Scientific RevolutionRoots of Modern Science• Before 1500, scholars referred to Greek or Roman philosophers

or the Bible for guidanceThe Medieval View• During the Middle Ages, people had an earth-centered view of

the world geocentric theoryNew Way of Thinking• In the mid-1500’s, scholars began questioning the Medieval View

which led to a change in belief called the Scientific Revolution• Discoveries helped lead to the Revolution (European

explorations, printing press, etc.)• As European exploration expanded, people realized how little

they actually knew about the world (animals, plants, geography, etc.)

Revolutionary Model of the Universe• First challenge to accepted theology was in astronomyHeliocentric Theory• Nicolaus Copernicus challenges the geocentric theory after

25 years of studying the stars, arguing that the planets and stars rotated around the sun heliocentric theory

• Didn’t publish his book until the year of his death for fear of religious persecution

• Later astronomers would build on Copernicus’ workGalileo’s Discoveries• Built his own telescope to study stars in 1609• In 1610, he publishes his findings in Starry Messenger

(Jupiter’s 4 moons, the sun’s dark spots)

Conflict with the Church• Galileo is warned by Protestants and Catholics to stop his

teachings because they conflicted with religions doctrine• In 1632, he publishes Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief

World Systems• The pope summoned Galileo to stand trial before the

Inquisition. He was never again a free man, and the Church didn’t acknowledge his accomplishment until 1992.

Scientific Method• Revolutionary thinking paved the way for a new approach

to science called the scientific method• Question, hypothesis, experiment, data, conclusion

Bacon and Descartes• Both helped advance the use of scientific method• Bacon, an English writer, attacked medieval scholars for

relying on Aristotle’s findings• Stressed the experimental method, rather than just

reasoning with classical philosophies• In France, Descartes developed analytical geometry which

linked geometry and algebra• Descartes differed from Bacon in that Descartes believed in

forming conclusions with math and logic rather than experimentation

Newton Explains Gravity• By the mid-1600’s, the works of Copernicus, Galileo, and

Kepler led to Isaac Newton’s law of gravity all things in the universe attract each other depending on the mass and distance between them

• His 1687 book Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy became one of the most fundamental science books in history

Scientific Revolution SpreadsScientific Instruments• Zacharias Janssen invents the first microscope in 1590• Anton van Leeuwenhoek examined red blood cells with the

Janssen’s microscope in 1670’s• 1643 Evangelista Torricelli develops mercury barometer

(predicts weather)• Gabriel Fahrenheit and Anders Celsius develop the mercury

thermometer Medicine and the Human Body• Flemish physician Andreas Vesalius proves Galen’s anatomical

theories wrong• He dissected human corpses and published his observations in

On the Structure of the Human Body in 1543• In late 1700’s Edward Jenner develops vaccine for smallpox by

inoculating the patient with cowpox

Discoveries in Chemistry• Robert Boyle is considered the founder of modern

chemistry• Challenged Aristotle’s belief that the world was made up of

4 elements- earth, air, fire, and water• Boyle proposed that elements make up these

phenomenon, and Boyle’s Law (that volume, temperature, and pressure affect each other)

• These notions of reason and order soon moved into other fields of life

• People began to question the rights and liberties of the ordinary citizen

• New ideas on the relationship between citizen and government led to changes in the political structure globally

The Enlightenment in EuropeTwo Views on Government

• Thomas Hobbes and John Locke proposed two new conclusions about government and human nature

Hobbes’s Social Contract• Hobbes argued that there needed to be government keep

order in his Leviathan (1651)• Hobbes believed that in order to have “law and order”,

people needed to hand over their rights to a strong ruler to act for them social contract

Locke’s Natural Rights• John Locke held a more positive view on human nature• Believed that as reasonable beings, humans could govern

themselves by improving on their mistakes• Locke favored self-government over absolute monarchy• According to Locke, people are born with 3 natural rights1. Life2. Liberty3. Property• He believed that if the government failed to uphold these

rights, the people had the right to overthrow it

Philosophes Advocate Reason• Enlightenment reached its peak in France in mid-1700’s in

the city of Paris• Social critics of the period were known as philosophes• Philosophe belief rested on five concepts:1. Reason- the philosophes believed that truth could be

discovered through reason or logical thinking2. Nature- what was natural was good and reasonable3. Happiness- urged people to find happiness on earth 4. Progress- the philosophes stressed that society could

improve5. Liberty- the philosophes called for the rights that English

people had won in their Glorious Revolution and Bill of Rights

Voltaire Combats Intolerance• Voltaire published over 70 books of political jargon • Was sent to prison twice for speaking out against the

French government and the Catholic Church• “I do not agree with a word you say but will

defend to the death your right to say it” -VoltaireMontesquieu and Separation of Powers• Montesquieu devoted his life to political liberty • Wrote that separation of powers was essential to prevent

any one person or group from gaining too much power in his On the Spirit of Laws

• his ideas on separation of powers and checks and balances become the foundation of the US Constitution

Rousseau: Champion of Freedom• Jean Jacques Rousseau was committed to individual

freedom• He disagreed with Enlightenment thinkers, arguing that

civilization corrupted people’s natural goodness• Believed that the only good government was a direct

democracy• Wrote The Social Comment, a book in which Rousseau

argues that if all people give up a little of their freedom for the common good everyone benefits (differed from Thomas Hobbes’s social contract)

• Rousseau’s ideas inspired the thinkers who started the French Revolution in 1789

Beccaria Promotes Criminal Justice• An Italian philosophe Cesare Bonesana Becaria believed

that laws exist to preserve social order, not to avenge crimes

• Criticized common abuses of justice (torturing witnesses and suspects, irregular proceedings in trials, and cruel punishments)

• Based his ideas on the fact that the government should seek the greatest good for the greatest number of people

Women and the Enlightenment• While many Enlightenment thinkers had progressive ideas

about society and government, most stuck to the traditional role for women

• Many men believed that educating women would lead them to rebel against their inferior status in society

• 1694 A Serious Proposal to the Ladies by Mary Astell addressed the lack of educational opportunities for women

• “if absolute sovereignty be not necessary in a state, how comes it to be so in a family?” –Astell

• Mary Wollstonecraft published A Vindication of the Rights of Woman in 1792, where she disagreed with Rousseau in saying that women’s education is second to men’s

• Women made contributions to the Enlightenment in social gatherings in salons

Legacy of the Enlightenment• In just a few decades, Enlightenment thinkers challenged

traditional views such as monarchical divinity, union of state and church, and existence of unequal social classes.

• Enlightenment thinkers were just that: thinkers, not revolutionaries

• Enlightenment thinkers produced three other long-term effects that helped shape Western culture:

1. Belief in Progress2. More Secular Outlook3. Importance of the Individual

Belief in Progress• Pioneers such as Galileo and Newton unlocked mysteries in

nature, leading people to believe in advancement in science

• Philosophes made people believe that using human reason could help solve social problems (slavery)

More Secular Outlook• After the Scientific Revolution, people began to question

the workings of God and realized it was explainable through science and math

• Thinkers like Voltaire attacked organized Christianity and promoted tolerance of all religions

Importance of the Individual• As people began to turn away from the Church and

government in search for guidance, they began to turn to themselves rise of individualism

• Philosophes stressed the importance for people to use their own ability to reason to judge what was right or wrong

• British thinker Adam Smith believed that the individual acting in the best interest of himself was beneficial for economic progress

• During the Enlightenment, the use of reason took stage

The Enlightenment Spreads• Punishments for spreading Enlightenment ideas consisted of

exile and imprisonmentA World of Ideas• All of the brilliant scholars of the 1700’s traveled to Paris to

study and philosophize • Many philosophes met in the drawing rooms of wealthy women

in Paris salonsDiderot’s Encyclopedia• With the help of Marie-Therese Geoffrin, Denis Diderot created

a large set of books that he called Encyclopedia, in which many scholars contributed supplemental works

• The French government banned the book, but Diderot kept publishing

• Enlightenment ideas were spread through Diderot’s Encyclopedia, pamphlets, newspapers, magazines, etc.

New Artistic Styles• Enlightenment ideals were seen in music, art, painting,

architecture, and literature as wellNeoclassical Style Emerges• 17th and early 18th century art in Europe was baroque. As

the Enlightenment took hold, but changes to “neoclassical” during the late 18th century. (new classical)

Changes in Music and Literature• Earlier music was more dramatic, consisting or drama and

choral music. As the Enlightenment gained ground, a lighter mood genre emerged called “classical”

• Classical music was dominated by Franz Joseph Haydn, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, and Ludwig van Beethoven

• Literature changed as well; writers began writing novels (plot, suspense, and explored characters)

Enlightenment and Monarchy• While the Enlightenment reached literature, music, and general

society it also hit government• Enlightened despots began listening to the demands of Voltaire to

rule justly as monarch in hopes that they would gain support and win power

• Some of the Enlightened despots were Catherine the Great, Frederick II, and Joseph II

Frederick the Great• King of Russia from 1740-1786; he granted religious freedoms,

reduced censorship, and improved education in Russia• While he believed that certain practices were wrong, such as

serfdom, he did nothing to change it because he needed landowner support

• His greatest accomplishment was calling himself “servant of the state”, which promoted the idea that the monarch was in power to uphold the three natural rights that John Locke discussed

Joseph II• Son and successor of Maria-Theresa in Austria, he ruled

from 1780-1790 • He stressed religious tolerance for Jews, Protestants, and

Orthodox Christians• He ended serfdom and ordered that all serfs be paid in cashCatherine the Great• Ruled Russia from 1762-1796; regularly wrote with Voltaire • In 1767, Catherine formed a commission to bring about

changes politically and religiously• She did little to improve lives of serfs– after the uprising of

1773 she realized she needed support of the noble class to retain control so she gave the nobles absolute control over the peasant class

Catherine Expands Russia• Following the footsteps of Peter the Great, Catherine wages

war against the Ottoman Turks for access to the Black Sea• Catherine also expanded the empire westward into Poland• As Russia entered the international dominance scene,

another world power (Britain) was facing colonial uprising in the Americas.

• The Enlightenment ideas had spread all the way to the east coast of the United States, where colonial leaders broke away from the mother country and founded a republic