacertaindegreeof
sacrednesstotheworldofnaturebymakingita
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Sign(ayah,pl.ayat)pointingtoatranscendentalreality.However,justastheQuranpresentstheworldofnaturetohumanityasasign,it
alsocallsitsownversesayat.Thissemanticlinkageisfurtherstrengthenedthrough
variousQuranicdescriptionsandmodesofcommunication.Godcommunicates,accordingtotheQuran,
bysendingHisayat.AsIzutsuhasnoted,
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onthisbasiclevel,thereisnoessentialdifferencebetweenlinguisticandnonlinguisticSigns;bothtypesareequallydivineayat...themeaningofthis,
inthesenseinwhichtheQuranunderstandsit,isthatallthat
weusuallycallnaturalphenomena,suchasrain,wind,thestructureofthe
heavenandtheearth,alternationofdayandnight,the
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ofnaturegrantsitdistinctmetaphysicalqualities.Ratherthanbeingself-subsisting,autonomous,orrandom,natureisdescribedbytheQuranasasophisticatedsystem
ofinterconnected,consistent,uniform,andhighlyactiveentities,allofwhichareontologically
dependentontheCreatorandexaltHimintheirownspecificways(Q.
24:41).Thesevenheavensandtheearthandwhateveris
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betweenthemsingthegloriesofGod,anoft-repeatedrefrainoftheQurantellsus.Itmustbenotedhere,however,thatthisdependence
andsubservienceofnaturetoGodisnotahaphazardmatter,sinceGods
waysandlawsareunchanging(Q.33:62),andthustheentireworldof
natureoperatesthroughimmutablelawsthatcanbediscoveredthrough
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theinvestigationofnature.Sincetheselawsarebothuniformandknowable,andsincenaturepointstosomethinghigherthanitselfindeed,totheCreator
HimselfitfollowsthatthestudyofnatureleadstoanunderstandingofGod,
andisinfactaformofworship.
Inunderstandingthese
relationshipsdrawnbytheQuran,itisimportanttorecall
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thattheQuranisconsideredbyMuslimstobetheactualspeechofGod,impartedtotheheartoftheProphetbytheArchangel
Gabriel.TheProphetthenconveyeditashereceivedit.Thetextof
the
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Introduction
QuranthusbecomestheactualDivineWord,notretrojectiveinspirationaltranscriptions,andsoitsconceptionofthenaturalworldis
(fortheMuslim)groundedinimmutablefaith.
Itshouldalsobe
notedthat,accordingtotheQuran,
humanbeingswerecreatedby
GodasHisvicegerents(khalifa)inthephysicalworldlying
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andbalance(mizan)thatGodhadcreatedinthelargercosmicwhole.(Haq2001,112)
TheQuranicviewoftherelationshipbetween
theworldofnatureandGodontheonehandandbetweenthe
worldofnatureandtheprogenyofAdamontheotheristhus
highlyinterconnected.
Adamssuperiorityoverothercreaturesand
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inseparable(Haq2001,118),andthatthesetwoperfectionsarethetwopolesofdivineaction,atthesametimecontrastedandcomplementary(Haq
2001).AccordingtotheQuran,theveryactofbringingintoexistencefrom
nonexistenceisanactofmercy.Furthermore,theQuranicviewofexistencenot
onlyinvolvesthisfirstactofmercybutalsothe
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ideathatthecontinuousexistenceofthingsisentirelyduetotheirbeingsustainedbyGod,oneofWhoseNamesisRabb,theOne
Whonourishesandsustains.Thus,accordingtotheQuran,notonlytheact
ofcreationbutalsotheactofprovidingsustenanceforthecontinuationof
existenceisalsoanactofmercyand,sincenatureis
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anexpressionofGodsMercy,allthatitcontainsisbyitssheerbountifulexistenceanundeniablesignofGodsexistence(andMercy).
ThethemeofMercyisespeciallyrelevanttooursubject.Ina
chapteroftheQuranentitledal-Rahman,avastrangeofphenomenaofthe
naturalworldthesunandthemoon,rivers,oceans,fruits,cattleare
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ScienceandIslam
asbeingsomanydivinefavorsandblessings.TheQuranthenasks,inapowerfulrefrainoccurringthirty-three
timesinthischapter,whichofthefavorsofyourSustainerwillyou
thendeny?
Onecansaythatthewholethrustofthe
QuranicviewofnatureanditsrelationshipwithGodand
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humanityisunderscoredbythreeinterconnectedconcepts:Tawhid(OnenessofGod)andthevariousassociatedconceptsarisingoutofthemanifestationofdivineattributes;
theAmr(Command)ofGodintheoperationalrealm;andtheintertwinedpresence
ofQadr(Measure)andMizan(Balance)inthematerialworld(Haq2001).These
threeQuranicconceptsarenotonlycentraltotheteachings
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ofIslambuttheyarealsoofimmenseimportanceforunderstandingtherelationshipbetweenIslamandscience.AlthoughIslam,likeJudaism,Christianity,Hinduism,and
manyotherreligions,hasdevelopednumerousschoolsofthought[]theological,philosophical,scientific,
andmystical[]dealingwiththeorderofnature(Nasr1996,60),these
threeconceptsarecentraltotheunderstandingofnaturein
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much-toutedlackofseparationofstateandreligioninIslamicpolityisapplicabletoallotherdomains,asMuslimsbelievethatIslamisnot
merelyasetofcommandmentsandritualsbutacompletewayoflife,
encompassingalldomainsofknowledgeandhumanactivity.Thisworld-viewisbased
onanuncompromisinginsistenceonTawhid,theOnenessofGod,
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relationshipbetweentwodistinctivelyseparateentities.
Weneedtounderstandthisrelationshiplikethatofamotherandachild,inwhich
aparticularbranchofknowledgescienceemergesfromwithinthegreaterbodyofknowledgedealing
withtheworldofexistingthings,aworldconceivedascreatedbyand
ontologicallydependentupontheCreator.Itisarelationshipthat
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Chapter2
AspectsofIslamicScientificTradition(theeighthtothesixteenthcenturies)
THEEMERGENCEOFSCIENCEINISLAMIC
CIVILIZATION
Ourcurrentknowledgeoforiginalsourcesdoesnotpermitus
todrawaclearpictureoftheinitialphasesofscientificenterprisein
Islamiccivilization.Whatcanbesaidwithacertaindegree
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ofconfidencepertainstotheperiodbeginningwiththesecondhalfofthesecondcenturyofIslam.Bythen,however,theenterpriseofscience
inIslamwasalreadywellestablished,withdefinablebranchesandscientistsofhigh
caliberworkingindisciplinessuchascosmology,geography,astronomy,andalchemy.Thus,until
wediscovernewmanuscriptsandotherprimarysources,thestory
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Prophethimself,becausewedohaveverifiablesourcesallowingustorecountthestoryoftheiremergenceinMadinah.SayingsoftheProphetdealing
withhealth,sickness,hygiene,andspecificdiseasesandtheircureswerecompiledand
systematizedbylatergenerationsofMuslims,andthisbodyofliteratureprovidedthe
foundationforaspecificbranchofmedicalscienceinIslam:
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whatconcernsusattheoutsetaretheintrinsiclinksofthesescienceswithIslam.Theveryfoundationsofthesetwobranchesofscience
canbeshowntohavedirectconnectionswiththeQuranandSunnah,the
twosourcesthatdefineallthingsIslamic.Itisnotacoincidence,notes
GeorgeSaliba,thatthemathematicalastronomicaltraditionwhichdealtwith
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thetheoreticalfoundationsofastronomyalsodefineditselfasahaya[cosmological]tradition,eventhoughitrarelytouchedupontheQuranicreferencestothe
cosmologicaldoctrines(Saliba1994,17).Likewise,othersciencesthatemergedinIslamiccivilization
canbeshowntohaveintrinsiclinkswiththeIslamicworldview,eventhough
theyreceivedalargeamountofmaterialfromothercivilizations.
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TheselinksandconnectionswillremainourcontinuousfocusasweconstructournarrativeabouttheemergenceofscienceinIslamiccivilization.
ThegeographicalexpansionofIslamwithinitsfirstcenturywas,asnotedearlier,
accompaniedbyasocialrevolutionthatreconfiguredthesocial,cultural,andintellectualclimate
oftheoldworld.Thesamesocialrevolutionprovidedan
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fascinatingtalethatthisprocesscouldnothaveoccurredwithouttheabilityoftherecipientcivilizationtoabsorb.Inotherwords,priortothe
arrivalofGreek,Indian,andPersianscientificmaterial,theremusthavebeenan
indigenousscientifictraditionreadyandabletocomprehendandreceivethismaterial.We
know,forinstance,thatasearlyasthesecondquarter
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oftheeighthcentury,astronomicaltreatiseswerebeingwritteninSind(modernPakistan)inArabic.TheseearlytreatiseswereoftenbasedonIndianand
Persiansources,buttheyemployedtechnicalArabicterminologythatcouldnothavecome
intoexistencewithoutthepresenceofanalready-establishedastronomicaltraditioninIslamiccivilization
thatcouldthenabsorbnewmaterialfromIndianandPersian
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sources.
AsweproceedwiththeaccountoftheemergenceofscienceinIslamiccivilization,weshouldnotethattheIslamicscientific
traditionwasemerginginacosmopolitanintellectualmilieuandthatthosewhowere
makingthistraditionwerenotonlyMuslimsbutalsoJews,Christians,Hindus,Zoroastrians,
andmembersofotherfaithcommunities.AnIndian
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AspectsofIslamicScientificTradition
astronomerwhoarrivedinthecourtoftheAbbasidCaliphal-Mansur
(r.754775)as
partofadelegationfromSind,forinstance,wasprobablyaHindu.He
knewSanskritandhelpedal-Fazari(fl.secondhalfoftheeighthcentury)
translateaSanskritastronomicaltextintoArabic;thistextcontained
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elementsfromevenolderastronomicaltraditions.Theresultanttranslation,Zijal-Sindhind,becameoneofthesourcesofalongtraditionofsuchtextsin
Islamicastronomy(Pingree1970,10323).Theemergenceofthescientifictraditioninthis
multireligious,multi-ethnicatmospherewasadynamicprocessinvolvinginteractionsbetweenpatronsof
learning,scholars,scientists,rulers,guilds,andwealthymerchants.Tobe
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sure,thescientificactivityatthisearlytimewasnotyetaninstitutionalizedeffort,butwedoknowthatgroupsofscientistswerealready
workingtogetherinthesecondhalfoftheeighthcenturyinBaghdadand
othercitiesoftheAbbasidcaliphate.Weshouldalsokeepinmindthat
thisscientifictraditionwasevolvingatatimewhenthe
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religiousscienceshadalreadybeenestablishedonafirmfoundation,withadvancedtextsinQuranicstudies,philology,grammar,jurisprudence,andotherbranchesofreligious
studiescirculatingamongscholars.Thisfactisparticularlyimportantforourstudybecause
thepriorestablishmentofreligioussciencesmeantthatthenewscientifictraditionemerged
intoanintellectualmilieualreadyshapedbyreligiousthought.
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IntheatmosphereofintensecreativitythatpermeatedIslamiccivilizationduringthisearlyperiodtherewasconsiderablestrifeandpolarizationatalllevels
ofsociety.Bythetimescienceemergedasadifferentiatedfieldofstudy,
Islamicpolityhadalreadygonethroughtwomajorinternalfissures:thefirst(656661)
wassparkedbytheassassinationofUthman,thethirdCaliph,
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andledtoacivilwarinwhichcloseCompanionsoftheProphetfoundthemselvespitchedagainsteachotherundercircumstanceswhichthreatenedthe
veryexistenceoftheMuslimcommunity.Duringthesecondrift(680692),whichsprang
fromtworivalclaimstotheCaliphate,HusaynbinAli,thegrandsonof
theProphet,andallbutoneofhiscompanionswere
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killedatKarbalainOctober680;Makkahwasbesiegedbyarmedmen;aradicalsplintergroup,theKhawarij,tookcontrolofmuchofArabia;
andIbnal-Zubayr,oneofthecloseCompanionsoftheProphet,waskilled
inthesanctifiedcityofMakkah,wherefightinghadbeendeclaredunlawfulby
theQuran(Q.2:217).
Theseeventsinitiatedan
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intensedebateamongscholars,notonlyaboutwhatwashappeningandwhybutalsocertainotherfundamentalissuesthataroseinthiscontext:Is
thisacrisisofleadership?Whoisqualifiedtoleadthecommunity?Are
humanactspreordained?Whataretheboundariesofhumanfreedom?Whatisthe
roleofhumanintellectinmattersofreligion?Whatis
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theexactnatureofDivinejustice,HellandHeaven,andthatofDivineattributes?Theseandrelatedtheologicaldebateseventuallygave
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ScienceandIslam
birthtodifferentschoolsofthought;someoftheseschoolsalsodevelopedtheirownpositionsonthenatural
sciences,andwewillhaveoccasiontodiscusstheirpositionsinalater
chapter.
Theperiodduringwhichtheearliestscientificworkswerewritten
witnessedarevoltagainsttheUmayyads,whohadtakencontrol
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oftheCaliphateandshiftedthecapitaloftheIslamicstatefromMadinahtoDamascus.OriginatinginnewlyconqueredIraniancities,especiallyinMerv,
thisrevoltinfavoroftheAbbasidclaimtotheCaliphatemovedwestward
undertheleadershipofAbuMuslim,whohadcapturedthecityofKufa
bythemiddleof749.Earlyin750,AbulAbbas
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(posthumouslycalledal-Saffah))wasproclaimedthefirstAbbasidCaliphatKufa.Twomonthslater,theUmayyadsweredecisivelydefeatedatthebattleofGreater
Zab,andbyJune750mostofthemhadbeenmassacred.Abdal-Rahman
Iwasthesolesurvivorfromtherulingfamily;heescapedtoSpain,
whereheestablishedUmayyadrule(7551031).
AbulAbbas
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remainedatwarfortheentireperiodofhiscaliphateandonhisdeathin753,hisbrother,AbuJafar,wasproclaimedCaliphas
al-Mansur(thevictorious).In762,al-Mansurdecidedtomovehiscapitaltoa
saferplace.Hehimselfsupervisedtheprocessoftheselectionofitslocation;
thechoicefellforasmallandancienttown,which
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wastobecomethefabledcapitalofAbbasidruleforthenextfivehundredyears:Baghdad.SpanningbothbanksoftheriverTigris,the
newcapitalwasdesignedasacircularcitywithsixteengates.Itsconstruction
beganonJuly30,762,adatedeterminedbyastrologersandengineers,among
whomwastheaforementionedal-Fazari.Thecitywasofficiallycalled
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Madinatul-Islam,thecityofpeace.
BeginningwiththeconstructionofBaghdadwecantracethedevelopmentsinthescientifictraditioninIslamic
civilizationwithmoreconfidence;oursourcematerialbecomesmorereliableandthereis
anexponentialincreaseinavailabletexts.
Inordertounderstandthe
natureofscienceinIslamiccivilizationatthisstageof
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itsdevelopment,weproceedwithanoutlineofthevarioussciencesastheyemergedduringthesecondhalfoftheeighthcentury.
THEINITIALFLOWERING
BythetimeofthefamousalchemistJabir
binHayyan,scienceinIslamiccivilizationhadbecomeconsiderablywellestablished.Jabiriancorpus
issoextensiveandvariedthatsomescholarshaveexpressed
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doubtsaboutitsauthorshipbyasingleperson(Kraus1991).Thesehighlysophisticatedworks,dealingwithavastrangeofsubjects,weretoleave
alegacythatcontinuedtoinfluencescienceanddiscourseonsciencewellinto
thefifteenth
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TheopeningfolioofafragmentofanalchemicaltreatiseattributedtoAbuBakrMuhammadibnZakariyaal-Razi(d.925)thatisotherwise
knownonlythroughitsLatintranslationLiber70praeceptorum.CourtesyoftheNational
LibraryofMedicine.
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ScienceandIslam
AnotherfolioofafragmentofanalchemicaltreatiseattributedtoAbuBakrMuhammadibnZakariyaal-Razi
(d.925).CourtesyoftheNationalLibraryofMedicine.
century.Jabirs
writingsdealwiththetheoryandpracticeofchemicalprocessesandprocedures,classification
ofsubstances,astrology,cosmology,theurgy,medicine,alchemy,music,magic,pharmacology,
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andseveralotherdisciplines.Whatprovidesaninternalcohesiontothiscorpusisthe
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AspectsofIslamicScientificTradition
overallframeworkofinquiryand,morespecifically,hisTheoryofBalance.AccordingtoJabir,allthat
existsinthecosmoshasacosmicbalance.Thisbalanceispresentat
variouslevelsandreflectstheoverallharmonyofallthatexists.
InadditiontoJabir,manylesser-knownscientistsofthisperiod
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