SEB-025 Parking Monitoring System

8/9/2019 SEB-025 Parking Monitoring System

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Intelligent Car Parking Management Systemusing Microcontroller

Project ReportSUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR

THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE

OF

BACHELOR OF ECH!OLO"#

(Electronics & o!!"nic#tion En$ineerin$%

SUBMITTED B

SA!$EEP %&MAR

''()*'*

Under the guidance of

Er+ !a,neet %aur

Assistant Pro-essor

S.a.ee/ &/.am Sing. Collage o- Engineering an/ ec.nology angoriMo.ali0Punja1

P&!2AB ECH!ICAL &!I3ERSI #

2ALA!$HAR0P&!2AB4I!$IA5


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$ECLARA IO!

I 'ere ) *ecl#re t'#t t'e +or, +'ic' is ein$ -resente* in t'e *issert#tion entitle*

6I! ELLI"E! CAR PAR%I!" MA!A"EME! S#S EM &SI!"

MICROCO! ROLLER7 s" !itte* in -#rti#l ."l.ill!ent o. re/"ire!ents .or t'e #+#r* o. *e$ree o. B#c'elor o. Tec'nolo$) in Electronics #n* o!!"nic#tion En$ineerin$ in t'e

De-#rt!ent o. Electronics #n* o!!"nic#tion En$ineerin$ #t S.a.ee/ &/.am Sing. Collage

o- Engineering an/ ec.nology angori Mo.ali "n*er t'e Punja1 ec.nical

&ni,ersity02alan/.ar is #n #"t'entic recor* o. !) o+n +or, c#rrie* o"t #t SUS ET0T#n$ori

c#!-"s "n*er t'e s"-er1ision o. Er+ !a,neet %aur 2T'e !#teri#l e! o*ie* in t'is -ro3ect '#s

not een s" !itte* to #n) ot'er "ni1ersit) or instit"*e .or t'e re+#r* o. B2Tec' De$ree2

!ame o- Stu/ent

''()*'*

T'is is to certi.) t'#t t'e # o1e st#te!ent !#*e ) t'e c#n*i*#te is corrent to t'e est o. !)

,no+le*$e

!ame o- "ui/e

Er+ !a,neet %aur


3/87

CER IFICA E

T'is is to certi.) t'#t t'e -ro3ect entitle* 4INTELLIGENT AR PAR5ING MANAGEMENT

S STEM USING MI RO ONTROLLER6 is t'e on#.i*e +or, c#rrie* o"t ) SANDEEP

5UMAR st"*ent o. B2Tec' 0 P"n3# Tec'nolo$) Uni1ersit)07#l#n*'#r0*"rin$ t'e )e#r 89:;0in

-#rti#l ."l.ill!ent o. t'e re/"ire!ents .or t'e #+#r* o. t'e De$ree o. B#c'elor o. Electronics #n*

co!!"nic#tion En$ineerin$ #n* t'#t t'e -ro3ect '#s not .or!e* t'e #sis .or t'e #+#r*

-re1io"sl) o. #n) *e$ree0 *i-lo!#0 #ssoci#tes'i-0 .ello+s'i- or #n) ot'er si!il#r title2

Signature o- t.e "ui/e8

Place8

$ate8


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AC%!O9LE$"EME!

I #! 'i$'l) $r#te."l to t'e Pro- A+S+ BA29A0 HOD(E2 2E2% o. S'#'ee* U*'#! Sin$' oll#$e

o. En$ineerin$ & Tec'nolo$)0 T#n$ori(Mo'#li%0 .or -ro1i*in$ t'is o--ort"nit) to c#rr) o"t t'e

-ro3ect "n*er $"i*#nce2

It $i1es !e $re#t s#tis.ic#tion on co!-letion o. Pro3ect entitle* 4 I! ELLI"E! CAR

PAR%I!" MA!A"EME! S#S EM &SI!" MICROCO! ROLLER7+ T'e entire

3o"rne) .ro! t'e 1er) i*e# o. t'is -ro3ect to re#lit) +o"l* not '#1e een -ossi le +it'o"t t'e

$"i*#nce #n* s"--ort o. $"i*#nce2

I #! *ee-l) in*e te* to !) -ro3ect $"i*e ER+ !A3!EE %A&R s'#rin$ t'eir insi$'ts on t'e

to-ics #n* .or ein$ # const#nt so"rce o. ins-ir#tion & co"r#$e *"rin$ t'e entire -ro3ect+or,2S'e +#s #l+#)s #1#il# le


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I>

a1le o- contents

CHAP ER

!O+ I LE PA"E !O+

Title P#$e ::::::::+:::::::+::::::::::+++i

Decl#r#tion o. t'e St"*ent :::::::::::::::::+++++++++++ii

erti.ic#te :::::::::::::++::::::::::::++iii

Ac,no+le*$e!ent :::::::::::::::::::::: 222i,

T# le o. ontents :::::::::::::::::::::::,

C.apter ' I! RO$&C IO!

:2: Pro3ect O1er1ie+ ::++:::++::::::+:::::::+:+++*:28 Bloc, Di#$r#! :::::::::::::::::::::+:;

C.apter < S#S EM $ESI"! A!$ 9OR%I!" ::::::::::::+::+++;

82: H#r*+#re Descri-tion ::::::::::::::::::+:;

828 So.t+#re Descri-tion :::::::::::::::::+::;=

C.apter > CIRC&I $IA"RAM +++::::::::::::++:+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ ;?

C.apter ) SOF 9ARE CO$ES:::::::::::::++:+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ **


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CHAP ER@ '

I! RO$&C IO!

'+' Project o,er,ie

T'e n"! ers o. 1e'icles #re incre#sin$ #t # 1er) r#-i* r#te2 To !#n#$e t'ese 1e'icles t'ere is #nee* o. # -ro-er -#r,in$ s)ste!2 T'e !ost co!!on -ro le! o.ten enco"ntere* +'ile *e#lin$+it' 1e'icles is t'e o1er?cro+*in$ o. -#r,in$ -l#ces0 +'ic' .in#ll) le#*s to t'e +#st#$e o. ."el#n* -recio"s ti!e o. -eo-le2

T'e "lti!#te #i! o. t'e tec'nolo$) is to re*"ce t'e lo#* on -eo-le #n* e#se t'e!0 so 'ere is #nee* to *e1elo- #n #"to!#tic -#r,in$ s)ste!0 +'ic' c#n !#n#$e t'e n"! er o. c#rs insi*e #

-#r,in$ #re#2 It !"st '#1e t'e -ro1ision to in.or! t'e -erson tr)in$ to enter t'e -#r,in$ #re#0+'et'er # s-#ce to -#r, t'e 1e'icle is #1#il# le insi*e t'e -#r,in$ #re#2

In t'e -ro3ect 4Intelli$ent #r P#r,in$ M#n#$e!ent S)ste! "sin$ !icrocontroller6 +e '#1es'o+n t'e conce-t o. #n #"to!#tic c#r -#r,in$ s)ste!2 As in t'e !o*ern +orl* e1er)t'in$ is$oin$ #"to!#tic +e '#1e "ilt # s)ste! +'ic' +ill #"to!#tic#ll) sense t'e in t'e -#r,in$ lot #n**is-l#)s it on t'e L D +e#t'er t'e slot is ."ll or e!-t)2 T'e 'e#rt o. t'e -ro3ect is AT@ :!icrocontroller2

T'e AT@ : is # lo+?-o+er0 'i$'?-er.or!#nce MOS @? it !icrocontroller +it' C5 )tes o. in?s)ste! -ro$r#!!# le Fl#s' !e!or)2 T'e *e1ice is !#n".#ct"re* "sin$ At!el s 'i$'?*ensit)non1ol#tile !e!or) tec'nolo$) #n* is co!-#ti le +it' t'e in*"str)?st#n*#r* @9 : instr"ctionset #n* -in o"t2 T'e on?c'i- Fl#s' #llo+s t'e -ro$r#! !e!or) to e re-ro$r#!!e* in?s)ste! or

) # con1ention#l non1ol#tile !e!or) -ro$r#!!er2 B) co! inin$ # 1ers#tile @? it PU +it' in?s)ste! -ro$r#!!# le Fl#s' on # !onolit'ic c'i-0 t'e At!el s AT@ : is # -o+er."l!icrocontroller +'ic' -ro1i*es # 'i$'l)?.le=i le #n* cost?e..ecti1e sol"tion to !#n) e! e**e*control #--lic#tions2 T'e AT@ S 8 -ro1i*es t'e .ollo+in$ st#n*#r* .e#t"res @5 )tes o. Fl#s'08 )tes o. RAM0 ;8 I O lines0 W#tc'*o$ ti!er0 t+o *#t# -ointers0 t'ree : ? it ti!er co"nters0

# si=?1ector t+o?le1el interr"-t #rc'itect"re0 # ."ll *"-le= seri#l -ort0 on?c'i- oscill#tor0 #n*cloc, circ"itr)2 In #**ition0 t'e AT@ : is *esi$ne* +it' st#tic lo$ic .or o-er#tion *o+n to ero.re/"enc) #n* s"--orts t+o so.t+#re select# le -o+er s#1in$ !o*es2


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BLOC% $IA"RAM8

L D

M U

IR

SENSOR 8

IR

SENSOR :

POWER SUPPL

OMPARATOR :


8/87

CHAP ER@ <

S#S EM $ESI"! A!$ 9OR%I!"


9/87

Indicator In*ic#tors #re "se* to in*ic#te t'#t t'e -o+er s"--l) is on #n* +or,in$ -ro-erl)2 T'e !ost co!!onl) "se* in*ic#tors "se* #re le*2 T'e le* in*ic#tor c#n ne1er econnecte* *irectl) #n* it is #--lie* 1i# resist#nce +ire et+een o"t-"ts #n* le*2 In*ic#tor is l#st st#$e o. t'e -o+er s"--l) #n* it #lso s'o+s t'#t t'e -o+er s"--l) is +or,in$correctl)2

TRANSFORMER

FIG282: TRANSFORMER

Tr#ns.or!er is # *e1ice t'#t tr#ns.ers electric#l ener$) .ro! one circ"it to #not'er t'ro"$' in*"cti1el) co"-le* con*"ctors J t'e tr#ns.or!er s coils or K+in*in$sK2

Tr#ns.or!ers0 t'e con*"ctors #re co!!onl) +o"n* #ro"n* # sin$le iron?ric' core0 or #ro"n*se-#r#te "t !#$netic#ll) co"-le* cores2 A 1#r)in$ c"rrent in t'e .irst or K-ri!#r)K +in*in$cre#tes # 1#r)in$ !#$netic .iel* in t'e core (or cores% o. t'e tr#ns.or!er2 T'is 1#r)in$ !#$netic.iel* in*"ces # 1#r)in$ electro!oti1e .orce (EMF% or K1olt#$eK in t'e Ksecon*#r)K +in*in$2 T'ise..ect is c#lle* !"t"#l in*"ction2 I. # lo#* is connecte* to t'e secon*#r) circ"it0 electric c'#r$e+ill .lo+ in t'e secon*#r) +in*in$ o. t'e tr#ns.or!er #n* tr#ns.er ener$) .ro! t'e -ri!#r)circ"it to t'e lo#* connecte* in t'e secon*#r) circ"it2 T'e secon*#r) in*"ce* 1olt#$e !S 0 o. #ni*e#l tr#ns.or!er0 is sc#le* .ro! t'e -ri!#r) !P ) # .#ctor e/"#l to t'e r#tio o. t'e n"! er o.

t"rns o. +ire in t'eir res-ecti1e +in*in$s B) #--ro-ri#te selection o. t'e n"! ers o. t"rns0 #tr#ns.or!er t'"s #llo+s #n #ltern#tin$ 1olt#$e to e ste--e* "- J ) !#,in$ NS !ore t'#n NP

J or ste--e* *o+n0 ) !#,in$ it

T'e secon*#r) in*"ce* 1olt#$e ! S 0 o. #n i*e#l tr#ns.or!er0 is sc#le* .ro! t'e -ri!#r) ! P ) #.#ctor e/"#l to t'e r#tio o. t'e n"! er o. t"rns o. +ire in t'eir res-ecti1e +in*in$s


10/87

Tr#ns.or!ers #re o. t+o t)-es

:2 Ste- "- tr#ns.or!er 82 Ste- *o+n tr#ns.or!er

In -o+er s"--l) +e "se ste- *o+n tr#ns.or!er2 We #--l) 889> A on t'e -ri!#r) o. ste- *o+ntr#ns.or!er2 T'is tr#ns.or!er ste-s *o+n t'is 1olt#$e to > A 2 We $i1e t'is > A to recti.ier circ"it0 +'ic' con1ert it to > D 2

"ASI# PARTS OF A TRANSFORMER

In its !ost #sic .or! # tr#ns.or!er consists o.A -ri!#r) coil or +in*in$2A secon*#r) coil or +in*in$2A core t'#t s"--orts t'e coils or +in*in$s2T'e -ri!#r) +in*in$ is connecte* to # 9?'ert #c 1olt#$e so"rce2 T'e !#$netic .iel* (.l"=%

"il*s "- (e=-#n*s% #n* coll#-ses (contr#cts% # o"t t'e -ri!#r) +in*in$2 T'e e=-#n*in$ #n*contr#ctin$ !#$netic .iel* #ro"n* t'e -ri!#r) +in*in$ c"ts t'e secon*#r) +in*in$ #n* in*"ces#n #ltern#tin$ 1olt#$e into t'e +in*in$2 T'is 1olt#$e c#"ses #ltern#tin$ c"rrent to .lo+ t'ro"$'t'e lo#*2 T'e 1olt#$e !#) e ste--e* "- or *o+n *e-en*in$ on t'e *esi$n o. t'e -ri!#r) #n*secon*#r) +in*in$2

FIG2828T$E #OMPONENTS OF A TRANSFORMERT+o coils o. +ire (c#lle* +in*in$s% #re +o"n* on so!e t)-e o. core !#teri#l2 In so!e c#ses t'ecoils o. +ire #re +o"n* on # c)lin*ric#l or rect#n$"l#r c#r* o#r* .or!2 In e..ect0 t'e core!#teri#l is #ir #n* t'e tr#ns.or!er is c#lle* #n AIR? ORE TRANSFORMER2 Tr#ns.or!ers "se*#t lo+ .re/"encies0 s"c' #s 9 'ert #n* C99 'ert 0 re/"ire # core o. lo+?rel"ct#nce !#$netic!#teri#l0 "s"#ll) iron2 T'is t)-e o. tr#ns.or!er is c#lle* #n IRON? ORE TRANSFORMER2


11/87

Most -o+er tr#ns.or!ers #re o. t'e iron?core t)-e2 T'e -rinci-le -#rts o. # tr#ns.or!er #n* t'eir ."nctions #reT'e ORE0 +'ic' -ro1i*es # -#t' .or t'e !#$netic lines o. .l"=2T'e PRIMAR WINDING0 +'ic' recei1es ener$) .ro! t'e #c so"rce2T'e SE ONDAR WINDING0 +'ic' recei1es ener$) .ro! t'e -ri!#r) +in*in$ #n* *eli1ers it

to t'e lo#*2T'e EN LOSURE0 +'ic' -rotects t'e # o1e co!-onents .ro! *irt0 !oist"re0 #n* !ec'#nic#l*#!#$e2

RE#TIFIER

T'e !#in co!-onent o. recti.ier circ"it is *io*e2 T'"s e.ore e=-l#inin$ recti.ier +e s'o"l*,no+ # o"t *io*es 2

%iodes

FIG282;2

irc"it s)! ol

FIG282C2

Function

Dio*es #llo+ electricit) to .lo+ in onl) one *irection2 T'e #rro+ o. t'e circ"it s)! ol s'o+s t'e*irection in +'ic' t'e c"rrent c#n .lo+2 Dio*es #re t'e electric#l 1ersion o. # 1#l1e #n* e#rl)*io*es +ere #ct"#ll) c#lle* 1#l1es2

For&ard !oltage %ro'


12/87

Electricit) "ses "- # little ener$) -"s'in$ its +#) t'ro"$' t'e *io*e0 r#t'er li,e # -erson -"s'in$t'ro"$' # *oor +it' # s-rin$2 T'is !e#ns t'#t t'ere is # s!#ll 1olt#$e #cross # con*"ctin$ *io*e0it is c#lle* t'e .or+#r* 1olt#$e *ro- #n* is # o"t 92 > .or #ll nor!#l *io*es +'ic' #re !#*e .ro!silicon2 T'e .or+#r* 1olt#$e *ro- o. # *io*e is #l!ost const#nt +'#te1er t'e c"rrent -#ssin$t'ro"$' t'e *io*e so t'e) '#1e # 1er) stee- c'#r#cteristic (c"rrent?1olt#$e $r#-'%2

Re(erse !oltage

W'en # re1erse 1olt#$e is #--lie* # -er.ect *io*e *oes not con*"ct0 "t #ll re#l *io*es le#, #1er) tin) c"rrent o. # .e+ A or less2 T'is c#n e i$nore* in !ost circ"its ec#"se it +ill e 1er)!"c' s!#ller t'#n t'e c"rrent .lo+in$ in t'e .or+#r* *irection2 Ho+e1er0 #ll *io*es '#1e #!#=i!"! re1erse 1olt#$e ("s"#ll) 9> or !ore% #n* i. t'is is e=cee*e* t'e *io*e +ill .#il #n*

-#ss # l#r$e c"rrent in t'e re1erse *irection0 t'is is c#lle* re#,*o+n2Or*in#r) *io*es c#n e s-lit into t+o t)-es Si$n#l *io*es +'ic' -#ss s!#ll c"rrents o. :99!Aor less #n* Recti.ier *io*es +'ic' c#n -#ss l#r$e c"rrents2 In #**ition t'ere #re LEDs #n* ener *io*es 2

#onnecting and soldering

Dio*es !"st e connecte* t'e correct +#) ro"n*0 t'e *i#$r#! !#) el# ele* # or .or #no*e #n* , or @ .or c#t'o*e ()es0 it re#ll) is ,0 not c0.or c#t'o*e %2 T'e c#t'o*e is !#r,e* ) # line -#inte* on t'e o*)2Dio*es #re l# ele* +it' t'eir co*e in s!#ll -rint< )o" !#) nee* #!#$ni.)in$ $l#ss to re#* t'is on s!#ll si$n#l *io*es

S!#ll si$n#l *io*es c#n e *#!#$e* ) 'e#t +'en sol*erin$0 "t t'eris, is s!#ll "nless )o" #re "sin$ # $er!#ni"! *io*e (co*es e$innin$ OA222% in +'ic' c#se )o"

s'o"l* "se # 'e#t sin, cli--e* to t'e le#* et+een t'e 3oint #n* t'e *io*e o*)2 A st#n*#r*croco*ile cli- c#n e "se* #s # 'e#t sin,2

Recti.ier *io*es #re /"ite ro "st #n* no s-eci#l -rec#"tions #re nee*e* .or sol*erin$ t'e!2

Testing diodes

o" c#n "se # !"lti!eter or # si!-le tester ( #tter)0 resistor #n* LED% to c'ec, t'#t # *io*econ*"cts in one *irection "t not t'e ot'er2 A l#!- !#) e "se* to test # recti.ier *io*e 0 "t *o

NOT "se # l#!- to test # si$n#l *io*e ec#"se t'e l#r$e c"rrent -#sse* ) t'e l#!- +ill *estro)t'e *io*e

Signal diodes )small current*

http://var/www/16F877-A/Customer%20Support%20Files/diode.htm#signalhttp://var/www/16F877-A/Customer%20Support%20Files/diode.htm#rectifierhttp://www.kpsec.freeuk.com/components/led.htmhttp://var/www/16F877-A/Customer%20Support%20Files/diode.htm#zenerhttp://var/www/16F877-A/Customer%20Support%20Files/diode.htm#zenerhttp://www.kpsec.freeuk.com/multimtr.htm#diodehttp://www.kpsec.freeuk.com/projects/simplet.htmhttp://www.kpsec.freeuk.com/projects/simplet.htmhttp://var/www/16F877-A/Customer%20Support%20Files/diode.htm#rectifierhttp://var/www/16F877-A/Customer%20Support%20Files/diode.htm#signalhttp://var/www/16F877-A/Customer%20Support%20Files/diode.htm#rectifierhttp://www.kpsec.freeuk.com/components/led.htmhttp://var/www/16F877-A/Customer%20Support%20Files/diode.htm#zenerhttp://var/www/16F877-A/Customer%20Support%20Files/diode.htm#zenerhttp://www.kpsec.freeuk.com/multimtr.htm#diodehttp://www.kpsec.freeuk.com/projects/simplet.htmhttp://var/www/16F877-A/Customer%20Support%20Files/diode.htm#rectifierhttp://var/www/16F877-A/Customer%20Support%20Files/diode.htm#signalhttp://var/www/16F877-A/Customer%20Support%20Files/diode.htm#signal


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Si$n#l *io*es #re "se* to -rocess in.or!#tion (electric#l si$n#ls% in circ"its0 so t'e) #re onl)re/"ire* to -#ss s!#ll c"rrents o. "- to :99!A2 Gener#l -"r-ose si$n#l *io*es s"c' #s t'e:NC:C@ #re !#*e .ro! silicon #n* '#1e # .or+#r* 1olt#$e *ro- o. 92 >2

Ger!#ni"! *io*es s"c' #s t'e OA 9 '#1e # lo+er .or+#r* 1olt#$e *ro- o. 928> #n* t'is !#,es

t'e! s"it# le to "se in r#*io circ"its #s *etectors +'ic' e=tr#ct t'e #"*io si$n#l .ro! t'e +e#, r#*io si$n#l2

For $ener#l "se0 +'ere t'e si e o. t'e .or+#r* 1olt#$e *ro- is less i!-ort#nt0 silicon *io*es #re etter ec#"se t'e) #re less e#sil) *#!#$e* ) 'e#t +'en sol*erin$0 t'e) '#1e # lo+er resist#nce+'en con*"ctin$0 #n* t'e) '#1e 1er) lo+ le#,#$e c"rrents +'en # re1erse 1olt#$e is #--lie*2

Protection diodes for rela+s

Si$n#l *io*es #re #lso "se* to -rotect tr#nsistors #n* I s .ro! t'e rie. 'i$' 1olt#$e -ro*"ce*+'en # rel#) coil is s+itc'e* o..2 T'e *i#$r#! s'o+s 'o+ # -rotection *io*e is connecte*

#c,+#r*s #cross t'e rel#) coil2

"rrent .lo+in$ t'ro"$' # rel#) coil cre#tes # !#$netic .iel* +'ic' coll#-ses s"**enl) +'en t'ec"rrent is s+itc'e* o..2 T'e s"**en coll#-se o. t'e !#$netic .iel* in*"ces # rie. 'i$' 1olt#$e#cross t'e rel#) coil +'ic' is 1er) li,el) to *#!#$e tr#nsistors #n* I s2 T'e -rotection *io*e#llo+s t'e in*"ce* 1olt#$e to *ri1e # rie. c"rrent t'ro"$' t'e coil (#n* *io*e% so t'e !#$netic.iel* *ies #+#) /"ic,l) r#t'er t'#n inst#ntl)2 T'is -re1ents t'e in*"ce* 1olt#$e eco!in$ 'i$'eno"$' to c#"se *#!#$e to tr#nsistors #n* I s2

Rectifier diodes )large current*

Recti.ier *io*es #re "se* in -o+er s"--lies tocon1ert #ltern#tin$ c"rrent (A % to *irectc"rrent (D %0 # -rocess c#lle* recti.ic#tion2 T'e)#re #lso "se* else+'ere in circ"its +'ere # l#r$ec"rrent !"st -#ss t'ro"$' t'e *io*e2

All recti.ier *io*es #re !#*e .ro! silicon #n*t'ere.ore '#1e # .or+#r* 1olt#$e *ro- o. 92 >2T'e t# le s'o+s !#=i!"! c"rrent #n* !#=i!"! re1erse 1olt#$e .or so!e -o-"l#r recti.ier *io*es2 T'e :NC99: is s"it# le .or !ost lo+ 1olt#$e circ"its +it' # c"rrent o. less t'#n :A2


14/87

APPLI#ATION Dio*es Recti.ic#tion0 .ree?+'eelin$0 etc2

ener *io*e >olt#$e control0 re$"l#tor etc2T"nnel *io*e ontrol t'e c"rrent .lo+0 sno ier circ"it0 etc2

RE#TIFIER

Recti.ic#tion is t'e con1ersion o. #ltern#tin$ c"rrent (A % to *irect c"rrent (D %2 T'is in1ol1es #*e1ice t'#t onl) #llo+s one?+#) .lo+ o. electrons2 T'is is e=#ctl) +'#t # se!icon*"ctor *io*e*oes2

A ,alf-&a(e recti.ier is # circ"it t'#t #llo+s onl) one '#l.?c)cle o. t'e A 1olt#$e +#1e.or! to e #--lie* to t'e lo#*0 res"ltin$ in one non?#ltern#tin$ -ol#rit) #cross it2 T'e res"ltin$ D*eli1ere* to t'e lo#* 4-"ls#tes6 si$ni.ic#ntl)2

A full-&a(e recti.ier is # circ"it t'#t con1erts ot' '#l.?c)cles o. t'e A 1olt#$e +#1e.or! to #n

"n ro,en series o. 1olt#$e -"lses o. t'e s#!e -ol#rit)2 T'e res"ltin$ D *eli1ere* to t'e lo#**oesn t 4-"ls#te6 #s !"c'2 Pol)-'#se #ltern#tin$ c"rrent0 +'en recti.ie*0 $i1es # !"c' 4s!oot'er6 D +#1e.or!(less

ri''le 1olt#$e% t'#n recti.ie* sin$le?-'#se A 2

$ALF WA!E RE#TIFIER

T'e si!-lest ,in* o. recti.ier circ"it is t'e ,alf-&a(e recti.ier2 It onl) #llo+s one '#l. o. #n A+#1e.or! to -#ss t'ro"$' to t'e lo#*2 For !ost -o+er #--lic#tions0 '#l.?+#1e recti.ic#tion is ins"..icient .or t'e t#s,2 T'e '#r!oniccontent o. t'e recti.ier s o"t-"t +#1e.or! is 1er) l#r$e #n* conse/"entl) *i..ic"lt to .ilter2F"rt'er!ore0 t'e A -o+er so"rce onl) s"--lies -o+er to t'e lo#* one '#l. e1er) ."ll c)cle0!e#nin$ t'#t '#l. o. its c#-#cit) is "n"se*2 H#l.?+#1e recti.ic#tion is0 'o+e1er0 # 1er) si!-le+#) to re*"ce -o+er to # resisti1e lo#*2

FULL WA!E RE#TIFIER

I. +e nee* to recti.) A -o+er to o t#in t'e ."ll "se o. .ot, '#l.?c)cles o. t'e sine +#1e0 #*i..erent recti.ier circ"it con.i$"r#tion !"st e "se*2 S"c' # circ"it is c#lle* # ."ll?+#1e recti.ier2One ,in* o. ."ll?+#1e recti.ier0 c#lle* t'e center?t#- *esi$n0 "ses # tr#ns.or!er +it' # center?t#--e* secon*#r) +in*in$ #n* t+o *io*es0T'is circ"it s o-er#tion is e#sil) "n*erstoo* one '#l.?c)cle #t # ti!e2

onsi*er t'e .irst '#l. c)cle0 +'en t'e so"rce 1olt#$e -ol#rit) is -ositi1e ( % on to- #n* ne$#ti1e(?% on otto!2 At t'is ti!e0 onl) t'e to- *io*e is con*"ctin$< t'e otto! *io*e is loc,in$c"rrent0 #n* t'e lo#* 4sees6 t'e .irst '#l. o. t'e sine +#1e0 -ositi1e on to- #n* ne$#ti1e on

otto!2 Onl) t'e to- '#l. o. t'e tr#ns.or!er s secon*#r) +in*in$ c#rries c"rrent *"rin$ t'is '#l.?c)cle2 D"rin$ t'e ne=t '#l.?c)cle0 t'e A -ol#rit) re1erses2 No+0 t'e ot'er *io*e #n* t'e ot'er '#l. o. t'e tr#ns.or!er s secon*#r) +in*in$ c#rr) c"rrent +'ile t'e -ortions o. t'e circ"it.or!erl) c#rr)in$ c"rrent *"rin$ t'e l#st '#l.?c)cle sit i*le2 T'e lo#* still 4sees6 '#l. o. # sine+#1e0 o. t'e s#!e -ol#rit) #s e.ore -ositi1e on to- #n* ne$#ti1e on otto!2

Dio*e M#=i!"!"rrent

M#=i!"!Re1erse>olt#$e

:NC99: :A 9>

:NC998 :A :99>

:NC99 :A :999>

:N C9: ;A :99>

:N C9@ ;A :999>


15/87

One *is#*1#nt#$e o. t'is ."ll?+#1e recti.ier *esi$n is t'e necessit) o. # tr#ns.or!er +it' # center?t#--e* secon*#r) +in*in$2 I. t'e circ"it in /"estion is one o. 'i$' -o+er0 t'e si e #n* e=-ense o. # s"it# le tr#ns.or!er is si$ni.ic#nt2 onse/"entl)0 t'e center?t#- recti.ier *esi$n is onl) seen inlo+?-o+er #--lic#tions2T'e ."ll?+#1e center?t#--e* recti.ier -ol#rit) #t t'e lo#* !#) e re1erse* ) c'#n$in$ t'e

*irection o. t'e *io*es2 F"rt'er!ore0 t'e re1erse* *io*es c#n e -#r#llele* +it' #n e=istin$ -ositi1e?o"t-"t recti.ier2 T'e res"lt is *"#l?-ol#rit) ."ll?+#1e center?t#--e* recti.ier2

"RI%/E RE#TIFIER

A ri*$e recti.ier !#,es "se o. .o"r *io*es in # ri*$e #rr#n$e!ent to #c'ie1e ."ll?+#1erecti.ic#tion2 T'is is # +i*el) "se* con.i$"r#tion0 ot' +it' in*i1i*"#l *io*es +ire* #n* +it'sin$le co!-onent ri*$es +'ere t'e *io*e ri*$e is +ire* intern#ll)2

Accor*in$ to t'e con1ention#l !o*el o. c"rrent .lo+ ori$in#ll) est# lis'e* ) Ben3#!in Fr#n,lin#n* still .ollo+e* ) !ost en$ineers to*#)0 c"rrent is #ss"!e* to .lo+ t'ro"$' electric#l

on*"ctors .ro! t'e -ositi1e to t'e ne$#ti1e -ole2 In #ct"#lit)0 .ree electrons in # con*"ctor ne#rl) #l+#)s .lo+ .ro! t'e ne$#ti1e to t'e -ositi1e -ole2 In t'e 1#st !#3orit) o. #--lic#tions0'o+e1er0 t'e irrele1#nt2 T'ere.ore0 in t'e *isc"ssion elo+ t'e con1ention#l !o*el is ret#ine*2It is "ilt #ro"n* # .o"r?*io*e ri*$e con.i$"r#tion2 For o 1io"s re#sons0 t'is *esi$n is c#lle* #."ll?+#1e ri*$e2T'e c"rrent .lo+ is t'ro"$' t+o *io*es in series .or ot' -ol#rities2 T'"s0 t+o *io*e *ro-s o. t'eso"rce 1olt#$e #re lost (92 8 :2C > .or Si% in t'e *io*es2 T'is is # *is#*1#nt#$e co!-#re* +it' #."ll?+#1e center?t#- *esi$n2 T'is *is#*1#nt#$e is onl) # -ro le! in 1er) lo+ 1olt#$e -o+er s"--lies2 Dio*es in # ."ll?+#1e ri*$e recti.ier circ"it c#n o.ten e .r"str#tin$ to t'e ne+ st"*ento. electronics2

T,e #a'acitor Filter #-#citor -#ssi1e electronic co!-onent consistin$ o. # -#ir o. con*"ctors se-#r#te* ) #

*ielectric2 W'en # 1olt#$e -otenti#l *i..erence e=ists et+een t'e con*"ctors0 #n electric .iel* is -resent in t'e *ielectric2 T'is .iel* stores ener$) #n* -ro*"ces # !ec'#nic#l .orce et+een t'e -l#tes2

An i*e#l c#-#citor is c'#r#cteri e* ) # sin$le const#nt 1#l"e0 c#-#cit#nce0 +'ic' is !e#s"re* in.#r#*s2

Q >


16/87

In # +#)0 # c#-#citor is # little li,e # #tter)2 Alt'o"$' t'e) +or, in co!-letel) *i..erent +#)s0c#-#citors #n* #tteries ot' store electric#l ener$)2 I. )o" '#1e re#* 'o+ B#tteries Wor,0 t'en

)o" ,no+s t'#t # #tter) '#s t+o ter!in#ls2 Insi*e t'e #tter)0 c'e!ic#l re#ctions -ro*"ceelectrons on one ter!in#l #n* # sor electrons #t t'e ot'er ter!in#l2 "ASI# Li,e # #tter)0 # c#-#citor '#s t+o ter!in#ls2 Insi*e t'e c#-#citor0 t'e ter!in#ls connect to t+o!et#l -l#tes se-#r#te* ) # *ielectric2 T'e *ielectric c#n e #ir0 -#-er0 -l#stic or #n)t'in$ elset'#t *oes not con*"ct electricit) #n* ,ee-s t'e -l#tes .ro! to"c'in$ e#c' ot'er2 o" c#n e#sil)!#,e # c#-#citor .ro! t+o -ieces o. #l"!in"! .oil #n* # -iece o. -#-er2 It +on t e #

-#rtic"l#rl) $oo* c#-#citor in ter!s o. its stor#$e c#-#cit)0 "t it +ill +or,2 In #n electroniccirc"it0 # c#-#citor is s'o+n li,e t'is W'en )o" connect # c#-#citor to # #tter)0 'ere s +'#t'#--ens

T'e -l#te on t'e c#-#citor t'#t #tt#c'es to t'e ne$#ti1e ter!in#l o. t'e #tter) #cce-ts electronst'#t t'e #tter) is -ro*"cin$2

T'e -l#te on t'e c#-#citor t'#t #tt#c'es to t'e -ositi1e ter!in#l o. t'e #tter) loses electrons tot'e #tter)2

Function

#-#citors store electric c'#r$e2 T'e) #re "se* +it' resistors in ti!in$ circ"it ec#"se it t#,esti!e .or # c#-#citor to .ill +it' c'#r$e2 T'e) #re "se* to s!oot' 1#r)in$ D s"--lies ) #ctin$ #s


17/87

# reser1oir o. c'#r$e2 T'e) #re #lso "se* in .ilter circ"its ec#"se c#-#citors e#sil) -#ss A(c'#n$in$% si$n#ls "t t'e) loc, D (const#nt% si$n#ls2

#a'acitance

T'is is # !e#s"re o. # c#-#citor s # ilit) to store c'#r$e2 A l#r$e c#-#cit#nce !e#ns t'#t !orec'#r$e c#n e store*2 #-#cit#nce is !e#s"re* in .#r#*s0 s)! ol F2 Ho+e1er :F is 1er) l#r$e0 so -re.i=es #re "se* to s'o+ t'e s!#ller 1#l"es2

T'ree -re.i=es (!"lti-liers% #re "se*0 (!icro%0 n (n#no% #n* - (-ico%

• !e#ns :9 ? (!illiont'%0 so :999999 F :F• n !e#ns :9 ? (t'o"s#n*?!illiont'%0 so :999nF : F

• - !e#ns :9 ?:8 (!illion?!illiont'%0 so :999-F :nF

#-#citor 1#l"es c#n e 1er) *i..ic"lt to .in* ec#"se t'ere #re !#n) t)-es o. c#-#citor +it'*i..erent l# elin$ s)ste!s

T'ere #re !#n) t)-es o. c#-#citor "t t'e) c#n e s-lit into t+o $ro"-s0 -ol#ri e* #n* "n? -ol#ri e*2 E#c' $ro"- '#s its o+n circ"it s)! ol2

Polari0ed ca'acitors )large (alues1 23F 4*

irc"it s)! ol

Electrol+tic #a'acitors

Electrol)tic c#-#citors #re -ol#ri e* #n* t'e) !"st e connecte* t'e correct +#) ro"n*0 #t le#stone o. t'eir le#*s +ill e !#r,e* or ?2 T'e) #re not *#!#$e* ) 'e#t +'en sol*erin$2

T'ere #re t+o *esi$ns o. electrol)tic c#-#citors< #=i#l +'ere t'e le#*s #re #tt#c'e* to e#c' en*(889 F in -ict"re% #n* r#*i#l +'ere ot' le#*s #re #t t'e s#!e en* (:9 F in -ict"re%2 R#*i#lc#-#citors ten* to e # little s!#ller #n* t'e) st#n* "-ri$'t on t'e circ"it o#r*2

It is e#s) to .in* t'e 1#l"e o. electrol)tic c#-#citors ec#"se t'e) #re cle#rl) -rinte* +it' t'eir c#-#cit#nce #n* 1olt#$e r#tin$2 T'e 1olt#$e r#tin$ c#n e /"ite lo+ ( > .or e=#!-le% #n* its'o"l* #l+#)s e c'ec,e* +'en selectin$ #n electrol)tic c#-#citor2 I. t'e -ro3ect -#rts list *oesnot s-eci.) # 1olt#$e0 c'oose # c#-#citor +it' # r#tin$ +'ic' is $re#ter t'#n t'e -ro3ect s -o+er s"--l) 1olt#$e2 8 > is # sensi le !ini!"! .or !ost #tter) circ"its2

Tantalum "ead #a'acitors


18/87

T#nt#l"! e#* c#-#citors #re -ol#ri e* #n* '#1e lo+ 1olt#$e r#tin$s li,e electrol)tic c#-#citors2T'e) #re e=-ensi1e "t 1er) s!#ll0 so t'e) #re "se* +'ere # l#r$e c#-#cit#nce is nee*e* in #s!#ll si e2

Mo*ern t#nt#l"! e#* c#-#citors #re -rinte* +it' t'eir c#-#cit#nce0 1olt#$e #n* -ol#rit) in ."ll2

Ho+e1er ol*er ones "se # color?co*e s)ste! +'ic' '#s t+o stri-es (.or t'e t+o *i$its% #n* # s-oto. color .or t'e n"! er o. eros to $i1e t'e 1#l"e in F2 T'e st#n*#r* color co*e is "se*0 "t .or t'e s-ot0 $re) is "se* to !e#n 929: #n* +'ite !e#ns 92: so t'#t 1#l"es o. less t'#n :9 F c#n

e s'o+n2 A t'ir* color stri-e ne#r t'e le#*s s'o+s t'e 1olt#$e ()ello+ 2;>0 l#c, :9>0 $reen: >0 l"e 89>0 $re) 8 >0 +'ite ;9>0 -in, ; >%2 T'e -ositi1e ( % le#* is to t'e ri$'t +'en t'es-ot is .#cin$ )o" +'en t'e s-ot is in si$'t0 t'e -ositi1e is to t'e ri$'t 2

For e=#!-le l"e0 $re)0 l#c, s-ot !e#ns @ FFor e=#!-le l"e0 $re)0 +'ite s-ot !e#ns 2@ FFor e=#!-le l"e0 $re)0 $re) s-ot !e#ns 92 @ F

Un-'olari0ed ca'acitors )small (alues1 u' to 23F*

irc"it s)! ol

S!#ll 1#l"e c#-#citors #re "n?-ol#ri e* #n* !#) e connecte* eit'er +#) ro"n*2 T'e) #re not*#!#$e* ) 'e#t +'en sol*erin$0 e=ce-t .or one "n"s"#l t)-e (-ol)st)rene%2 T'e) '#1e 'i$'1olt#$e r#tin$s o. #t le#st 9>0 "s"#ll) 8 9> or so2 It c#n e *i..ic"lt to .in* t'e 1#l"es o. t'eses!#ll c#-#citors ec#"se t'ere #re !#n) t)-es o. t'e! #n* se1er#l *i..erent l# elin$ s)ste!s

M#n) s!#ll 1#l"e c#-#citors '#1e t'eir 1#l"e -rinte* "t +it'o"t # !"lti-lier0 so

)o" nee* to "se e=-erience to +or, o"t +'#t t'e !"lti-lier s'o"l* e

For e=#!-le 92: !e#ns 92: F :99nF2

So!eti!es t'e !"lti-lier is "se* in -l#ce o. t'e *eci!#l -ointFor e=#!-le Cn !e#ns C2 nF2


19/87

#a'acitor Num.er #ode

A n"! er co*e is o.ten "se* on s!#ll c#-#citors +'ere -rintin$ is *i..ic"lt•

t'e :st n"! er is t'e :st *i$it0• t'e 8n* n"! er is t'e 8n* *i$it0

• T'e ;r* n"! er is t'e n"! er o. eros to $i1e t'e c#-#cit#nce in -F2

• I$nore #n) letters ? t'e) 3"st in*ic#te toler#nce #n* 1olt#$e r#tin$2

For e=#!-le :98 !e#ns :999-F :nF )not 256'F7*

For e=#!-le C 87 !e#ns C 99-F C2 nF (7 !e#ns toler#nce%2

#a'acitor #olor #ode

A color co*e +#s "se* on -ol)ester c#-#citors .or !#n) )e#rs2 It is no+ o solete0 "t o. co"rset'ere #re !#n) still #ro"n*2 T'e colors s'o"l* e re#* li,e t'e resistor co*e0 t'e to- t'ree color

#n*s $i1in$ t'e 1#l"e in -F2 I$nore t'e Ct' #n* (toler#nce% #n* t' #n*(1olt#$e r#tin$%2

For e=#!-le

Bro+n0 l#c,0 or#n$e !e#ns :9999-F :9nF 929: F2

Note t'#t t'ere #re no $#-s et+een t'e colors #n*s0 so 8 i*entic#l #n*s #ct"#ll)#--e#r #s # +i*e #n*2

For e=#!-le

Wi*e re*0 )ello+ !e#ns 889nF 9288 F2

Pol+st+rene #a'acitors

T'is t)-e is r#rel) "se* no+2 T'eir 1#l"e (in -F% is nor!#ll) -rinte*+it'o"t "nits2 Pol)st)rene c#-#citors c#n e *#!#$e* ) 'e#t +'ensol*erin$ (it !elts t'e -ol)st)rene % so )o" s'o"l* "se # 'e#t sin, (s"c' #s # croco*ile cli-%2 li- t'e 'e#t sin, to t'e le#* et+een t'e c#-#citor #n* t'e 3oint2

Real ca'acitor (alues )t,e E8 and E9 series*

o" !#) '#1e notice* t'#t c#-#citors #re not #1#il# le +it' e1er) -ossi le 1#l"e0 .or e=#!-le88 F #n* C F #re re#*il) #1#il# le0 "t 8 F #n* 9 F #re not


20/87

W') is t'isV I!#$ine t'#t )o" *eci*e* to !#,e c#-#citors e1er) :9 F $i1in$ :90 890 ;90 C90 9#n* so on2 T'#t see!s .ine0 "t +'#t '#--ens +'en )o" re#c' :999V It +o"l* e -ointless to!#,e :9990 :9:90 :9890 #n* :9;9 #n* so on ec#"se .or t'ese 1#l"es :9 is # 1er) s!#ll*i..erence0 too s!#ll to e notice# le in !ost circ"its #n* c#-#citors c#nnot e !#*e +it' t'#t#cc"r#c)2

To -ro*"ce # sensi le r#n$e o. c#-#citor 1#l"es )o" nee* to incre#se t'e si e o. t'e ste- #s t'e1#l"e incre#ses2 T'e st#n*#r* c#-#citor 1#l"es #re #se* on t'is i*e# #n* t'e) .or! # series+'ic' .ollo+s t'e s#!e -#ttern .or e1er) !"lti-le o. ten2

T,e E8 series (; 1#l"es .or e#c' !"lti-le o. ten%:90 880 C +++ t'en it contin"es :990 8890 C 90 :9990 88990 C 990 :9999 etc2

Notice 'o+ t'e ste- si e incre#ses #s t'e 1#l"e incre#ses (1#l"es ro"$'l) *o" le e#c' ti!e%2

T,e E9 series ( 1#l"es .or e#c' !"lti-le o. ten%:90 : 0 880 ;;0 C 0 @ 222 t'en it contin"es :990 : 90 8890 ;;90 C 90 @90 :999 etc2

Notice 'o+ t'is is t'e E; series +it' #n e=tr# 1#l"e in t'e $#-s2

T'e E; series is t'e one !ost .re/"entl) "se* .or c#-#citors ec#"se !#n) t)-es c#nnot e !#*e+it' 1er) #cc"r#te 1#l"es2

TESTIN/To test t'e c#-#citors0 eit'er #n#lo$ !eters or s-eci#l *i$it#l !eters +it' t'e s-eci.ie* ."nction#re "se*2 T'e non?electrol)te c#-#citor c#n e teste* ) "sin$ t'e *i$it#l !eter2 M"lti !eter !o*e ontin"it) Positi1e -ro e One en* Ne$#ti1e -ro e Secon* en* Dis-l#) X9X ( ee- so"n*occ"r% XOLX Res"lt F#"lt) O52

RE/ULATOR I# ):;%2 T'ere #re t+o t)-es o. 1olt#$e re$"l#tors :2 Fi=e* 1olt#$e re$"l#tors ( @==0 ==% 82 >#ri# le 1olt#$e re$"l#tors(LM;: %In .i=e* 1olt#$e re$"l#tors t'ere is #not'er cl#ssi.ic#tion :2 1e 1olt#$e re$"l#tors 82 ?1e 1olt#$ere$"l#tors POSITI>E >OLTAGE REGULATORS t'is incl"*e @== 1olt#$e re$"l#tors2 T'e!ost co!!onl) "se* ones #re @9 #n* @:82 @9 $i1es .i=e* > D 1olt#$e i. in-"t 1olt#$eis in ( 2 >0 89>%2


21/87

LE%

Li$'t E!ittin$ Dio*es

irc"it s)! ol ?

Function

LEDs e!it li$'t +'en #n electric c"rrent -#sses t'ro"$' t'e!2


LEDs !"st e connecte* t'e correct +#) ro"n*0 t'e *i#$r#! !#) e l# ele* #or .or #no*e #n* , or @ .or c#t'o*e ()es0 it re#ll) is ,0 not c0 .or c#t'o*e %2


22/87

T'e c#t'o*e is t'e s'ort le#* #n* t'ere !#) e # sli$'t .l#t on t'e o*) o. ro"n* LEDs2 I. )o"c#n see insi*e t'e LED t'e c#t'o*e is t'e l#r$er electro*e ( "t t'is is not #n o..ici#l i*enti.ic#tion!et'o*%2

LEDs c#n e *#!#$e* ) 'e#t +'en sol*erin$0 "t t'e ris, is s!#ll "nless )o" #re 1er) slo+2 No

s-eci#l -rec#"tions #re nee*e* .or sol*erin$ !ost LEDs2

Testing an LE%

Ne1er connect #n LED *irectl) to # #tter) or -o+er s"--l)It +ill e *estro)e* #l!ost inst#ntl) ec#"se too !"c' c"rrent +ill -#sst'ro"$' #n* "rn it o"t2

LEDs !"st '#1e # resistor in series to li!it t'e c"rrent to # s#.e 1#l"e0.or /"ic, testin$ -"r-oses # :, resistor is s"it# le .or !ost LEDs i. )o"r s"--l) 1olt#$e is :8> or less2 Re!e! er to connect t'e LED t'e

correct +#) ro"n*

For #n #cc"r#te 1#l"e -le#se see c#lc"l#tin$ #n LED resistor 1#l"e elo+2

#olors of LE%s

LEDs #re #1#il# le in re*0 or#n$e0 #! er0 )ello+0$reen0 #n* l"e #n* +'ite2 Bl"e #n* +'ite LEDs#re !"c' !ore e=-ensi1e t'#n t'e ot'er colors2

T'e color o. #n LED is *eter!ine* ) t'ese!icon*"ctor !#teri#l0 not ) t'e colorin$ o. t'e -#c,#$e (t'e -l#stic o*)%2 LEDs o. #llcolors #re #1#il# le in "ncolore* -#c,#$es +'ic'!#) e *i.."se* (!il,)% or cle#r (o.ten *escri e* #s +#ter cle#r %2 T'e colore* -#c,#$es #re #lso#1#il# le #s *i.."se* (t'e st#n*#r* t)-e% or tr#ns-#rent2

Tri-color LE%s

T'e !ost -o-"l#r t)-e o. tri?color LED '#s # re* #n* # $reen LED co! ine* in

one -#c,#$e +it' t'ree le#*s2 T'e) #re c#lle* tri?color ec#"se !i=e* re* #n*$reen li$'t #--e#rs to e )ello+ #n* t'is is -ro*"ce* +'en ot' t'e re* #n* $reenLEDs #re on2

T'e *i#$r#! s'o+s t'e constr"ction o. # tri?color LED2 Note t'e *i..erent len$t'so. t'e t'ree le#*s2 T'e centre le#* (,% is t'e co!!on c#t'o*e .or ot' LEDs< t'eo"ter le#*s (#: #n* #8% #re t'e #no*es to t'e LEDs #llo+in$ e#c' one to e litse-#r#tel)0 or ot' to$et'er to $i1e t'e t'ir* color2

http://var/www/16F877-A/Customer%20Support%20Files/led.htm#calculatehttp://var/www/16F877-A/Customer%20Support%20Files/led.htm#calculate


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"i-color LE%s

A i?color LED '#s t+o LEDs +ire* in in1erse -#r#llel (one .or+#r*s0 one #c,+#r*s%co! ine* in one -#c,#$e +it' t+o le#*s2 Onl) one o. t'e LEDs c#n e lit #t one ti!e #n* t'e)#re less "se."l t'#n t'e tri?color LEDs *escri e* # o1e2

Si0es1 S,a'es and !ie&ing angles of LE%s

LEDs #re #1#il# le in # +i*e 1#riet) o. si es #n* s'#-es2 T'e st#n*#r* LED'#s # ro"n* cross?section o. !! *i#!eter #n* t'is is -ro # l) t'e est t)-e.or $ener#l "se0 "t ;!! ro"n* LEDs #re #lso -o-"l#r2

Ro"n* cross?section LEDs #re .re/"entl) "se* #n* t'e) #re 1er) e#s) toinst#ll on o=es ) *rillin$ # 'ole o. t'e LED *i#!eter0 #**in$ # s-ot o. $l"e+ill 'el- to 'ol* t'e LED i. necess#r)2 LED cli-s #re #lso #1#il# le to sec"re LEDs in 'oles2Ot'er cross?section s'#-es incl"*e s/"#re0 rect#n$"l#r #n* tri#n$"l#r2

As +ell #s # 1#riet) o. colors0 si es #n* s'#-es0 LEDs #lso 1#r) in t'eir 1ie+in$ #n$le2 T'is tells)o" 'o+ !"c' t'e e#! o. li$'t s-re#*s o"t2 St#n*#r* LEDs '#1e # 1ie+in$ #n$le o. 9Y "t

ot'ers '#1e # n#rro+ e#! o. ;9Y or less2

#alculating an LE% resistor (alue

An LED !"st '#1e # resistor connecte* in series to li!it t'ec"rrent t'ro"$' t'e LED0 ot'er+ise it +ill "rn o"t #l!ostinst#ntl)2

T'e resistor 1#l"e0 R is $i1en )

R (> S ? > L% I

> S s"--l) 1olt#$e> L LED 1olt#$e ("s"#ll) 8>0 "t C> .or l"e #n* +'ite LEDs%I LED c"rrent (e2$2 89!A%0 t'is !"st e less t'#n t'e !#=i!"! -er!itte*

I. t'e c#lc"l#te* 1#l"e is not #1#il# le c'oose t'e ne#rest st#n*#r* resistor 1#l"e +'ic' is $re#ter0so t'#t t'e c"rrent +ill e # little less t'#n )o" c'ose2 In .#ct )o" !#) +is' to c'oose # $re#ter

LED li-


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resistor 1#l"e to re*"ce t'e c"rrent (to incre#se #tter) li.e .or e=#!-le% "t t'is +ill !#,e t'eLED less ri$'t2

For e=#!-le

I. t'e s"--l) 1olt#$e > S >0 #n* )o" '#1e # re* LED (> L 8>%0 re/"irin$ # c"rrent I 89!A 92989A0R ( > ? 8>% 9298A ; 9 0 so c'oose ; 9 (t'e ne#rest st#n*#r* 1#l"e +'ic' is $re#ter%2

Wor=ing out t,e LE% resistor formula using O,m>s la&

O'! s l#+ s#)s t'#t t'e resist#nce o. t'e resistor0 R > I0 +'ere> 1olt#$e #cross t'e resistor ( > S ? > L in t'is c#se%I t'e c"rrent t'ro"$' t'e resistor

So R (> S ? > L% I

#onnecting LE%s in series

I. )o" +is' to '#1e se1er#l LEDs on #t t'e s#!e ti!e it !#) e -ossi le to connect t'e! in series2 T'is -rolon$s #tter) li.e ) li$'tin$ se1er#l LEDs +it' t'e s#!e c"rrent #s 3"st oneLED2

All t'e LEDs connecte* in series -#ss t'e s#!e c"rrent so it is est i. t'e) #re #ll t'e s#!e t)-e2 T'e -o+er s"--l) !"st '#1es"..icient 1olt#$e to -ro1i*e # o"t 8> .or e#c' LED (C> .or

l"e #n* +'ite% -l"s #t le#st #not'er 8> .or t'e resistor2 To+or, o"t # 1#l"e .or t'e resistor )o" !"st #** "- #ll t'e LED1olt#$es #n* "se t'is .or > L2

E?am'le calculations A re*0 # )ello+ #n* # $reen LED in series nee* # s"--l) 1olt#$e o. #t le#st ; 8> 8> @>0 so# > #tter) +o"l* e i*e#l2> L 8> 8> 8> > (t'e t'ree LED 1olt#$es #**e* "-%2I. t'e s"--l) 1olt#$e > S is > #n* t'e c"rrent I !"st e : !A 929: A0Resistor R (> S ? > L% I ( ? % 929: ; 929: 899 0so c'oose R 889 (t'e ne#rest st#n*#r* 1#l"e +'ic' is $re#ter%2

A(oid connecting LE%s in 'arallel7

onnectin$ se1er#l LEDs in -#r#llel +it' 3"st one resistor s'#re* et+eent'e! is $ener#ll) not # $oo* i*e#2


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I. t'e LEDs re/"ire sli$'tl) *i..erent 1olt#$es onl) t'e lo+est 1olt#$e LED +ill li$'t #n* it !#) e *estro)e* ) t'e l#r$er c"rrent .lo+in$ t'ro"$' it2 Alt'o"$' i*entic#l LEDs c#n es"ccess."ll) connecte* in -#r#llel +it' one resistor t'is r#rel) o..ers #n) "se."l ene.it ec#"seresistors #re 1er) c'e#- #n* t'e c"rrent "se* is t'e s#!e #s connectin$ t'e LEDs in*i1i*"#ll)2 I. LEDs #re in -#r#llel e#c' one s'o"l* '#1e its o+n resistor2

Reading a ta.le of tec,nical data for LE%s

S"--liers c#t#lo$"es "s"#ll) incl"*e t# les o. tec'nic#l *#t# .or co!-onents s"c' #s LEDs2T'ese t# les cont#in # $oo* *e#l o. "se."l in.or!#tion in # co!-#ct .or! "t t'e) c#n e*i..ic"lt to "n*erst#n* i. )o" #re not .#!ili#r +it' t'e # re1i#tions "se*2

T'e t# le elo+ s'o+s t)-ic#l tec'nic#l *#t# .or so!e !! *i#!eter ro"n* LEDs +it' *i.."se* -#c,#$es (-l#stic o*ies%2 Onl) t'ree col"!ns #re i!-ort#nt #n* t'ese #re s'o+n in ol*2 Ple#sesee elo+ .or e=-l#n#tions o. t'e /"#ntities2

T)-e olor IF!#=2> F

t)-2> F

!#=2> R

!#=2L"!ino"sintensit)

>ie+in$#n$le W#1elen$t'

St#n*#r* Re* ;9!A :2 > 82:> > !c* Z :9!A 9Y 9n!

St#n*#r* Bri$'t re* ;9!A 829> 82 > > @9!c* Z :9!A 9Y 8 n!

St#n*#r* ello+ ;9!A 82:> 82 > > ;8!c* Z :9!A 9Y 9n!

St#n*#r* Green 8 !A 828> 82 > > ;8!c* Z :9!A 9Y n!

Hi$' intensit) Bl"e ;9!A C2 > 2 > > 9!c* Z 89!A 9Y C;9n!

S"-er ri$'t Re* ;9!A :2@ > 82 > > 99!c* Z 89!A 9Y 9n!

Lo+ c"rrent Re* ;9!A :2 > 829> > !c* Z 8!A 9Y 8 n!

IF !#=2 M#=i!"! .or+#r* c"rrent0 .or+#r* 3"st !e#ns +it' t'e LED connecte*correctl)2

> F t)-2 T)-ic#l .or+#r* 1olt#$e0 > L in t'e LED resistor c#lc"l#tion2T'is is # o"t 8>0 e=ce-t .or l"e #n* +'ite LEDs .or +'ic' it is # o"t C>2

> F !#=2 M#=i!"! .or+#r* 1olt#$e2> R !#=2 M#=i!"! re1erse 1olt#$e

o" c#n i$nore t'is .or LEDs connecte* t'e correct +#) ro"n*2L"!ino"sintensit)

Bri$'tness o. t'e LED #t t'e $i1en c"rrent0 !c* !ill c#n*el#2

>ie+in$ #n$le St#n*#r* LEDs '#1e # 1ie+in$ #n$le o. 9Y0 ot'ers e!it # n#rro+er e#! o.# o"t ;9Y2

W#1elen$t' T'e -e#, +#1elen$t' o. t'e li$'t e!itte*0 t'is *eter!ines t'e color o. t'eLED2n! n#no!eter2


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Flas,ing LE%s

Fl#s'in$ LEDs loo, li,e or*in#r) LEDs "t t'e) cont#in #n inte$r#te* circ"it (I % #s +ell #s t'eLED itsel.2 T'e I .l#s'es t'e LED #t # lo+ .re/"enc)0 t)-ic#ll) ;H (; .l#s'es -er secon*%2T'e) #re *esi$ne* to e connecte* *irectl) to # s"--l)0 "s"#ll) ? :8>0 #n* no series resistor isre/"ire*2 T'eir .l#s' .re/"enc) is .i=e* so t'eir "se is li!ite* #n* )o" !#) -re.er to "il* )o"r o+n circ"it to .l#s' #n or*in#r) LED0 .or e=#!-le o"r Fl#s'in$ LED -ro3ect +'ic' "ses # #?st# le circ"it2

O'erating Life

Bec#"se LEDs #re soli*?st#te *e1ices t'e) #re not s" 3ect to c#t#stro-'ic .#il"re +'en o-er#te*+it'in *esi$n -#r#!eters2 DDP[ LEDs #re *esi$ne* to o-er#te "-+#r*s o. 90999 'o"rs #t 8 Y#! ient te!-er#t"re2 O-er#tin$ li.e is c'#r#cteri e* ) t'e *e$r#*#tion o. LED intensit) o1er ti!e2 W'en t'e LED *e$r#*es to '#l. o. its ori$in#l intensit) #.ter 90999 'o"rs it is #t t'e en* o. its "se."l li.e #lt'o"$' t'e LED +ill contin"e to o-er#te #s o"t-"t *i!inis'es2 Unli,e st#n*#r*inc#n*escent "l s0 DDP[ LEDs resist s'oc, #n* 1i r#tion #n* c#n e c)cle* on #n* o.. +it'o"te=cessi1e *e$r#*#tion2

Precautions W,ile Wor=ing Wit, LE%s

"eneral

We c#nnot #ss"!e #n) res-onsi ilit) .or #n) #cci*ent or *#!#$e c#"se* +'en t'e -ro*"cts #re"se* e)on* t'e !#=i!"! r#tin$s s-eci.ie* 'erein2

T'e "ser o. t'ese -ro*"cts !"st con.ir! t'e -er.or!#nce o. t'e LEDs #.ter t'e) #re #ct"#ll)#sse! le* into t'e "ser s -ro*"cts s)ste!s2 It is stron$l) #*1ise* t'#t 'e "ser *esi$n .#il?s#.e

-ro*"cts s)ste!s2 We +ill not e res-onsi le .or le$#l !#tters +'ic' #re c#"se* ) t'e!#l."nction o. t'ese -ro*"cts s)ste!s2

LE% Lam's

Static Electricity and Surge

http://www.kpsec.freeuk.com/projects/flashl.htmhttp://www.kpsec.freeuk.com/projects/flashl.htm


27/87

St#tic electricit) #n* s"r$e *#!#$e LEDs2 It is reco!!en*e* to "se # +rist #n* or #nti?electrost#tic $lo1e +'en '#n*lin$ t'e LEDs2 All *e1ices0 e/"i-!ent #n*!#c'iner) !"st e electric#ll) $ro"n*e*2

Lead Forming

T'e le#*s s'o"l* e ent #t # -oint #t le#st;!! .ro! t'e e-o=) resin o. t'e LEDs2

Ben*in$ s'o"l* e -er.or!e* +it' t'e #se.ir!l) .i=e* ) !e#ns o. # 3i$ or r#*io -liers2

Mounting Method

T'e le#*s s'o"l* e .or!e* so t'e) #re#li$ne* e=#ctl) +it' t'e 'oles on t'e P

o#r*2 T'is +ill eli!in#te #n) stress on t'eLEDs2

Use LEDs +it' sto--ers or resin s-#cer to #cc"r#tel) -osition t'e LEDs2 T'ee-o=) resin #se s'o"l* not e to"c'in$ t'e P o#r* +'en !o"ntin$ t'e LEDs2Mec'#nic#l stress to t'e resin !#) e c#"se* ) t'e +#r-in$ o. t'e P o#r* +'ensol*erin$2

T'e LEDs !"st not e *esi$ne* into # -ro*"ct or s)ste! +'ere t'e e-o=) lens is -resse* into # -l#stic or !et#l o#r*2 T'elens -#rt o. t'e LED !"st not e $l"e* onto

-l#stic or !et#l2 T'e !ec'#nic#l stress to t'ele#* .r#!e !"st e !ini!i e*2

Soldering

Sol*er t'e LEDs no closer t'#n ;!! .ro! t'e #se o. t'e e-o=) resin2

For sol*er *i--in$0 it !#) e necess#r) to .i= t'e LEDs .or correct -ositionin$2W'en *oin$ t'is0 #n) !ec'#nic#l stress to t'e LEDs !"st e #1oi*e*2


28/87

W'en sol*erin$0 *o not #--l) #n) !ec'#nic#l .orce to t'e le#* .r#!e +'ile'e#tin$2

Re-ositionin$ #.ter sol*erin$ !"st e #1oi*e*2

Soldering conditions

Sol*erin$ Iron Di- Sol*erin$ Re.lo+ Sol*erin$

L#!-LED

;99*e$ (!#=%0;sec(!#=%

8 9*e$ (!#=%0sec(!#=%

Not #llo+e*2

'i-

LED

;99*e$ (!#=%0;sec(!#=% +it'T+in He#* iron

Not #llo+e*2

Cleaning

A1oi* e=-os"re to c'e!ic#ls #s t'e) !#) #tt#c, t'e LED s"r.#ce #n* c#"se*iscolor#tion2 W'en +#s'in$ is re/"ire*0 Kiso-ro-)l #lco'olK is to e "se*2

T'e in.l"ence o. "ltr#sonic cle#nin$ on t'e LEDs *i..ers *e-en*in$ on .#ctors s"c'#s oscill#tor o"t-"t #n* t'e +#) in +'ic' t'e LEDs #re !o"nte*2 T'ere.ore0"ltr#sonic cle#nin$ s'o"l* onl) e -er.or!e* #.ter !#,in$ cert#in t'#t it +ill notc#"se #n) *#!#$e2

Emission color

LED e!ission +#1elen$t's 1#r)2 LEDs #re cl#ssi.ie* ) e!ission color into*i..erent r#n,s2 W'en # l#r$e 1ol"!e o. LEDs #re -"rc'#se*0 LEDs +it' *i..erentcolor r#n,s +ill e *eli1ere*

Packaging


29/87

T'e le#* .r#!es o. t'e LEDs #re co#te* +it' sil1er2 #re !"st e t#,en to !#int#in# cle#n stor#$e #t!os-'ere2 I. t'e LEDs #re e=-ose* to $#ses s"c' #s ')*ro$ens"l.i*e0 it !#) c#"se *iscolor#tion o. t'e le#* .r#!es2

Moist"re -roo. -#c,in$ is "se* to ,ee- !oist"re #+#) .ro! t'e c'i- t)-e LEDs2W'en storin$ c'i- t)-e LEDs0 -le#se "se # se#l# le -#c,#$e +it' # !oist"re# sor ent !#teri#l insi*e2

LE% #luster Lam' and LE% %ot Matri? Unit

Assembly

Ple#se re.er to t'e reco!!en*e* *ist#nce et+een t'e le#*s +'en *esi$nin$ le#*'oles on t'e P o#r*2

lose #ttention !"st e -#i* on t'e correct -ositionin$ o. O?rin$s #n* ot'er +#ter -roo. se#ls +'en #sse! lin$ -ro*"cts s)ste!s2

LEDs #re 1"lner# le to st#tic electricit)2 W'en '#n*lin$ t'e LEDs0 necess#r) -rec#"tions re$#r*in$ st#tic electricit) !"st #l+#)s e t#,en into consi*er#tion2

Installation of LEDsM#,e cert#in t'#t t'e le#* -osition #n* -ol#rit) #re correct +'en inst#llin$ t'eLEDs2

T'e inter.#ce c# le !"st e #s s'ort #s -ossi le2

T'e -o+er s"--l) #n* $ro"n* line !"st e selecte* #ccor*in$ to t'eir c"rrentc#-#cit)2

eat Dissi!ationW'en !#n) LEDs #re !o"nte* into # s!#ll #re#0 'e#t $ener#tion !"st e t#,eninto consi*er#tion2 I. t'ere is # -ossi ilit) t'#t t'e #! ient te!-er#t"re !#) e=cee*

9 *e$rees centi$r#*e0 so!e ,in* o. .orce* coolin$ s)ste! +ill e nee*e*


30/87

T'e #! ient o-er#tin$ te!-er#t"re !"st e t#,en into consi*er#tion +'en # -ro*"ct s)ste! is ein$ *esi$ne*2 T'ere #re cert#in li!its to !#=i!"! c"rrent0 #tcert#in te!-er#t"res +'ic' !"st e ,e-t in !in*2

andling

W'en t'e s"r.#ce o. t'e LEDs !"st e cle#ne*0 t'e LEDs s'o"l* e +i-e* so.tl)+it' *eter$ent2 T'e s"r.#ce !#) e *#!#$e* #n* t'e e..ect o. t'e lens !#) ere*"ce* +it' 1iolent scr" in$2

RESISTAN#E

Function

Resistors restrict t'e .lo+ o. electric c"rrent0 .or e=#!-le # resistor is -l#ce* inseries +it' # li$'t?e!ittin$ *io*e (LED% to li!it t'e c"rrent -#ssin$ t'ro"$' t'eLED2


Resistors !#) e connecte* eit'er +#) ro"n*2 T'e) #re not *#!#$e* ) 'e#t +'ensol*erin$2

Resistor (alues - t,e resistor color code

Resist#nce is !e#s"re* in o'!s< t'e s)! ol .or o'! is #n o!e$# 2: is /"ite s!#ll so resistor 1#l"es #re o.ten $i1en in , #n* M 2: , :999 : M :999999 2

Resistor 1#l"es #re nor!#ll) s'o+n "sin$ colore* #n*s2

E#c' color re-resents # n"! er #s s'o+n in t'e t# le2Most resistors '#1e C #n*s

• T'e .irst #n* $i1es t'e .irst *i$it2• T'e secon* #n* $i1es t'e secon* *i$it2

• T'e t'ir* #n* in*ic#tes t'e n"! er o. eros2


31/87

• T'e .o"rt' #n* is "se* to s'o+s t'e toler#nce (-recision% o. t'e resistor0 t'is!#) e i$nore* .or #l!ost #ll circ"its "t ."rt'er *et#ils #re $i1en elo+ 2

T'is resistor '#s re* (8%0 1iolet ( %0 )ello+ (C eros% #n* $ol* #n*s2So its 1#l"e is 8 9999 8 9 , 2On circ"it *i#$r#!s t'e is "s"#ll) o!itte* #n* t'e 1#l"e is+ritten 8 952

Small (alue resistors )less t,an 25 o,m*

T'e st#n*#r* color co*e c#nnot s'o+ 1#l"es o. less t'#n :9 2 Tos'o+ t'ese s!#ll 1#l"es t+o s-eci#l colors #re "se* .or t'e t'ir*

#n* $ol* +'ic' !e#ns 92: #n* sil1er +'ic' !e#ns 929:2 T'e.irst #n* secon* #n*s re-resent t'e *i$its #s nor!#l2

For e=#!-lere*0 1iolet0 $ol* #n*s re-resent 8 92: 82

$reen0 l"e0 sil1er #n*s re-resent 929: 92

Tolerance of resistors )fourt, .and of color code*

T'e toler#nce o. # resistor is s'o+n ) t'e .o"rt' #n* o. t'e color co*e2 Toler#nceis t'e -recision o. t'e resistor #n* it is $i1en #s # -ercent#$e2 For e=#!-le # ; 9resistor +it' # toler#nce o. \:9 +ill '#1e # 1#l"e +it'in :9 o. ; 9 0 et+een; 9 ? ; ; : #n* ; 9 ; C8 (; is :9 o. ; 9%2

A s-eci#l color co*e is "se* .or t'e .o"rt' #n* toler#ncesil1er \:9 0 $ol* \ 0 re* \8 0 ro+n \: 2I. no .o"rt' #n* is s'o+n t'e toler#nce is \89 2

Toler#nce !#) e i$nore* .or #l!ost #ll circ"its ec#"se -recise resistor 1#l"es #rer#rel) re/"ire*2

Resistor s,ort,and

T'e Resistor

olor o*eolor N"! er

Bl#c, 9

Bro+n :

Re* 8

Or#n$e ;

ello+ C

Green

Bl"e

>iolet

Gre) @

W'ite

http://var/www/apps/Documents%20and%20Settings/Administrator/Desktop/Parts%20Files/resist.htm#tolerancehttp://var/www/apps/Documents%20and%20Settings/Administrator/Desktop/Parts%20Files/resist.htm#tolerance


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Resistor 1#l"es #re o.ten +ritten on circ"it *i#$r#!s "sin$ # co*e s)ste! +'ic'#1oi*s "sin$ # *eci!#l -oint ec#"se it is e#s) to !iss t'e s!#ll *ot2 Inste#* t'eletters R0 5 #n* M #re "se* in -l#ce o. t'e *eci!#l -oint2 To re#* t'e co*e re-l#cet'e letter +it' # *eci!#l -oint0 t'en !"lti-l) t'e 1#l"e ) :999 i. t'e letter +#s 50or :999999 i. t'e letter +#s M2 T'e letter R !e#ns !"lti-l) ) :2

For e=#!-le

560R !e#ns 92K7 !e#ns 82 , 8 9939K !e#ns ; ,1M0 !e#ns :29 M :999 ,

Real resistor (alues )t,e E9 and E26 series*

o" !#) '#1e notice* t'#t resistors #re not #1#il# le +it' e1er) -ossi le 1#l"e0 .or e=#!-le 88, #n* C , #re re#*il) #1#il# le0 "t 8 , #n* 9, #re not

W') is t'isV I!#$ine t'#t )o" *eci*e* to !#,e resistors e1er) :9 $i1in$ :90 890;90 C90 9 #n* so on2 T'#t see!s .ine0 "t +'#t '#--ens +'en )o" re#c' :999V It+o"l* e -ointless to !#,e :9990 :9:90 :9890 #n* :9;9 #n* so on ec#"se .or t'ese 1#l"es :9 is # 1er) s!#ll *i..erence0 too s!#ll to e notice# le in !ostcirc"its2 In .#ct it +o"l* e *i..ic"lt to !#,e resistors s"..icientl) #cc"r#te2

To -ro*"ce # sensi le r#n$e o. resistor 1#l"es )o" nee* to incre#se t'e si e o. t'este- #s t'e 1#l"e incre#ses2 T'e st#n*#r* resistor 1#l"es #re #se* on t'is i*e# #n*

t'e) .or! # series +'ic' .ollo+s t'e s#!e -#ttern .or e1er) !"lti-le o. ten2

T'e E series ( 1#l"es .or e#c' !"lti-le o. ten0 .or resistors +it' 89 toler#nce%:90 : 0 880 ;;0 C 0 @ 222 t'en it contin"es :990 : 90 8890 ;;90 C 90 @90 :999 etc2

Notice 'o+ t'e ste- si e incre#ses #s t'e 1#l"e incre#ses2 For t'is series t'e ste- (tot'e ne=t 1#l"e% is ro"$'l) '#l. t'e 1#l"e2

T'e E:8 series (:8 1#l"es .or e#c' !"lti-le o. ten0 .or resistors +it' :9toler#nce%:90 :80 : 0 :@0 880 8 0 ;;0 ; 0 C 0 0 @0 @8 222 t'en it contin"es :990 :890 : 9 etc2

Notice 'o+ t'is is t'e E series +it' #n e=tr# 1#l"e in t'e $#-s2


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T'e E:8 series is t'e one !ost .re/"entl) "se* .or resistors2 It #llo+s )o" toc'oose # 1#l"e +it'in :9 o. t'e -recise 1#l"e )o" nee*2 T'is is s"..icientl)#cc"r#te .or #l!ost #ll -ro3ects #n* it is sensi le ec#"se !ost resistors #re onl)#cc"r#te to \:9 (c#lle* t'eir toler#nce %2 For e=#!-le # resistor !#r,e* ; 9co"l* 1#r) ) \:9 ; 9 \; 0 so it co"l* e #n)1#l"e et+een ; : #n* C8 2

Po&er Ratings of Resistors

Electric#l ener$) is con1erte* to 'e#t +'en c"rrent.lo+s t'ro"$' # resistor2 Us"#ll) t'e e..ect isne$li$i le0 "t i. t'e resist#nce is lo+ (or t'e 1olt#$e#cross t'e resistor 'i$'% # l#r$e c"rrent !#) -#ss!#,in$ t'e resistor eco!e notice# l) +#r!2 T'e

resistor !"st e # le to +it'st#n* t'e 'e#tin$ e..ect#n* resistors '#1e -o+er r#tin$s to s'o+ t'is2

Po+er r#tin$s o. resistors #re r#rel) /"ote* in -#rtslists ec#"se .or !ost circ"its t'e st#n*#r* -o+er r#tin$s o. 928 W or 92 W #re s"it# le2 For t'e r#re c#ses +'ere # 'i$'er -o+er isre/"ire* it s'o"l* e cle#rl) s-eci.ie* in t'e -#rts list0 t'ese +ill e circ"its "sin$lo+ 1#l"e resistors (less t'#n # o"t ;99 % or 'i$' 1olt#$es (!ore t'#n : >%2

T'e -o+er0 P0 *e1elo-e* in # resistor is $i1en )

P I] R orP >] R

+'ere P -o+er *e1elo-e* in t'e resistor in +#tts (W%I c"rrent t'ro"$' t'e resistor in #!-s (A%R resist#nce o. t'e resistor in o'!s ( %> 1olt#$e #cross t'e resistor in 1olts (>%

E=#!-les

• A C 9 resistor +it' :9> #cross it0 nee*s # -o+er r#tin$ P >] R :9] C 9 928:W2

In t'is c#se # st#n*#r* 928 W resistor +o"l* e s"it# le2

Hi$' -o+er resistors( W to-0 8 W otto!%


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• A 8 resistor +it' :9> #cross it0 nee*s # -o+er r#tin$ P >] R :9] 8 ;2 W2A 'i$' -o+er resistor +it' # r#tin$ o. W +o"l* e s"it# le2

!aria.le Resistors

#onstruction

>#ri# le resistors consist o. # resist#nce tr#c, +it'connections #t ot' en*s #n* # +i-er +'ic' !o1es#lon$ t'e tr#c, #s )o" t"rn t'e s-in*le2 T'e tr#c, !#) e!#*e .ro! c#r on0 cer!ets (cer#!ic #n* !et#l !i=t"re%or # coil o. +ire (.or lo+ resist#nces%2 T'e tr#c, is"s"#ll) rot#r) "t str#i$'t tr#c, 1ersions0 "s"#ll) c#lle*sli*ers0 #re #lso #1#il# le2

>#ri# le resistors !#) e "se* #s # r'eost#t +it' t+oconnections (t'e +i-er #n* 3"st one en* o. t'e tr#c,% or #s # -otentio!eter +it' #ll t'ree connections in "se2 Mini#t"re 1ersions c#lle*

-resets #re !#*e .or settin$ "- circ"its +'ic' +ill not re/"ire ."rt'er #*3"st!ent2

>#ri# le resistors #re o.ten c#lle* -otentio!eters in oo,s #n* c#t#lo$"es2 T'e) #res-eci.ie* ) t'eir !#=i!"! resist#nce0 line#r or lo$#rit'!ic tr#c,0 #n* t'eir -')sic#l si e2 T'e st#n*#r* s-in*le *i#!eter is !!2

T'e resist#nce #n* t)-e o. tr#c, #re !#r,e* on t'e o*) C5 LIN !e#ns C2 , line#r tr#c,2 :M LOG !e#ns : M lo$#rit'!ic tr#c,2

So!e 1#ri# le resistors #re *esi$ne* to e !o"nte* *irectl) on t'e circ"it o#r*0 "t !ost #re .or !o"ntin$ t'ro"$' # 'ole *rille* in t'e c#se cont#inin$ t'e circ"it

+it' str#n*e* +ire connectin$ t'eir ter!in#ls to t'e circ"it o#r*2

Linear )LIN* and Logarit,mic )LO/* trac=s

Line#r (LIN% tr#c, !e#ns t'#t t'e resist#nce c'#n$es #t # const#nt r#te #s )o"!o1e t'e +i-er2 T'is is t'e st#n*#r* #rr#n$e!ent #n* )o" s'o"l* #ss"!e t'is t)-e

St#n*#r* >#ri# le Resistor

http://var/www/16F877-A/Customer%20Support%20Files/vres.htm#rheostathttp://var/www/16F877-A/Customer%20Support%20Files/vres.htm#potentiometerhttp://var/www/16F877-A/Customer%20Support%20Files/vres.htm#presetshttp://var/www/16F877-A/Customer%20Support%20Files/vres.htm#rheostathttp://var/www/16F877-A/Customer%20Support%20Files/vres.htm#potentiometerhttp://var/www/16F877-A/Customer%20Support%20Files/vres.htm#presets


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is re/"ire* i. # -ro3ect *oes not s-eci.) t'e t)-e o. tr#c,2 Presets #l+#)s '#1e line#r tr#c,s2

Lo$#rit'!ic (LOG% tr#c, !e#ns t'#t t'e resist#nce c'#n$es slo+l) #t one en* o. t'e tr#c, #n* r#-i*l) #t t'e ot'er en*0 so '#l.+#) #lon$ t'e tr#c, is not '#l. t'etot#l resist#nce T'is #rr#n$e!ent is "se* .or 1ol"!e (lo"*ness% controls ec#"set'e '"!#n e#r '#s # lo$#rit'!ic res-onse to lo"*ness so .ine control (slo+ c'#n$e%is re/"ire* #t lo+ 1ol"!es #n* co#rser control (r#-i* c'#n$e% #t 'i$' 1ol"!es2 It isi!-ort#nt to connect t'e en*s o. t'e tr#c, t'e correct +#) ro"n*0 i. )o" .in* t'#tt"rnin$ t'e s-in*le incre#ses t'e 1ol"!e r#-i*l) .ollo+e* ) little ."rt'er c'#n$e)o" s'o"l* s+#- t'e connections to t'e en*s o. t'e tr#c,2

R,eostat

T'is is t'e si!-lest +#) o. "sin$ # 1#ri# le resistor2 T+oter!in#ls #re "se* one connecte* to #n en* o. t'e tr#c,0t'e ot'er to t'e !o1e# le +i-er2 T"rnin$ t'e s-in*lec'#n$es t'e resist#nce et+een t'e t+o ter!in#ls .ro!

ero "- to t'e !#=i!"! resist#nce2

R'eost#ts #re o.ten "se* to 1#r) c"rrent0 .or e=#!-le to control t'e ri$'tness o. #l#!- or t'e r#te #t +'ic' # c#-#citor c'#r$es2

I. t'e r'eost#t is !o"nte* on # -rinte* circ"it o#r* )o" !#) .in* t'#t #ll t'ree

ter!in#ls #re connecte* Ho+e1er0 one o. t'e! +ill e lin,e* to t'e +i-er ter!in#l2 T'is i!-ro1es t'e !ec'#nic#l stren$t' o. t'e !o"ntin$ "t it ser1es no."nction electric#ll)2

Potentiometer

>#ri# le resistors "se* #s -otentio!eters '#1e #ll t'reeter!in#ls connecte*2

T'is #rr#n$e!ent is nor!#ll) "se* to 1#r) 1olt#$e0 .or e=#!-le to set t'es+itc'in$ -oint o. # circ"it +it' # sensor0 or control t'e 1ol"!e (lo"*ness% in #n

R'eost#t S)! ol

Potentio!eter S)! ol


36/87

#!-li.ier circ"it2 I. t'e ter!in#ls #t t'e en*s o. t'e tr#c, #re connecte* #cross t'e -o+er s"--l) t'en t'e +i-er ter!in#l +ill -ro1i*e # 1olt#$e +'ic' c#n e 1#rie*.ro! ero "- to t'e !#=i!"! o. t'e s"--l)2

Presets

T'ese #re !ini#t"re 1ersions o. t'e st#n*#r* 1#ri# leresistor2 T'e) #re *esi$ne* to e !o"nte* *irectl) ontot'e circ"it o#r* #n* #*3"ste* onl) +'en t'e circ"it is

"ilt2 For e=#!-le to set t'e .re/"enc) o. #n #l#r! toneor t'e sensiti1it) o. # li$'t?sensiti1e circ"it2 A s!#llscre+*ri1er or si!il#r tool is re/"ire* to #*3"st -resets2

Presets #re !"c' c'e#-er t'#n st#n*#r* 1#ri# le resistors so t'e) #re so!eti!es

"se* in -ro3ects +'ere # st#n*#r* 1#ri# le resistor +o"l* nor!#ll) e "se*2M"lti t"rn -resets #re "se* +'ere 1er) -recise #*3"st!ents !"st e !#*e2 T'escre+ !"st e t"rne* !#n) ti!es (:9 % to !o1e t'e sli*er .ro! one en* o. t'etr#c, to t'e ot'er0 $i1in$ 1er) .ine control2

Preset Presets (close* st)le% M"lti t"rn -reset(o-en st)le%

POWER SUPPLY %ES#RIPTIONT'e -o+er s"--l) circ"it co!-rises o. .o"r #sic -#rts

Preset S)! ol

BRI$"EREC IFIER

SH&!CAPACI OR

3OL A"ERE"&LA OR

I!$ICA OR


37/87

T'e tr#ns.or!er ste-s *o+n t'e 889 > # c2 into :8 > # c2 T'e tr#ns.or!er +or, on

t'e -rinci-le o. !#$netic in*"ction0 +'ere t+o coils -ri!#r) #n* secon*#r) #re

+o"n* #ro"n* #n iron core2 T'e t+o coils #re -')sic#ll) ins"l#te* .ro! e#c' ot'er

in s"c' # +#) t'#t -#ssin$ # c2 c"rrent t'ro"$' t'e -ri!#r) coil cre#tes # c'#n$in$

1olt#$e in t'e -ri!#r) coil #n* # c'#n$in$ !#$netic .iel* in t'e core2 T'is in t"rn

in*"ces # 1#r)in$ # c2 1olt#$e in t'e secon*#r) coil2

T'e # c2 1olt#$e is t'en .e* to t'e ri*$e recti.ier2 T'e recti.ier circ"it is "se* in

!ost electronic -o+er s"--lies is t'e sin$le?-'#se ri*$e recti.ier +it' c#-#citor

.ilterin$0 "s"#ll) .ollo+e* ) # line#r 1olt#$e re$"l#tor2 A recti.ier circ"it is

necess#r) to con1ert # si$n#l '#1in$ ero #1er#$e 1#l"e into # non? ero #1er#$e

1#l"e2 A recti.ier tr#ns.or!s #ltern#tin$ c"rrent into *irect c"rrent ) li!itin$ or

re$"l#tin$ t'e *irection o. .lo+ o. c"rrent2 T'e o"t-"t res"ltin$ .ro! # recti.ier is #

-"ls#tin$ D2 2 1olt#$e2 T'is 1olt#$e is not #--ro-ri#te .or t'e co!-onents t'#t #re

$oin$ to +or, t'ro"$' it2

'!)==*

RA!SFORMER

*;'<

*;=(


38/87

'!0 t'e c#-#citor +ill tr) to sen* c"rrent

#c, t'ro"$' t'e *io*e o. recti.ier2 T'is re1erse i#ses t'e *io*e2 T'e *io*e*isconnects or se-#r#tes t'e so"rce t'e so"rce .or! lo#*2 T'e c#-#citor st#rts to

*isc'#r$e t'ro"$' lo#*2 T'is -re1ents t'e lo#* 1olt#$e .ro! .#llin$ to ero2 T'e

c#-#citor contin"es to *isc'#r$e "ntil so"rce 1olt#$e eco!es !ore t'#n

c#-#citor 1olt#$e2 T'e *io*e #$#in st#rts con*"ctin$ #n* t'e c#-#citor is #$#in


39/87

c'#r$e* to -e#, 1#l"e >!2 W'en c#-#citor is c'#r$in$ t'e recti.ier s"--lies t'e

c'#r$in$ t'ro"$' c#-#citor r#nc' #s +ell #s lo#* c"rrent0 t'e c#-#citor sen*s

c"rrents t'ro"$' t'e lo#*2 T'e r#te #t +'ic' c#-#citor *isc'#r$e *e-en*s "-on

ti!e const#nt R 2 T'e lon$er t'e ti!e const#nt0 t'e ste#*ier is t'e o"t-"t1olt#$e2 An incre#se in lo#* c"rrent i2e2 *ecre#se in resist#nce !#,es ti!e

const#nt o. *isc'#r$e -#t' s!#ller2 T'e ri--le incre#se #n* *2c2 o"t-"t 1olt#$e >

*c *ecre#ses2 M#=i!"! c#-#cit) c#nnot e=cee* # cert#in li!it ec#"se t'e

l#r$er t'e c#-#cit#nce t'e $re#ter is t'e c"rrent re/"ire* to c'#r$e t'e c#-#citor2

T'e 1olt#$e re$"l#tor re$"l#tes t'e s"--l) i. t'e s"--l) i. t'e line

1olt#$e incre#ses or *ecre#ses2 T'e series @== re$"l#tors -ro1i*e .i=e* re$"l#te*

1olt#$es .ro! to 8C 1olts2 An "nre$"l#te* in-"t 1olt#$e is #--lie* #t t'e I In-"t

-in i2e2 -in : +'ic' is .iltere* ) c#-#citor2 T'e o"t ter!in#l o. t'e I i2e2 -in ;

-ro1i*es # re$"l#r o"t-"t2 T'e t'ir* ter!in#l is connecte* to $ro"n*2 W'ile t'e

in-"t 1olt#$e !#) 1#r) o1er so!e -er!issi le 1olt#$e r#n$e0 #n* t'e o"t-"t

1olt#$e re!#ins const#nt +it'in s-eci.ie* 1olt#$e 1#ri#tion li!it2 T'e @== I s #re

-ositi1e 1olt#$e re$"l#tors +'ere#s == I s #re ne$#ti1e 1olt#$e re$"l#tors2

T'ese 1olt#$e re$"l#tors #re inte$r#te* circ"its *esi$ne* #s .i=e* 1olt#$e

re$"l#tors .or # +i*e 1#riet) o. #--lic#tions2 T'ese re$"l#tors e!-lo) c"rrent

li!itin$0 t'er!#l s'"t*o+n #n* s#.e #re# co!-ens#tion2 Wit' #*e/"#te 'e#t

sin,in$ t'e) c#n *eli1er o"t-"t c"rrents in e=cess o. : A2 T'ese re$"l#tors '#1eintern#l t'er!#l o1erlo#* -rotection2 It "ses o"t-"t tr#nsistor s#.e #re#

co!-ens#tion #n* t'e o"t-"t 1olt#$e o..ere* is in 8 #n* C toler#nce2


40/87

MIC"#$%"#LLE"&In o"r *#) to *#) li.e t'e role o. !icro?controllers '#s een i!!ense2 T'e) #re

"se* in # 1#riet) o. #--lic#tions r#n$in$ .ro! 'o!e #--li#nces0 FA^ !#c'ines0

>i*eo $#!es0 #!er#0 E=ercise e/"i-!ent0 ell"l#r -'ones !"sic#l Instr"!ents to

o!-"ters0 en$ine control0 #eron#"tics0 sec"rit) s)ste!s #n* t'e list $oes on2

A "RIEF INTRO%U#TION TO ;5@2 MI#RO#ONTROLLER

W'en +e '#1e to le#rn # o"t # ne+ co!-"ter +e '#1e to .#!ili#ri e # o"t t'e!#c'ine c#-# ilit) +e #re "sin$0 #n* +e c#n *o it ) st"*)in$ t'e intern#l'#r*+#re *esi$n (*e1ices #rc'itect"re%0 #n* #lso to ,no+ # o"t t'e si e0 n"! er #n* t'e si e o. t'e re$isters2A !icrocontroller is # sin$le c'i- t'#t cont#ins t'e -rocessor (t'e PU%0 non?1ol#tile !e!or) .or t'e -ro$r#! (ROM or .l#s'%0 1ol#tile !e!or) .or in-"t #n*o"t-"t (RAM%0 # cloc, #n* #n I O control "nit2 Also c#lle* # Kco!-"ter on # c'i-0K

illions o. !icrocontroller "nits (M Us% #re e! e**e* e#c' )e#r in # !)ri#* o. -ro*"cts .ro! to)s to #--li#nces to #"to!o iles2 For e=#!-le0 # sin$le 1e'icle c#n"se 9 or !ore !icrocontrollers2 T'e .ollo+in$ -ict"re *escri es # $ener#l loc,

*i#$r#! o. !icrocontroller2 AT; S@6T'e AT@ S 8 is # lo+?-o+er0 'i$'?-er.or!#nce MOS @? it !icrocontroller +it'@5 )tes o. in?s)ste! -ro$r#!!# le Fl#s' !e!or)2 T'e *e1ice is !#n".#ct"re*"sin$ At!el s 'i$'?*ensit) non1ol#tile !e!or) tec'nolo$) #n* is co!-#ti le +it't'e in*"str)?st#n*#r* @9 : instr"ction set #n* -in o"t2 T'e on?c'i- Fl#s' #llo+st'e -ro$r#! !e!or) to e re-ro$r#!!e* in?s)ste! or ) # con1ention#lnon1ol#tile !e!or) -ro$r#!!er2 B) co! inin$ # 1ers#tile @? it PU +it' in?s)ste! -ro$r#!!# le Fl#s' on # !onolit'ic c'i-0 t'e At!el AT@ S 8 is #

-o+er."l !icrocontroller0 +'ic' -ro1i*es # 'i$'l) .le=i le #n* cost?e..ecti1esol"tion to !#n)0 e! e**e* control #--lic#tions2 T'e AT@ S 8 -ro1i*es t'e.ollo+in$ st#n*#r* .e#t"res @5 )tes o. Fl#s'0 8 )tes o. RAM0 ;8 I O lines0W#tc'*o$ ti!er0 t+o *#t# -ointers0 t'ree : ? it ti!er co"nters0 # si=?1ector t+o?le1el interr"-t #rc'itect"re0 # ."ll *"-le= seri#l -ort0 on?c'i- oscill#tor0 #n* cloc, circ"itr)2 In #**ition0 t'e AT@ S 8 is *esi$ne* +it' st#tic lo$ic .or o-er#tion *o+nto ero .re/"enc) #n* s"--orts t+o so.t+#re select# le -o+er s#1in$ !o*es2 T'e


41/87

I*le Mo*e sto-s t'e PU +'ile #llo+in$ t'e RAM0 ti!er co"nters0 seri#l -ort0 #n*interr"-t s)ste! to contin"e ."nctionin$2 T'e Po+er?*o+n !o*e s#1es t'e RAMcon?tents "t .ree es t'e oscill#tor0 *is# lin$ #ll ot'er c'i- ."nctions "ntil t'e ne=tinterr"-t2 T'e '#r*+#re is *ri1en ) # set o. -ro$r#! instr"ctions0 or so.t+#re2Once .#!ili#r +it' '#r*+#re #n* so.t+#re0 t'e "ser c#n t'en #--l) t'e!icrocontroller to t'e -ro le!s e#sil)2 T'e -in *i#$r#! o. t'e @9 : s'o+s #ll o. t'e in-"t o"t-"t -ins "ni/"e to !icrocontrollers T'e .ollo+in$ #re so!e o. t'ec#-# ilities o. @9 : !icrocontroller2

:2 Intern#l ROM #n* RAM82 I O -orts +it' -ro$r#!!# le -ins;2 Ti!ers #n* co"ntersC2 Seri#l *#t# co!!"nic#tion

T'e @9 : #rc'itect"re consists o. t'ese s-eci.ic .e#t"res: it P &*#t# -ointer (DPTR%@ it -ro$r#! st#t"s +or* (PSW%@ it st#c, -ointer (SP%Intern#l ROM C, Intern#l RAM o. :8@ )tes2C re$ister #n,s0 e#c' cont#inin$ @ re$isters@9 its o. $ener#l -"r-ose *#t# !e!or)

;8 in-"t o"t-"t -ins #rr#n$e* #s .o"r @ it -orts P9?P;T+o : it ti!er co"nters T9?T:T+o e=tern#l #n* t'ree intern#l interr"-t so"rces Oscill#tor #n* cloc, circ"its2

irc"!st#nces t'#t +e .in* o"rsel1es in to*#) in t'e .iel* o. !icrocontrollers '#*t'eir e$innin$s in t'e *e1elo-!ent o. tec'nolo$) o. inte$r#te* circ"its2 T'is*e1elo-!ent '#s !#*e it -ossi le to store '"n*re*s o. t'o"s#n*s o. tr#nsistors intoone c'i-2 T'#t +#s # -rere/"isite .or -ro*"ction o. !icro-rocessors0 #n* t'e .irst

co!-"ters +ere !#*e ) #**in$ e=tern#l -eri-'er#ls s"c' #s !e!or)0 in-"t?o"t-"tlines0 ti!ers #n* ot'er2 F"rt'er incre#sin$ o. t'e 1ol"!e o. t'e -#c,#$e res"lte* incre#tion o. inte$r#te* circ"its2 T'ese inte$r#te* circ"its cont#ine* ot' -rocessor #n* -eri-'er#ls2 T'#t is 'o+ t'e .irst c'i- cont#inin$ # !icroco!-"ter0 or +'#t+o"l* l#ter e ,no+n #s # !icrocontroller c#!e # o"t2


42/87

T'e .irst !icrocontroller @9 : +#s *e1elo-e* ) Intel or-or#tion in t'e)e#r : @:2 It +#s c#lle* #s # 4S)ste! on # c'i-62 Intel re.ers to it #s M S? : no+2

%efinition of a Microcontroller

Microcontroller0 #s t'e n#!e s"$$ests0 #re s!#ll controllers2 T'e) #re li,e sin$lec'i- co!-"ters t'#t #re o.ten e! e**e* into ot'er s)ste!s to ."nction #s

-rocessin$ controllin$ "nit2 For e=#!-le0 t'e re!ote control )o" #re "sin$ -ro # l) '#s !icrocontrollers insi*e t'#t *o *eco*in$ #n* ot'er controllin$."nctions2 T'e) #re #lso "se* in #"to!o iles0 +#s'in$ !#c'ines0 !icro+#1eo1ens0 to)s 222 etc0 +'ere #"to!#tion is nee*e*2

T'e ,e) .e#t"res o. !icrocontrollers incl"*e

:2 Hi$' Inte$r#tion o. F"nction#lit)

82 Microcontrollers so!eti!es #re c#lle* sin$le?c'i- co!-"ters ec#"se t'e)'#1e on?c'i- !e!or) #n* I O circ"itr) #n* ot'er circ"itries t'#t en# le t'e!to ."nction #s s!#ll st#n*#lone co!-"ters +it'o"t ot'er s"--ortin$ circ"itr)2

;2 Fiel* Pro$r#!!# ilit)0 Fle=i ilit)2

C2 Microcontrollers o.ten "se EEPROM or EPROM #s t'eir stor#$e *e1ice to#llo+ .iel* -ro$r#!!# ilit) so t'e) #re .le=i le to "se2 Once t'e -ro$r#! isteste* to e correct t'en l#r$e /"#ntities o. !icrocontrollers c#n e

-ro$r#!!e* to e "se* in e! e**e* s)ste!s2

2 E#s) to Use Asse! l) l#n$"#$e is o.ten "se* in !icrocontrollers #n* sincet'e) "s"#ll) .ollo+ RIS #rc'itect"re0 t'e instr"ction set is s!#ll2 T'e*e1elo-!ent -#c,#$e o. !icrocontrollers o.ten incl"*es #n #sse! ler0 #si!"l#tor0 # -ro$r#!!er to K "rnK t'e c'i- #n* # *e!onstr#tion o#r*2So!e -#c,#$es incl"*e # 'i$' le1el l#n$"#$e co!-iler s"c' #s # co!-iler #n* !ore so-'istic#te* li r#ries2


43/87

Most !icrocontrollers +ill #lso co! ine ot'er *e1ices s"c' #s

:2 A Ti!er !o*"le to #llo+ t'e !icrocontroller to -er.or! t#s,s .or cert#inti!e -erio*s2

82 A seri#l I O -ort to #llo+ *#t# to .lo+ et+een t'e !icrocontroller #n* ot'er *e1ices s"c' #s # P or #not'er !icrocontroller2

;2 An AD to #llo+ t'e !icrocontroller to #cce-t #n#lo$"e in-"t *#t# .or -rocessin$2

S'o+in$ # t)-ic#l !icrocontroller *e1ice #n* its *i..erent s" "nits


44/87

;5@2 Arc,itecture


45/87

MI#RO#ONTROLLERS !ERSUS MI#ROPRO#ESSORS


46/87

W'#t is t'e *i..erence et+een # !icro-rocessor #n* !icrocontrollerV T'e

!icro-rocessors (s"c' #s @9@ 0 @98@ 0 @999 etc2% cont#in no RAM0 no ROM #n*

no I O -orts on t'e c'i- itsel.2 For t'is re#son t'e) #re re.erre* #s $ener#l? -"r-ose

!icro-rocessors2 A s)ste! *esi$ner "sin$ $ener#l? -"r-ose !icro-rocessor !"st

#** e=tern#l RAM0 ROM0 I O -orts #n* ti!ers to !#,e t'e! ."nction#l2 Alt'o"$'

t'e #**ition o. e=tern#l RAM0 ROM0 #n* I O -orts !#,e t'e s)ste! "l,ier #n*

!"c' !ore e=-ensi1e0 t'e) '#1e t'e #*1#nt#$e o. 1ers#tilit) s"c' t'#t t'e *esi$ner

c#n *eci*e on t'e #!o"nt o. RAM0 ROM #n* I O -orts nee*e* to .it t'e t#s, #t

'#n*2 T'is is t'e not t'e c#se +it' !icrocontrollers2 A !icrocontroller '#s # PU

(# !icro-rocessor% in #**ition to t'e .i=e* #!o"nt o. RAM0 ROM0 I O -orts0 #n*

ti!er #re #ll e! e**e* to$et'er on t'e c'i- t'ere.ore0 t'e *esi$ner c#nnot #** #n)

e=tern#l !e!or)0 I O0 or ti!er to it2 T'e .i=e* #!o"nt o. on c'i- RAM0 ROM0 #n*

n"! er o. I O -orts in !icrocontrollers !#,e t'e! i*e#l .or !#n) #--lic#tions in

+'ic' cost #n* s-#ce #re critic#l2 In !#n) #--lic#tions0 .or e=#!-le # T> re!ote

control0 t'ere is no nee* .or t'e co!-"tin$ -o+er o. # C@ or e1en # @9@

!icro-rocessor2 In !#n) #--lic#tions0 t'e s-#ce it t#,es0 t'e -o+er it cons"!es0

#n* t'e -rice -er "nit #re !"c' !ore critic#l consi*er#tions t'#n t'e co!-"tin$

-o+er2 T'ese #--lic#tions !ost o.ten re/"ire so!e I O o-er#tions to re#* si$n#ls

#n* t"rn on #n* o.. cert#in its2 It is interestin$ to ,no+ t'#t so!e


47/87

!icrocontroller s !#n".#ct"res '#1e $one #s .#r #s inte$r#tin$ #n AD #n* ot'er

-eri-'er#ls into t'e !icrocontrollers2

MI#RO#ONTROLLERS FOR EM"E%%E% SYSTEMS

In t'e liter#t"re *isc"ssin$ !icro-rocessors0 +e o.ten see # ter! e! e**e* s)ste!2

Micro-rocessors #n* !icrocontrollers #re +i*el) "se* in e! e**e* s)ste!

-ro*"cts2 An e! e**e* -ro*"ct "ses # !icro-rocessor (or !icrocontroller% to *o

one t#s, #n* one t#s, onl)2 A -rinter is #n e=#!-le o. e! e**e* s)ste! since t'e

-rocessor insi*e it -er.or!s one t#s, onl) n#!el)0 $et *#t# #n* -rint it2

ontr#stin$ t'is +it' # IBM P +'ic' c#n e "se* .or # n"! er o. #--lic#tions

s"c' #s +or* -rocessor0 -rint ser1er0 net+or, ser1er0 1i*eo $#!e -l#)er0 or internet

ter!in#l2 So.t+#re .or # 1#riet) o. #--lic#tions c#n e lo#*e* #n* r"n2 O. co"rse

t'e re#son # P c#n -er.or! !)ri#* t#s,s is t'#t it '#s RAM !e!or) #n* #n

o-er#tin$ s)ste! t'#t lo#*s t'e #--lic#tion so.t+#re into RAM #n* lets t'e PU

r"n it2 In #n e! e**e* s)ste!0 t'ere is onl) one #--lic#tion so.t+#re t'#t is "rne*

into ROM2 An P cont#ins or is connecte* to 1#rio"s e! e**e* -ro*"cts s"c' #s

t'e ,e) o#r*0 -rinter0 !o*e!0 *is, controller0 so"n* c#r*0 D?ROM *ri1er0 !o"se

#n* so on2 E#c' one o. t'ese -eri-'er#ls '#s # !icrocontroller insi*e it t'#t

-er.or!s onl) one t#s,2 For e=#!-le0 insi*e e1er) !o"se t'ere is # !icrocontroller

to -er.or! t'e t#s, o. .in*in$ t'e !o"se -osition #n* sen*in$ it to t'e P 2


48/87

Alt'o"$' !icrocontrollers #re t'e -re.erre* c'oice .or !#n) e! e**e*

s)ste!s0 t'ere #re ti!es t'#t # !icrocontroller is in#*e/"#te .or t'e t#s,2 For t'is

re#son0 in !#n) )e#rs t'e !#n".#ct"rers .or $ener#l?-"r-ose !icro-rocessors '#1e

t#r$ete* t'eir !icro-rocessor .or t'e 'i$' en* o. t'e e! e**e* !#r,et2

INTRO%U#TION TO ;5@2

In : @:0 Intel or-or#tion intro*"ce* #n @? it !icrocontroller c#lle* t'e @9 :2

T'is !icrocontroller '#* :8@ )tes o. RAM0 C5 )tes o. on?c'i- ROM0 t+o

ti!ers0 one seri#l -ort0 #n* .o"r -orts (@? it% #ll on # sin$le c'i-2 T'e @9 : is #n @?

it -rocessor0 !e#nin$ t'e PU c#n +or, on onl) @? it -ieces to e -rocesse* )

t'e PU2 T'e @9 : '#s # tot#l o. .o"r I O -orts0 e#c' @? it +i*e2 Alt'o"$' @9 :

c#n '#1e # !#=i!"! o. C5 )tes o. on?c'i- ROM0 !#n) !#n".#ct"rers -"t onl)

C5 )tes on t'e c'i-2

T'e @9 : ec#!e +i*el) -o-"l#r #.ter Intel #llo+e* ot'er !#n".#ct"rers to !#,e

#n) .l#1or o. t'e @9 : t'e) -le#se +it' t'e con*ition t'#t t'e) re!#in co*e

co!-#ti le +it' t'e @9 :2 T'is '#s le* to !#n) 1ersions o. t'e @9 : +it' *i..erent

s-ee*s #n* #!o"nt o. on?c'i- ROM !#r,ete* ) !ore t'#n '#l. # *o en

!#n".#ct"rers2 It is i!-ort#nt to ,no+ t'#t #lt'o"$' t'ere #re *i..erent .l#1ors o.

t'e @9 :0 t'e) #re #ll co!-#ti le +it' t'e ori$in#l @9 : #s .#r #s t'e instr"ctions

#re concerne*2 T'is !e#ns t'#t i. )o" +rite )o"r -ro$r#! .or one0 it +ill r"n on


49/87

#n) one o. t'e! re$#r*less o. t'e !#n".#ct"rer2 T'e !#3or @9 : !#n".#ct"rers #re

Intel0 At!el0 D#ll#s Se!icon*"ctors0 P'ili-s or-or#tion0 In.ineon2

AT; #@2 FROM ATMEL #ORPORATION

T'is -o-"l#r @9 : c'i- '#s on?c'i- ROM in t'e .or! o. .l#s' !e!or)2 T'is is

i*e#l .or .#st *e1elo-!ent since .l#s' !e!or) c#n e er#se* in secon*s co!-#re*

to t+ent) !in"tes or !ore nee*e* .or t'e e#rlier 1ersions o. t'e @9 :2 To "se t'e

AT@ : to *e1elo- # !icrocontroller? #se* s)ste! re/"ires # ROM "rner t'#t

s"--orts .l#s' !e!or) Ho+e1er0 # ROM er#ser is not nee*e*2 Notice t'#t in .l#s'

!e!or) )o" !"st er#se t'e entire contents o. ROM in or*er to -ro$r#! it #$#in2

T'e PROM "rner *oes t'is er#sin$ o. .l#s' itsel. #n* t'is is +') # se-#r#te "rner

is not nee*e*2 To eli!in#te t'e nee* .or # PROM "rner At!el is +or,in$ on #

1ersion o. t'e AT@ : t'#t c#n e -ro$r#!!e* ) t'e seri#l OM -ort o. t'e P 2

FEATURES OF AT; #@2

? C5 on?c'i- ROM

? :8@ )tes intern#l RAM (@? it%

? ;8 I O -ins

? T+o : ? it ti!ers

? Si= Interr"-ts

? Seri#l -ro$r#!!in$ .#cilit)

? C9 -in D"#l?in?line P#c,#$e


50/87

PIN diagram

PIN %ES#RIPTION


51/87

T'e @ : '#1e # tot#l o. C9 -ins t'#t #re *e*ic#te* .or 1#rio"s ."nctions s"c' #s

I O0 RD0 WR0 #**ress #n* interr"-ts2 O"t o. C9 -ins0 # tot#l o. ;8 -ins #re set #si*e

.or t'e .o"r -orts P90 P:0 P80 #n* P;0 +'ere e#c' -ort t#,es @ -ins2 T'e rest o. t'e

-ins #re *esi$n#te* #s >cc0 GND0 ^TAL:0 ^TAL0 RST0 EA0 #n* PSEN2 All t'ese

-ins e=ce-t PSEN #n* ALE #re "se* ) #ll !e! ers o. t'e @9 : #n* @9;:

.#!ilies2 In ot'er +or*s0 t'e) !"st e connecte* in or*er .or t'e s)ste! to +or,0

re$#r*less o. +'et'er t'e !icrocontroller is o. t'e @9 : or t'e @9;: .#!il)2 T'e

ot'er t+o -ins0 PSEN #n* ALE #re "se* !#inl) in @9;: #se* s)ste!s 2

!cc

Pin C9 -ro1i*es s"--l) 1olt#$e to t'e c'i-2 T'e 1olt#$e so"rce is >2

/N%

Pin 89 is t'e $ro"n*2


52/87

It !"st e note* t'#t t'ere #re 1#rio"s s-ee*s o. t'e @9 : .#!il)2 S-ee* re.ers to

t'e !#=i!"! oscill#tor .re/"enc) connecte* to t'e ^TAL2 For e=#!-le0 # :8 MH

c'i- !"st e connecte* to # cr)st#l +it' :8 MH .re/"enc) or less2 Li,e+ise0 # 89

MH !icrocontroller re/"ires # cr)st#l .re/"enc) o. no !ore t'#n 89 MH W'en

t'e @9 : is connecte* to # cr)st#l oscill#tor #n* is -o+ere* "-0 +e c#n o ser1e t'e

.re/"enc) on t'e ^TAL8 -in "sin$ oscillosco-e2

RST

Pin is t'e reset -in2 It is #n in-"t #n* is #cti1e 'i$' (nor!#ll) lo+%2 U-on

#--l)in$ # 'i$' -"lse to t'is -in0 t'e !icrocontroller +ill reset #n* ter!in#te #ll

#cti1ities2 T'is is o.ten re.erre* to #s # -o+er on reset2 Acti1#tin$ # -o+er?on

reset +ill c#"se #ll 1#l"es in t'e re$isters to e lost2 Notice t'#t t'e 1#l"e o.

Pro$r#! o"nter is 9999 "-on reset0 .orcin$ t'e PU to .etc' t'e .irst co*e .ro!

ROM !e!or) loc#tion 99992 T'is !e#ns t'#t +e !"st -l#ce t'e .irst line o. so"rce

co*e in ROM loc#tion 9999 t'#t is +'ere t'e PU +#,es "- #n* e=-ects to .in*

t'e .irst instr"ction2 In or*er to RESET in-"t to e e..ecti1e0 it !"st '#1e #

!ini!"! *"r#tion o. 8 !#c'ine c)cles2 In ot'er +or*s0 t'e 'i$' -"lse !"st e

'i$' .or # !ini!"! o. 8 !#c'ine c)cles e.ore it is #llo+e* to $o lo+2


53/87

EA

All t'e @9 : .#!il) !e! ers co!e +it' on?c'i- ROM to store -ro$r#!s2 In s"c'

c#ses0 t'e EA -in is connecte* to t'e >cc2 For .#!il) !e! ers s"c' #s @9;: #n*

@9;8 in +'ic' t'ere is no on?c'i- ROM0 co*e is store* on #n e=tern#l ROM #n* is

.etc'e* ) t'e @9;: ;82 T'ere.ore .or t'e @9;: t'e EA -in !"st e connecte* to

$ro"n* to in*ic#te t'#t t'e co*e is store* e=tern#ll)2 EA0 +'ic' st#n*s .or 4e=tern#l

#ccess06 is -in n"! er ;: in t'e DIP -#c,#$es2 It is in-"t -in #n* !"st e

connecte* to eit'er >cc or GND2 In ot'er +or*s0 it c#nnot e le.t "nconnecte*2

PSEN

T'is is #n o"t-"t -in2 PSEN st#n*s .or 4-ro$r#! store en# le26 It is t'e re#* stro e

to e=tern#l -ro$r#! !e!or)2 W'en t'e !icrocontroller is e=ec"tin$ .ro! e=tern#l

!e!or)0 PSEN is #cti1#te* t+ice e#c' !#c'ine c)cle2

ALE

ALE (A**ress l#tc' en# le% is #n o"t-"t -in #n* is #cti1e 'i$'2 W'en

connectin$ # !icrocontroller to e=tern#l !e!or)0 -ort 9 -ro1i*es ot' #**ress #n*

*#t#2 In ot'er +or*s t'e !icrocontroller !"lti-le=es #**ress #n* *#t# t'ro"$' -ort

9 to s#1e -ins2 T'e ALE -in is "se* .or *e?!"lti-le=in$ t'e #**ress #n* *#t# )

connectin$ to t'e G -in o. t'e CLS; ; c'i-2

IBO 'ort 'ins and t,eir functions


54/87

T'e .o"r -orts P90 P:0 P80 #n* P; e#c' "se @ -ins0 !#,in$ t'e! @? it -orts2 All t'e

-orts "-on RESET #re con.i$"re* #s o"t-"t0 re#*) to e "se* #s o"t-"t -orts2 To

"se #n) o. t'ese #s in-"t -ort0 it !"st e -ro$r#!!e*2

Port 5

Port 9 occ"-ies # tot#l o. @ -ins (-ins ;8 to ; %2 It c#n e "se* .or

in-"t or o"t-"t2 To "se t'e -ins o. -ort 9 #s ot' in-"t #n* o"t-"t -orts0 e#c'

-in !"st e connecte* e=tern#ll) to # :95?o'! -"ll?"- resistor2 T'is is *"e

to .#ct t'#t -ort 9 is #n o-en *r#in0 "nli,e P:0 P8 #n* P;2 Wit' e=tern#l -"ll?

"- resistors connecte* "-on reset0 -ort 9 is con.i$"re* #s o"t-"t -ort2 In

or*er to !#,e -ort 9 #n in-"t0 t'e -ort !"st e -ro$r#!!e* ) +ritin$ : to

#ll t'e its o. it2 Port 9 is #lso *esi$n#te* #s AD9?AD 0 #llo+in$ it to e

"se* .or ot' *#t# #n* #**ress2 W'en connectin$ # !icrocontroller to #n

e=tern#l !e!or)0 -ort 9 -ro1i*es ot' #**ress #n* *#t#2 T'e !icrocontroller

!"lti-le=es #**ress #n* *#t# t'ro"$' -ort 9 to s#1e -ins2 ALE in*ic#tes i. P9

'#s #**ress or *#t#2 W'en ALE 90 it -ro1i*es *#t# D9?D 0 "t +'en ALE :

it '#s #**ress A9?A 2 T'ere.ore0 ALE is "se* .or *e?!"lti-le=in$ #**ress

#n* *#t# +it' t'e 'el- o. l#tc' CLS; ;2


55/87

Port 2

Port : occ"-ies # tot#l o. @ -ins (-ins : to @%2 It c#n e "se* #s in-"t or

o"t-"t2 In contr#st to -ort 90 t'is -ort *oes not re/"ire -"ll?"- resistors since

it '#s #lre#*) -"ll?"- resistors intern#ll)2 U-on reset0 -ort : is con.i$"res #s

#n o"t-"t -ort2 Si!il#r to -ort 90 -ort : c#n e "se* #s #n in-"t -ort )

+ritin$ : to #ll its its2

Port 6

Port 8 occ"-ies # tot#l o. @ -ins (-ins 8: to 8@%2 It c#n e "se* #s in-"t or

o"t-"t2 7"st li,e P:0 -ort 8 *oes not nee* #n) -"ll?"- resistors since it '#s

-"ll?"- resistors intern#ll)2 U-on reset -ort 8 is con.i$"re* #s o"t-"t -ort2 To

!#,e -ort 8 in-"ts0 it !"st e -ro$r#!!e* #s s"c' ) +ritin$ :s to it2

Port 8

Port ; occ"-ies # tot#l o. @ -ins (-ins :9 to : %2 It c#n e "se* #s in-"t or

o"t-"t2 P; *oes not nee* #n) -"ll?"- resistors0 t'e s#!e #s P: #n* P8 *i*

not2 Alt'o"$' -ort ; is con.i$"re* #s o"t-"t -ort "-on reset0 t'is is not t'e

+#) it is !ost co!!onl) "se*2 Port ; '#s #n #**ition#l ."nction o.

-ro1i*in$ so!e e=tre!el) i!-ort#nt si$n#ls s"c' #s interr"-ts2 So!e o. t'e

#ltern#te ."nctions o. P; #re liste* elo+


56/87

P;29 R^D (Seri#l in-"t%

P;2: T^D (Seri#l o"t-"t%

P;28 INT9 (E=tern#l interr"-t 9%

P;2; INT: (E=tern#l interr"-t :%

P;2C T9 (Ti!er 9 e=tern#l in-"t%

P;2 T: (Ti!er : e=tern#l in-"t%

P;2 WR (E=tern#l !e!or) +rite stro e%

P;2 RD (E=tern#l !e!or) re#* stro e%

INSI%E T$E ; #@2

Registers

In t'e PU0 re$isters #re "se* to store in.or!#tion te!-or#ril)2 T'#t

in.or!#tion co"l* e # )te o. *#t# to e -rocesse*0 or #n #**ress -ointin$

to t'e *#t# to e .etc'e*2 In t'e @9 : t'ere "s onl) one *#t# t)-e @ its2 Wit'

#n @? it *#t# t)-e0 #n) *#t# l#r$er t'#n @ its '#s to e ro,en into @? it

c'"n,s e.ore it is -rocesse*2


57/87

DPTR

P

( % So!e @9 : : ? it re$isters

(#% So!e @9 : @? it re$isters

T'e !ost co!!onl) "se* re$isters o. t'e @9 : #re A(#cc"!"l#tor%0 B0 R90

R:0 R80 R;0 RC0 R 0 R 0 R 0 DPTR (*#t# -ointer% #n* P (-ro$r#!

co"nter%2 All t'e # o1e re$isters #re @? it re$isters e=ce-t DPTR #n* t'e

-ro$r#! co"nter2 T'e #cc"!"l#tor A is "se* .or #ll #rit'!etic #n* lo$ic

instr"ctions2

Program #ounter and %ata Pointer

T'e -ro$r#! co"nter is # : ? it re$ister #n* it -oints to t'e #**ress o. t'e

ne=t instr"ction to e e=ec"te*2 As t'e PU .etc'es o-?co*e .ro! t'e

-ro$r#! ROM0 t'e -ro$r#! co"nter is incre!ente* to -oint to t'e ne=t

instr"ction2 Since t'e P is : it +i*e0 it c#n #ccess -ro$r#! #**resses

A

B

R0

R1

R2

R3

R4

R5

R6

R7


58/87

9999 to FFFFH0 # tot#l o. C5 )tes o. co*e2 Ho+e1er0 not #ll t'e !e! ers

o. t'e @9 : '#1e t'e entire C5 )tes o. on?c'i- ROM inst#lle*2

T'e DPTR re$ister is !#*e "- o. t+o @? it

re$isters0 DPH #n* DPL0 +'ic' #re "se* to ."rnis' !e!or) #**resses .or

intern#l #n* e=tern#l *#t# #ccess2 T'e DPTR is "n*er t'e control o. -ro$r#!

instr"ctions #n* c#n e s-eci.ie* ) its n#!e0 DPTR2 DPTR *oes not '#1e #

sin$le intern#l #**ress< DPH #n* DPL #re #ssi$ne* #n #**ress e#c'2

Flag .its and t,e PSW Register

Li,e #n) ot'er !icro-rocessor0 t'e @9 : '#1e # .l#$ re$ister to in*ic#te

#rit'!etic con*itions s"c' #s t'e c#rr) it2 T'e .l#$ re$ister in t'e @9 : is

c#lle* t'e -ro$r#! st#t"s +or* (PSW% re$ister2

T'e -ro$r#! st#t"s +or* (PSW% re$ister is #n @? it

re$ister2 It is #lso re.erre* #s t'e .l#$ re$ister2 Alt'o"$' t'e PSW re$ister is

@? it +i*e0 onl) its o. it #re "se* ) t'e !icrocontroller2 T'e t+o "n"se*

its #re "ser *e.in# le .l#$s2 Fo"r o. t'e .l#$s #re con*ition#l .l#$s0 !e#nin$

t'e) in*ic#te so!e con*itions t'#t res"lte* #.ter #n instr"ction +#s

e=ec"te*2 T'ese .o"r #re (c#rr)%0 A (#"=ili#r) c#rr)%0 P (-#rit)%0 #n*

O> (o1er.lo+%2 T'e its o. t'e PSW re$ister #re s'o+n elo+


59/87

PSW2 #rr) .l#$

A PSW2 A"=ili#r) c#rr) .l#$

?? PSW2 A1#il# le to t'e "ser .or $ener#l -"r-ose

RS: PSW2 Re$ister #n, selector it :

RS9 PSW2; Re$ister #n, selector it 9

O> PSW28 O1er.lo+ .l#$

F9 PSW2: User *e.in# le it

P PSW29 P#rit) .l#$

#Y1 t,e carr+ flag

T'is .l#$ is set +'ene1er t'ere is # c#rr) o"t .ro! t'e * it2 T'is

.l#$ it is #..ecte* #.ter #n @? it #**ition or s" tr#ction2 It c#n #lso e set to

: or 9 *irectl) ) #n instr"ction s"c' #s 4SETB 6 #n* 4 LR 6 +'ere

4SETB 6 st#n*s .or set it c#rr) #n* 4 LR 6 .or cle#r c#rr)2

A F9 RS: RS9 O> ?? P


60/87

A#1 t,e au?iliar+ carr+ flag

I. t'ere is c#rr) .ro! D; to DC *"rin$ #n ADD or SUB o-er#tion0

t'is it is set ot'er+ise cle#re*2 T'is .l#$ is "se* ) instr"ctions t'#t

-er.or! B D #rit'!etic2

P1 t,e 'arit+ flag

T'e -#rit) .l#$ re.lects t'e n"! er o. :s in t'e #cc"!"l#tor re$ister onl)2 I.

t'e re$ister A cont#ins #n o** n"! er o. :s0 t'en P :2 T'ere.ore0 P 9 i. A

'#s #n e1en n"! er o. :s2

O!1 t,e o(erflo& flag

T'is .l#$ is set +'ene1er t'e res"lt o. # si$ne* n"! er o-er#tion is too

l#r$e0 c#"sin$ t'e 'i$' or*er it to o1er.lo+ into t'e si$n it2 In $ener#l t'e

c#rr) .l#$s #re "se* to *etect errors in "nsi$ne* #rit'!etic o-er#tions2

MEMORY SPA#E ALLO#ATION

2C Internal ROM

T'e @ : '#s C5 )tes o. on?c'i- ROM2 T'is C5 )tes ROM !e!or)

'#s !e!or) #**resses o. 9999 to 9FFF'2 Pro$r#! #**resses 'i$'er t'#n

9FFF'0 +'ic' e=cee* t'e intern#l ROM c#-#cit)0 +ill c#"se t'e

!icrocontroller to #"to!#tic#ll) .etc' co*e )tes .ro! e=tern#l !e!or)2

o*e )tes c#n #lso e .etc'e* e=cl"si1el) .ro! #n e=tern#l !e!or)0


61/87

#**resses 9999' to FFFF'0 ) connectin$ t'e e=tern#l #ccess -in to $ro"n*2

T'e -ro$r#! co"nter *oesn t c#re +'ere t'e co*e is t'e circ"it *esi$ner

*eci*es +'et'er t'e co*e is .o"n* tot#ll) in intern#l ROM0 tot#ll) in

e=tern#l ROM or in # co! in#tion o. intern#l #n* e=tern#l ROM2

6C Internal RAM

T'e :8@ )tes o. RAM insi*e t'e @9 : #re #ssi$ne* #**resses 99 to F'2

T'ese :8@ )tes c#n e *i1i*e* into t'ree *i..erent $ro"-s #s .ollo+s

:2 A tot#l o. ;8 )tes .ro! loc#tions 99 to :F' #re set #si*e .or re$ister

#n,s #n* t'e st#c,2

82 A tot#l o. : )tes .ro! loc#tions 89' to 8F' #re set #si*e .or it

#**ress# le re#* +rite !e!or) #n* instr"ctions2

;2 A tot#l o. @9 )tes .ro! loc#tions ;9' to F' #re "se* .or re#* #n* +rite

stor#$e0 or +'#t is nor!#ll) c#lle* # scr#tc' -#*2 T'ese @9 loc#tions o.

RAM #re +i*el) "se* .or t'e -"r-ose o. storin$ *#t# #n* -#r#!eters )@9 : -ro$r#!!ers2


62/87

Reset circuit of ;5@2


63/87

Famil+ Mem.ers of ;5@2

Fe#t"res @9 : @9;: @9 8 @9;8

ROM C5 95 @5 95

RAM( )tes% :8@ :8@ 8 8

Ti!ers 8 8 ; ;

I O Pins ;8 ;8 ;8 ;8

Seri#l Port : : : :

Interr"-tSo"rces

F#!il) !e! ers o. @9 :

RAM Arc,itecture

R#! Arc'itect"re


64/87

T'e @9 : '#s # #n, o. :8@ )tes o. Intern#l RAM2 T'is Intern#l RAM is

.o"n* on?c'i- on t'e @9 : so it is t'e .#stest RAM #1#il# le0 #n* it is #lso t'e !ost

.le=i le in ter!s o. re#*in$0 +ritin$0 #n* !o*i.)in$ its contents2 Intern#l RAM is

1ol#tile0 so +'en t'e @9 : is reset t'is !e!or) is cle#re*2 T'e :8@ )tes o. intern#l r#! is s" *i1i*e* #s s'o+n on t'e !e!or) !#-2 T'e .irst @ )tes (99' ?

9 '% #re Kre$ister #n, 9K2 T'ese #ltern#ti1e re$ister #n,s #re loc#te* in intern#l

RAM in #**resses 9@' t'ro"$' :F'2Bit !e!or) #ct"#ll) resi*es in intern#l RAM0

.ro! #**resses 89' t'ro"$' 8F'2 T'e @9 )tes re!#inin$ o. Intern#l RAM0 .ro!

#**resses ;9' t'ro"$' F'0 !#) e "se* ) "ser 1#ri# les t'#t nee* to e #ccesse*

.re/"entl) or #t 'i$'?s-ee*2 T'is #re# is #lso "tili e* ) t'e !icrocontroller #s #

stor#$e #re# .or t'e o-er#tin$ st#c,2

Register "an=s

T'e @9 : "ses @ KRK re$isters +'ic' #re "se* in !#n) o. its instr"ctions2

T'ese KRK re$isters #re n"! ere* .ro! 9 t'ro"$' (R90 R:0 R80 R;0 RC0 R 0 R 0

#n* R %2T'ese re$isters #re $ener#ll) "se* to #ssist in !#ni-"l#tin$ 1#l"es #n*

!o1in$ *#t# .ro! one !e!or) loc#tion to #not'er2 T'e conce-t o. re$ister #n,s

#**s # $re#t le1el o. .le=i ilit) to t'e @9 :2

"it Memor+

T'e @9 :0 ein$ # co!!"nic#tion oriente* !icrocontroller0 $i1es t'e "ser

t'e # ilit) to #ccess # n"! er o. it 1#ri# les2 T'ese 1#ri# les !#) e eit'er : or 92

T'ere #re :8@ it 1#ri# les #1#il# le to t'e "ser0 n"! ere* 99' t'ro"$' F'2 T'e

"ser !#) !#,e "se o. t'ese 1#ri# les +it' co!!#n*s s"c' #s SETB #n* LR2 It is

i!-ort#nt to note t'#t Bit Me!or) is re#ll) # -#rt o. Intern#l RAM2 In .#ct0 t'e :8@

it 1#ri# les occ"-) t'e : )tes o. Intern#l RAM .ro! 89' t'ro"$' 8F'2


65/87

S'ecial Function Register )SFR* Memor+

S-eci#l F"nction Re$isters (SFRs% #re #re#s o. !e!or) t'#t control s-eci.ic

.