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The Anthropology of Religion, Magic, and Witchcraft

Second Edition

Rebecca L. Stein Los Angeles Valley College

Philip L. Stein

Los Angeles Pierce College

Boston New York San Francisco Mexico City Montreal Toronto London Madrid Munich Paris

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Instructor’s Manual and Test Bank

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Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The contents, or parts thereof, may be reproduced with The Anthropology of Religion, Magic, and Witchcraft, Second Edition, by Rebecca L. Stein and Philip L. Stein, provided such reproductions bear copyright notice, but may not be reproduced in any form for any other purpose without written permission from the copyright owner. To obtain permission(s) to use the material from this work, please submit a written request to Allyn and Bacon, Permissions Department, 75 Arlington Street, Boston, MA 02116 or fax your request to 617-848-7320. ISBN-13: 978-0-205-54939-9 ISBN-10: 0-205-54939-X


PREFACE We are pleased to present an Instructor’s Manual to accompany the second edition of our text, The An-thropology of Religion, Magic, and Witchcraft. Changes in this edition include:

• Fewer, but expanded ethnographic examples to provide greater focus. • The division of a previous chapter into two separate and expanded chapters on altered states of

consciousness and religious specialists. • An increased number of illustrations. • Expanded discussions of several topics including myth analysis, fasting, altered states of con-

sciousness and upper Paleolithic art and Islamic fundamentalism. This Instructor’s Manual is designed to aid the instructor in developing and organizing a course in the anthropology of religion. Each chapter contains the following features:

• Chapter Outline • Chapter Summary • Learning Objectives • Glossary • Discussion Topics • Student Projects • Videos • Web Sites • Additional References • Test Questions

Multiple Choice True/False Essay

Finally, we have concluded with appendices. The first are the student learning outcomes and course objectives for our course on the Anthropology of Religion. The second is an observational assignment that we have successfully used for a number of years. The third is a set of study questions for three books that we have used to supplement the main text. The last appendix provides the addresses of the sources of videos and films that have been listed with each chapter. Please note that we have not been able to view a number of the videos—the videos listed are suggestions to explore. This original edition of the text was a direct result of several years of teaching a course titled “The Anthropology of Religion, Magic, and Witchcraft.” We are sharing our experiences and we would very much like you to share yours. Please feel free to send us any comments and suggestions. They will be most welcome.

Rebecca L. Stein [email protected]

Philip L. Stein

[email protected]


Instructor’s Manual for The Anthropology of Religion, Magic, and Witchcraft

CONTENTS Chapter One THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL STUDY OF RELIGION

1

Chapter Two MYTHOLOGY

13

Chapter Three RELIGIOUS SYMBOLS

24

Chapter Four RITUAL

35

Chapter Five ALTERED STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS

49

Chapter Six RELIGIOUS SPECIALISTS

58

Chapter Seven MAGIC AND DIVINATION

67

Chapter Eight SOULS, GHOSTS, AND DEATH

78

Chapter Nine GODS AND SPIRITS

89

Chapter Ten WITCHCRAFT

99

Chapter Eleven THE SEARCH FOR NEW MEANING

108

Appendix One STUDENT LEARNING OUTCOMES AND COURSE OBJECTIVES

120

Appendix Two FIELD STUDY OF RELIGION

122

Appendix Three STUDY QUESTIONS FOR SUPPLEMENTARY BOOKS

124

Appendix Four VIDEO AND FILM SOURCES 128


Chapter 1: The Anthropological Study of Religion

Chapter One THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL STUDY OF RELIGION CHAPTER OUTLINE THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE The Holistic Approach The Study of Human Societies The Fore of New Guinea: An Ethnographic Example Two Ways of Viewing Culture Cultural Relativism Postmodernism Universal Human Rights The Concept of Culture Viewing the World THE DEFINITION OF RELIGION Attempts at Defining Religion The Domain of Religion Theoretical Approaches to the Study of Religion The Evolutionary Approach The Marxist Approach The Functional Approach The Interpretive Approach The Psychosocial Approach The Universality of Religion CONCLUSION SUMMARY BOX 1.1 KAREN MCCARTHY BROWN AND VODOU BOX 1.2 MALINOWSKI AND THE TROBRIAND ISLANDS BOX 1.3 EVANS-PRITCHARD AND THE AZANDE CHAPTER SUMMARY Anthropology is the study of humanity. Anthropologists study human societies as integrated wholes, an approach that is termed holism. This approach is seen in the broad scope of anthro-pology, which is often divided into the fields of physical anthropology, archaeology, linguistics, and cultural anthropology. This approach requires that societies be studied over long periods of time, during which the investigator lives within the community and participates in the lives of the people under study, a technique known as participant observation. The final product is an eth-nography, a descriptive study of a human society.

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An outside observer of a community usually imposes his or her system of analysis on the group under study (etic analysis). It is natural to use one’s our own society as the basis for inter-preting and judging other societies, a tendency called ethnocentrism. Many anthropologists at-tempt to see the world through the eyes of the people being studied (emic analysis) and describe and understand people’s customs and ideas but do not judge them, an approach called cultural relativism. The goal is to study what people believe, not whether or not what they believe is true. A central concept in anthropology is culture. In 1871 Tylor wrote, “Culture ... is that com-plex whole, which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, customs, and any other capabili-ties and habits acquired by man as a member of society.” Culture includes all aspects of the hu-man experience that are passed down from generation to generation. Culture gives meaning to reality; we live in a real, physical world, but our minds interpret this world through a cultural lens and even create new realities. Religion is a difficult concept to define when we try to include all human societies. We can list some approaches to a definition. An operant definition is one in which we define our terms so that they are observable and measurable and therefore can be studied. An analytic definition fo-cuses on the way in which religion manifests itself or is expressed in a culture. A functional defi-nition is concerned with the role that religion plays in a society. Finally, an essentialist definition looks at what the essential nature of religion is and emphasizes the fact that religion is the do-main of the extraordinary. There have been many theoretical approaches to the study of religion. The evolutionary ap-proach, developed in the late 1800s, focused on the questions of when and how religions began and how they evolved from the simple to the complex. This evolution was seen as a natural con-sequence of human nature, and the religions of “primitive” peoples were remnants of an earlier, simpler evolutionary stage. Early religions included animism, the belief in spirits and ghosts, and animatism, the belief in a generalized supernatural force. The Marist approach is based upon the writings of Karl Marx who saw religion as being a construction of those in power, designed to divert people’s attention from the miseries of their lives. This misery was seen as being the result of exploitation of the masses by those in power under the capitalist system. He saw religion both as a means of compensation and as a way of getting people to go along with a capitalist culture that is not in their best interests. The functional approach asks the question: What does religion do? For example, Mali-nowski concluded that magic functions to provide control and certainty in an otherwise uncertain situation. The interpretive approach is associated with Clifford Geertz who believed that the task of anthropologists was to make sense of cultural systems by studying meaning. He described re-ligion as a cluster of symbols that provides a charter for a culture’s ideas, values, and way of life. Religious symbols help explain human existence by giving it an ultimate meaning. The psycho-social approach is concerned with the relationship between culture and personality and the con-nection between the society and the individual. Some scholars have suggested that the universality of religion is the result of a common structure of the human brain. Some have argued that religion is an accidental by-product of the way the human brain works. A part of this is the human propensity of seeing patterns in random-ness and inferring purpose, goals and intention where there is none.

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES After reading Chapter 1 the student should be able to:

• Explain the meaning of holism and the importance of the holistic approach. • Describe the approach and methodology of the field of anthropology. • Explain what a culture area is and explain why this and method of food getting are used

as a basic way of describing a culture. • Explain the causes of kuru among the Fore, as an example of holism. • Explain the difference between and emic and an etic analysis. • Describe cultural relativism and its importance for anthropological studies. • Explain the concept of culture. • Identify the basic approaches to defining religion, including the associated definitions. • Identify and explain the basic approaches to the study of religion. • Explain the factors that are used to explain the universality of religion.

GLOSSARY Agnosticism: The idea that the nature of the supernatural is unknowable, that it is as impossible

to prove the nonexistence of the supernatural as it is to prove its existence. (p. 26) Analytic definition: A definition that focuses on the way religion manifests itself or is expressed

in a culture. (p. 18) Animatism: The belief in an impersonal supernatural power. (p. 20) Animism: A belief in spirit beings. (p. 18) Anthropology: The study of humanity. (p. 1) Archaeology: The study of prehistoric people from the analysis of their physical and cultural

remains. (p. 2) Cognition: The processes of the human brain, including perception, attention, learning, memory,

concept formation, and problem solving. (p. 24) Collective conscious: A set of beliefs shared by members of a social group that function to limit

the natural selfishness of individuals and promote social cooperation. (p. 21) Cultural Anthropology: The study of contemporary human societies and their cultures. (p. 2) Cultural relativism: Attempting to analyze and understanding cultures other than one’s own

without judging them in terms of one’s own culture. (p. 11) Culture area: A geographical area in which societies share many cultural traits. (p. 4) Culture: Human beliefs and behaviors of a society that are learned, transmitted from one gen-

eration to the next, and shared by a group of people. (p. 14) Divination: Supernatural techniques for obtaining information about things unknown, including

events that will occur in the future. (p. 9) Emic analysis: The study of a society through the eyes of the people being studied. (p. 10) Essentialist definition: A definition that looks at the essential nature of religion. (p. 18) Ethnocentrism: Using one’s own culture as the basis for interpreting and judging other cultures.

(p. 11) Ethnographers: A person who produces an ethnography. (p. 3) Ethnographic present: Speaking or writing about cultures in the present tense although what is

described might no longer exist. (p. 4)

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Ethnography: The descriptive study of human societies. (p. 3) Etic analysis: The study of a society using concepts that were developed outside of the culture.

(p. 10) Evolutionary approach: An approach that focuses on the questions of when and how religion

began and how it developed through time. (p. 20) Foraging bands: Small communities that subsist by hunting, fishing, and gathering wild plant

foods. (p. 3) Functional approach: An approach that is based on the function or role that religion plays in a

society. (p. 21) Functional definition: A definition that is based on the role that religion plays in a society. (p.

18) God module: A part of the temporal lobe of the brain that is associated with religious experi-

ences. (p. 25) Holism: The study of human societies as systematic sums of their parts, as integrated wholes. (p.

2) Horticulture: The use of cultivated domesticated plants without the use of fertilizers, plows, ir-

rigation, and other agricultural technologies. (p. 3) Human universal: Characteristics that are found in all human societies. (p. 3) Interpretive approach: Idea that cultural systems are understood by studying meaning; reli-

gious is a cluster of symbols that provides a charter for a culture’s ideas, values, and way of life. (p. 23)

Linguistics: The study of language. (p. 2) Marxist approach: Idea that religion is a construction of those in power, designed to divert peo-

ple’s attention from the miseries of their lives; a way of getting people to go along with capi-talist culture. (p. 21)

Modernity: A philosophical movement based on ideas of rationality, objectivity, reason, and science as the means of gaining knowledge, truth, and progress. (p. 11)

Operant definition: A definition in which we define our terms so that they are observable and measurable, and therefore can be studied. (p. 16)

Participant observation: A research method whereby the anthropologist lives in a community and participates in the lives of the people under study while at the same time making objec-tive observations. (p. 3)

Pastoral nomads: Societies that subsist primarily by herding domesticated animals. (p. 3) Physical anthropology: The study of human biology and evolution. (p. 2) Positivism: A philosophy that emphasizes empiricism, or observing and measuring, saying that

the only real knowledge is scientific knowledge and any knowledge beyond that is impossi-ble. (p. 20)

Postmodernism: An emphasis on subjectivity over objectivity and a tendency towards reflexiv-ity, or self-consciousness; all knowledge is seen as being a human construction that scholars must seek to deconstruct. (p. 11)

Psychosocial approach: An approach to the study of religion that is concerned with the relation-ship between culture and personality and between society and individual. (p. 23)

Reification: Treating something as if it were human and alive that is not. (p.23) Religion: The realm of culture that concerns the sacred supernatural. (p. 16) Sacred: An attitude wherein the subject or object is set apart from the normal, everyday world

and is entitled to reverence and respect. (p. 19)

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Small-scale: Describes relatively small communities that practice foraging, herding, or techno-logically simple horticulture (p. 3)

Supernatural: Entities and actions that transcend the natural world of cause and effect. (p. 18) Symbol: A shared understanding about the meaning of certain words, attributes, or objects;

something that stands for something else. (p. 14) DISCUSSION TOPICS

• How does anthropology compare with other social sciences that you may be familiar with?

• Cultural relativism is one of the core concepts of anthropology. Are there any limits to this concept? If so, what are they? Is there a place in anthropology for the idea of univer-sal human rights?

• Is it possible to fully understand a religion if you do not believe in its basic tenets? • What are the advantages and disadvantages of an emic analysis? What are the advantages

and disadvantages of an etic analysis? • How would you personally define the term religion? • The concept of holism suggests that religion affects and is affected by other domains of

culture. In our own culture, how does religion interact with other realms of culture? • Why do you think religion is universal?

STUDENT PROJECTS

• In order to illustrate the concept of holism, select a general topic of interest. It can be mu-sic, a hobby, sports, etc. Discuss how that topic can be studied as an anthropological study. Search the Internet to find anthropological discussions that touch on that topic.

• While it is not possible to travel to different parts of the world during the semester, it is possible to visit some venue associated with another culture in one’s own community. It can be an ethnic restaurant, museum of ethnic art, a community center run by a particular ethnic group, or a church or temple. Visit the location and make observations. Write a brief ethnography.

• Interview a student who is from another country attending your school. Find out what as-pects of your culture the international student finds strange, amusing, or difficult to un-derstand and why.

• Many countries have entered into treaties guaranteeing certain universal human rights and many organizations exist fighting for universal human rights. What are some of the rights are though to be universal? Do you agree with these? What rights would you in-clude, if any?

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VIDEOS Anthropologists at Work: Careers Making a Difference. Insight Media. 1993, 36 min. Shows anthropologists working in applied settings. Civil Religion. Insight Media. 1999, 60 min. Looks at the myths, symbols, and holidays of civil religion in America. Culture. Insight Media. 1991, 30 min. Defines and explores the main dimensions of culture. How Beliefs and Values Define a Culture. Insight Media. 1997, 24 min. Looks at how art, music, history and religion shape cultural beliefs and values. What is Religion? Insight Media. 1992, 60 min. Looks at the cultural and social functions of religion and considers religious pluralism in the United States. WEB SITES www.aaanet.org/ Website of the American Anthropological Association www.aaanet.org/sar The Society for the Anthropology of Religion of the American Anthropo-

logical Association. www.religioustolerance.org Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance www.wamware.com/world-religions World Religions Project ADDITIONAL REFERENCES Pascal Boyer. Religion Explained: The Evolutionary Origins of Religious Thought. New York: Basic Books, 2001. Andrew Newberg, Eugene D’Aquili, and Vince Rause. Why God Won’t Go Away. A study of brain function and how the brain creates stories, beliefs, and rituals.

William Paden. Interpreting the Sacred: Ways of Viewing Religion. Boston: Beacon Press, 1992. An overview of theoretical approaches to religion. Carl Sagan. The Demon Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark. New York: Bal-lantine Books, 1996). A skeptical look at supernatural beliefs and phenomena.

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TEST QUESTIONS Multiple Choice Questions 1. Which of the following would not be an appropriate task for an anthropologist?

a. translating a religious text in the Navaho language b. excavating the ruins of a Mayan temple c. filming an American religious ceremony d. studying the chimpanzees of the Gombe National Park e. all of the above would be appropriate tasks Answer: e page 2

2. A study of a people's religious beliefs and rituals would be a part of the study of:

a. cultural anthropology b. linguistics c. archaeology d. physical anthropology Answer: a page 2

3. Anthropologists study societies as systematic sums of their parts, a concept known as:

a. relativism b. ethnology c. holism d. postmodernism Answer: c page 2

4. A method of studying communities that is unique to anthropology is:

a. questionnaires b. participant observation c. psychological tests d. recording of oral literature and songs Answer: b page 3

5. An ethnography is a:

a. comparative study of the social systems of many societies b. study of the physical characteristics of a human population c. analysis of a nonhuman primate species d. descriptive study of a society or culture Answer: d page 3

6. An example of an ethnography is:

a. Goodall's study of chimpanzee behavior b. Herskovits's study of economic anthropology c. Johanson's study of the fossil hominids from Hadar d. Malinowski's study of the Trobriand Islanders Answer: d pages 3-4

7. Societies characterized by low population density, no full-time specialists or social stratifi-

cation, whose food is obtained primarily from gathering, hunting, and fishing are: a. foragers b. pastoralists c. horticulturalists d. intensive agriculturalists Answer: a page 7

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8. Kuru, a disease found among the Fore, is caused by: a. microscopic particles transmitted through cannibalism b. a parasite transmitted through poorly-cooked pork c. a hereditary factor passed on through the mother to her children d. toxins introduced by Indonesian mining operations Answer: a page 8

9. The Fore believe that kuru is caused by the:

a. breaking of a taboo b. displeasure of an ancestral spirit c. transmission of a microorganism d. activities of a sorcerer doing evil magic Answer: d page 9

10. Anthropologists attempt to see the world through the eyes of the people in the community

they are studying. This is: a. emic analysis b. functional analysis c. etic analysis d. psychosocial analysis Answer: a page 10

11. After cremating their dead, the Yanomamö grind the ashes and later add the ashes to a ba-

nana stew to be consumed. Most Americans might feel that drinking the ashes of the dead to be disgusting. On the other hand, anthropology tells us that we should not judge the customs of others by our own standards. This latter attitude towards other cultures is called: a. holism b. ethnocentrism c. cultural relativism d. participant observation Answer: c page 12

12. The point of view that all knowledge is a human “construction,” that there are multiple

viewpoints and truths, and that we must be aware of our own viewpoints and biases, is re-ferred to as:

a. modernity b. essentialism c. postmodernism d. Marxism Answer: c pages 12-13 13. Culture consists of:

a. innate behavioral patterns that humans share with the apes b. an appreciation of the fine arts and literature c. nutrients upon which bacteria can grow d. learned and traditional patterns of behavior Answer: d page 14

14. The first use of the term culture in anthropology appeared in 1871 in a book written by: a. James Frazer b. Robert Edgerton c. Edward Tylor d. Melford Spiro Answer: c page 14

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15. A definition of religion that is concerned with the role that religion plays in a society is a(n): a. analytic definition b. functional definition c. essentialist definition d. psychosocial definition Answer: b page 18

16. A belief in spirit beings is termed:

a. animatism b. animism c. agnosticism d. anthropocentrism Answer: b page 18

17. The term supernatural refers to:

a. an attitude of reverence and respect b. a belief in spirit beings such as spirits and gods c. belief in a general supernatural force d. things that are above the natural and not subject to the laws of nature Answer: d pages 18-19

18. Late nineteenth century anthropologists who saw “primitive” societies as presenting an early

stage in the development of religion were using the: a. functional approach b. essentialist approach c. evolutionary approach d. psychoanalytic approach Answer: c page 20

19. Which of the following anthropologists is most closely associated with the functionalist ap-

proach? a. Melford Spiro b. Edward Tyler c. Alfred Radcliff-Brown d. Bronislaw Malinowski Answer: b page 20

20. There are many approaches to the study of religion in anthropology. One approach is to ask

the question: What does religion do? What roles does religion play in human societies? This approach is referred to as the: a. functional approach b. psychosocial approach c. evolutionary approach d. cognitive approach Answer: a pages 21-22

21. The interpretative approach, in which religion is described as a cluster of symbols that to-

gether make up a whole, was developed by: a. Sigmund Freud b. Melford Spiro c. Clifford Geertz d. James Frazer Answer: b page 23 22. Ethnographic fieldwork among the Trobriand Islanders was carried out by: a. E. E. Evans-Pritchard b. Bronislaw Malinowski c. Karen McCarthy Brown d. Alfred R. Radcliffe-Brown Answer: b page 24

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True/False Questions 23. The study of religious art excavated from now extinct cultures is a part of the field of ar-

chaeology. Answer: T page 2 24. An important method of field study in anthropology is participant observation. Answer: T page 3 25. Anthropologists frequently apply the term primitive to small-scale societies. Answer: F page 3 26. Human universals refer to biological characteristics of human beings that reflect a common

biology. Answer: F page 3 27. Northwest Coast, East African Cattle, and Melanesia are names of culture areas. Answer: T pages 5-7 28. The Fore of New Guinea practice mortuary cannibalism, that is, they eat the body of their

deceased relatives. Answer: T page 8 29. The Fore of New Guinea believe that the disease kuru is caused by evil forest spirits. Answer: F page 9 30. An outsider who applies his or her own cultural orientation to the analysis of another culture

is performing an emic analysis. Answer: F page 10 31. A person who judges another society in terms of his or her own culture is said to be ethno-

centric. Answer: T page 11 32. Postmodernism highlights the scientific method and rationality in the discovery of knowl-

edge. Answer: F pages 11-12 33. Robert Edgerton believes that all cultural practices are valid and must be accepted in the

context of the society’s culture. Answer: F page 13 34. Culture is based upon the use of symbols or shared understanding about the meaning of

things. Answer: T page 14

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35. The identification of the constellation of Orion as a male hero is found in all agricultural so-cieties.

Answer: F pages 15-16 36. The essentialist definition of religion emphasizes that region is the domain of the extraordi-

nary. Answer: T page 18 37. All societies have clearly understood terms to label the domain of culture we call religion. Answer: F page 19 38. Animatism refers to the idea of an impersonal supernatural force. Answer: T page 20 39. Émile Durkheim and Alfred Radcliff-Brown are associated with the evolutionary approach

to the study of religion. Answer: F page 23 40. Sigmund Freud applied some of his concepts to the analysis of religious phenomena. Answer: T page 24 Essay Questions 41. How does the study of anthropology differ from sociology and psychology? (page 2) 42. Define the four fields of anthropology. How does each relate to the study of religion? (page

2) 43. What is the nature of ethnographic research? How does it differ from research in other disci-

plines? (page 3) 44. What are some of the important differences in social structure among peoples practicing dif-

ferent food-getting strategies? (page 7) 45. How does the study of kuru among the Fore of New Guinea illustrate the concept of holism?

(pages 8-10) 46. We can approach the study and understanding of other peoples through both etic and emic

analysis. What is the essential difference between these two views? How does each contrib-ute to our understanding of human societies? (page 10)

47. Think of a political and economic issue that you have read about that has occurred in an-

other part of the world. How would you describe and analyze this event from an ethnocen-tric viewpoint and from a cultural relativistic viewpoint? (page 11)

48. What are the differences between modernity and postmodernism? (pages 11-12)

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49. Is the concept of universal human rights consistent with the concept of cultural relativism? Why or why not? (pages 12-13)

50. What criteria would you use in deciding whether or not a particular cultural practice should

be eliminated in apparent contradiction of cultural relativism? (page 13) 51. When reading an ethnography about the Fore what is the difference between Fore society

and Fore culture? (page 14) 52. “Culture gives meaning to reality.” What does this mean? Give some examples. (pages 15-

16) 53. Religion can be defined as the study of the sacred supernatural. What do we mean by sacred

and by supernatural? (pages 18-19) 54. Two early approaches to the study of religion were the evolutionary approach of Tyler and

Frazer and the psychosocial approach of Sigmund Freud. What are the essential features of these two approaches? (pages 20, 23-24)

55. Compare and contrast the essential concept of the evolutionary, Marxist, functional, inter-

pretative, and psychosocial approaches to the study of religion. Which scholars are associ-ated with each of these approaches? (pages 20-24)

56. What do brain researchers mean by the God module? (page 26)

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Chapter Two MYTHOLOGY CHAPTER OUTLINE THE NATURE OF MYTHS

Worldview Stories of the Supernatural Myths Wogeo Narratives The Nature of Oral Texts Genesis How Myths Change through Time

UNDERSTANDING MYTHS Approaches to Analysis of Myths Searching for Myth Origins in the Nineteenth Century Fieldwork and Functional Analysis Structural Analysis Psychoanalytic Symbols in Myth Common Themes in Myths Origin Myths Flood Myths

Trickster Myths Hero Myths CONCLUSION SUMMARY BOX 2.1 GENESIS BOX 2.2 THE GENDER-NEUTRAL CHRISTIAN BIBLE BOX 2.3 THE GURURUMBA CREATION STORY BOX 2.4 THE NAVAHO CREATION STORY: DINÉ HAHANÈ BOX 2.5 THE RAVEN STEALS THE LIGHT BOX 2.6 JOSEPH CAMPBELL CHAPTER SUMMARY The ways a society perceives and interprets its reality is known as its worldview. The worldview provides an understanding of how the world works; it forms the template for thought and behav-ior; and it provides a basic understanding of the origin and nature of humankind and its relation-ship to the world. People express their worldview in stories. Myths are sacred stories that tell of the origin of the world and humankind, the existence and activities of gods and spirits, the origin of human traditions, and the nature of illness and death. They tell how to behave and how to distinguish good from evil. Myths are thought to recount

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Chapter 2: Mythology

real, historical events that took place in the remote past. They provide the basis for religious be-liefs and practices. Myths can be both written and oral. Written forms tend to be very stable through time, and changes that do occur are usually deliberate changes that are the consequences of translation or scholarly discourse about the meaning of particular words and passages. Oral texts are recited, and this recitation often has the characteristics of performance. One of the consequences of the oral transmission of stories is that they are frequently unconsciously altered with each genera-tion, which explains the existence of different versions of the same myth within a society. There are many ways of interpreting myths. Functional analysis sees myths as forces that help to maintain the society. Structural analysis focuses on the underlying structure of myths. The psychoanalytic approach sees myths as symbolically expressing unconscious wishes. Certain basic themes are common through the world. Origin myths provide answers to the questions: Who are we? Why are we here? What is our relationship to the world? These stories play an important role in laying out the culture’s worldview. One common element is the birth metaphor, in which the world is born from a god or goddess or by creation out of chaos, dark-ness, or the void. Tricksters are part human, part animal. They are adventurers, seekers of sexual pleasures, lazy, dishonest, and impulsive. Yet tricksters are responsible for creating or bringing into the world many elements, often as a by-product of some other activity. Hero myths are stories about culture heroes who, through knowledge and mastery of certain skills, are able to bring about marvelous results. LEARNING OBJECTIVES After reading Chapter 2 the student should be able to:

• Explain the concept of worldview and illustrate the idea by contrasting the worldviews of the Navaho and Euro-Americans.

• Explain what makes a story a myth. • Describe the nature of oral myths and how such myths change over time. • Explain how the Navaho origin story reflects the Navaho worldview. • Identify and describe the different approaches to the study of myth. • Outline the common themes that are found in myths cross-culturally.

GLOSSARY Apocalypse: Ultimate devastation or the end of the world. (p. 47) Archetype: A main character of the collective unconscious. (p. 45) Collective unconscious: Inborn elements of the unconscious that are manifested in dreams and

myths. (p. 45) Folktale: A traditional story that is a part of the tradition of a society; not considered to be true.

(p. 33) Legend: A traditional story about past events that is considered to be true; usually contains an

element of reality—a known character, event, or place. (p. 33) Monomyth: A theme common to many myths that tells of the adventures of a culture hero. (p.

52)

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Myth: A sacred story that provides the basis for religious beliefs and practices. (p. 30) Social charter: A story that establishes the proper organization and rules of behavior of a soci-

ety. (p. 37) Trickster god: A god who gave humans important things or skills, often by accident or through

trickery. (p. 47) Trickster story: A story involving a trickster deity. (p. 47) Urban legend: Contemporary story about people and events that never occurred, but are pre-

sented as real. (p. 33) Worldview: The way in which a society perceives and interprets its reality. (p. 30) DISCUSSION TOPICS

• How would you describe the worldview of your own culture? Although the United States is made up of a diverse population, can we say that there is a shared American world-view? If so, what characterizes this worldview? How is this worldview reflected in American culture?

• How do American media (including television and films) reflect the American world-view?

• In what ways are important American civil documents, such as the Declaration of Inde-pendence, like myths? In what ways are they different?

• Why do you think common themes are found in myths in different cultures? • How does human psychology affect the nature of myths and the way we tell and perceive

them? STUDENT PROJECTS

• While in many societies stories are told through story tellers, stories in American society are frequently told through movies and television. Pick a movie or television and show and explain how the show reflects the American worldview.

• Select a foreign film. What cultural differences can be seen between your own culture and the culture portrayed in the film?

• Pick a movie that tells the story of the monomyth. Describe how it fits the monomyth structure.

• Locate myths from two or more different cultures. Analyze each myth and show how they are similar to or differ from one another.

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VIDEOS The Bible Under Fire. Filmakers Library. 43 min. Tells the story of the introduction of the Revised Standard Version of the Christian Bible in 1952, and the controversies that followed. A Biography of Lilith. Women Make Movies. 1997, 35 min. Updates the Judeo-Christian origin story by telling the story of Lilith. Uses a mix of narrative, collage and memoir. Dance in America: Holo Mai Pele. PBS Great Performances. 1995, 60 min. The Hawaiian myth of the conflict between the goddess Pele and her sister Hi’iaka, as told through Hula dance and music. The Five Suns: A Sacred History of Mexico. University of California Extension. 1996, 59 min. Creation myths of the Aztecs and other Nahuatl-speaking people are told through animation that uses authentic pre-Columbian Aztec iconography. The Koran: The Holy Book of Islam. Insight Media. 1995, 16 min. Explores the significance of Koran to the life of Muslims. Popol Vuh: The Creation Myth of the Maya. University of California Extension. 1989, 60 min. The Mayan creation story told through animation that uses imagery from ancient Mayan ceram-ics. Voices of the Orishas. University of California Extension. 1994, 37 min. Filmed in Havana, the film shows a Santeria ritual in which the deities, or Orishas, are invoked. The ceremony recreates an important Yoruba myth. WEB SITES pantheon.org/mythica.html Encyclopedia Mythica is an encyclopedia of mythology, folklore,

and legend. www.sacred-texts.com An Internet text archive. www.trinity.edu/org/tricksters/trixway Trickster’s Way, an online journal dedicated to trickster research.

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ADDITIONAL REFERENCES J. F. Bierlein. Parallel Myths. New York: Random House, 1994. A large collection of myths or-ganized by theme. Joseph Campbell. The Hero with a Thousand Faces. New York: Pantheon Books, 1949. A de-scription of the hero myth in societies around the world. Alan Dundes. Holy Writ as Oral Lit: The Bible as Folklore. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Little-field, 1999. An analysis of the Bible that illustrates its origins in oral folklore.

Alan Dundes, ed. Little Red Riding Hood: A Casebook. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1989. A series of articles explaining the story of “Little Red Riding Hood” from many theoretical points of view. Ian Hogbin. The Island of Menstruating Men: Religion in Wogeo, New Guinea. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press, 1970. The study of the Wogeo, including myths and religious prac-tices. Mathias Guenther. Tricksters & Tracers: Bushman Religion and Society. Bloomington, IN: Indi-ana University Press, 1999. A study of San religion including cosmology, the trickster, myth, initiation rites, and the trance curing dance. Scott Leonard and Michael McClure. Myth & Knowing: An Introduction to World Mythology. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2002. C. Scott Littleton, ed. Mythology: The Illustrated Anthology of World Myth and Storytelling. London: Duncan Baird, 2002. An extensive anthology of myths from ancient and tribal societies.

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TEST QUESTIONS Multiple Choice Questions 1. In every society there are particular ways in which people perceive and interpret their real-

ity. This is what is meant by the concept of: a. supernatural b. worldview c. culture d. sacred Answer: b page 30

2. The Navaho phrase to “walk in beauty” and the Euro-American phrase “Thou makest him to

have dominion of the works of thy hands” point out major differences in: a. the supernatural b. subsistence activities c. worldview d. the sacred Answer: c page 31

3. An example of a supernatural element in the narrative of Snow White is:

a. the queen's looking glass b. Snow White returning to life after death c. the queen eating the heart of Snow White to obtain her qualities of beauty d. all of the above Answer: d page 32

4. In the story of Snow White, the queen's looking glass is an example of:

a. magic b. divination c. witchcraft d. a worldview Answer: b page 32

5. All of the following statements about the story of Snow White are correct except:

a. many of the places and objects of the story are sacred b. the story conveys a moral lesson about the evils of envy and jealousy c. there are many supernatural elements in the story d. the story contains an example of ritual cannibalism Answer: a page 32

6. The Snow White story is an example of a: a. myth b. folktale c. legend d. urban legend Answer: b page 33

7. An example of a legend would be: a. the voyage of the Pilgrims on the Mayflower b. the story of Little Red Riding Hood c. the story of Noah and the ark d. all of the above Answer: a page 33

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8. Ritual texts: a. are social charters that sets forth the organization of human relationships b. explain the origins of humans and the world c. often contain multiple versions of the same story d. all of the above Answer: d pages 33, 37

9. Myths: a. are regarded as fact by those who accept this on faith b. include a great many sacred, supernatural elements c. take place in the past d. all of the above Answer: d page 34 10. The Wogeo live on an island off the coast of:

a. California b. West Africa c. New Guinea d. Australia Answer: c page 34

11. Wogeo myths deal primarily with a group of ancestors or gods. These gods:

a. created order out of primeval chaos b. molded the physical environment, invented tools and weapons, and originated local cus-

toms c. looked and acted like a human being, but were not in fact flesh and blood d. all of the above Answer: d page 34

12. The Wogeo believe that Wogeo practice is alone valid and Wogeo speech uniquely pure.

They refuse to speak the languages of the communities with which they trade. This attitude is an example of: a. cultural relativism b. ethnocentrism c. morality d. righteousness Answer: b page 34

13. In contrast with written texts, oral texts: a. The recitation of oral texts is often a performance. b. The story may change with each telling. c. Different versions of the same story may exist in different places. d. all of the above Answer: d page 35 14. Franz Boas and Bronislaw Malinowski are representative of proponents of the: a. structural analysis of myth b. psychological analysis of myth c. functional analysis of myth d. evolutionary analysis of myth Answer: c pages 42-43

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15. The analysis of myth in terms of binary opposites is an example of: a. functional analysis b. structural analysis c. psychoanalytic analysis d. evolutionary analysis Answer: b pages 43-44

16. The Navaho Creation Story takes place:

a. in a special garden similar to the Judeo-Christian Garden of Eden b. in the realm of the gods in the sky c. in a series of layers that exist underneath the present world d. in another reality Answer: c pages 48-49

17. In the Navaho Creation Story, the Holy People appeared and explained that they wanted to

create people: a. with the power of insects b. with supernatural powers c. who were giants d. with hands and feet like the Holy People Answer: d pages 48-49

18. In the Navaho Creation Story, First Man and First Woman were created from:

a. dust b. ears of corn c. insects d. nothingness Answer: b pages 48-49

19. In the Navaho Creation Story, First Man and First Woman were created by the:

a. Holy People b. Air-Spirit People c. People Who Live in Upright Houses d. sacred twins Answer: a pages 48-49

20. In the Navaho Creation Story, life was given to the first humans by the:

a. Wind b. Sun c. Mountains d. Animal People Answer: a pages 48-49

21. The story “Raven Steals the Light” is an example of a:

a. flood story b. hero story c. trickster story d. war story Answer: c pages 49-52

22. The story “Raven Steals the Light” tells us about the origin of the:

a. earth b. sun and moon c. people d. salmon Answer: b pages 49-52

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23. The monomyth is a narrative involving: a. the creation b. an explanation of illness and death c. a culture hero d. none of the above Answer: c page 52

24. The stories of Star Wars and The Matrix most closely resemble:

a. monomyths b. creation stories c. trickster stories d. flood stories Answer: a pages 52-53

True/False Questions 25. The Navaho worldview suggests an exploitation of natural resources by human society. Answer: F page 31 26. The Navaho phrase “to walk in beauty” refers to the accumulation of material goods. Answer: F page 31 27. The story of Snow White is not a religious story because it does not involve the sacred su-

pernatural and is not the basis of ritual. Answer: T pages 32-33 28. The story of crocodiles living in the sewers of New York is an example of a myth. Answer: F page 33 29. To say that something is a myth means that it is not true. Answer: F page 33 30. Religious texts often change through time because they are often transmitted orally or sub-

ject to new translations. Answer: T page 38 31. In the myths of the Wogeo the ancestor gods, called nanarang, had many characteristics of

humans. For example, they married, had children, and died. Answer: T page 34 32. There are two creation stories in Genesis. In one man and woman are created together; in the

other man was created first and woman was created later out of man’s rib. Answer: T pages 35-37 33. In Islam, God spoke to Mohammad in Arabic, and Arabic is used in ritual today. Answer: T page 38

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34. Claude Levi-Strauss analyzed the structure of myths and pointed out tat humans tend to categorize the world in terms of binary opposites.

Answer: T page 43 35. Émile Durkheim used a psychoanalytic approach to the analysis of myth and focused on the

impact of myth on social structure. Answer: F page 43 36. Proponents of the psychoanalytic approach to the analysis of myth see such stories as the

Oedipus story as archetypes. Answer: T page 45 37. In the Bunhongo Creation Story, Bumba vomits up the world. This is an example of the

emergence myth. Answer: F pages 45-46 38. In the Navaho Creation Story, the first humans were created by the two Holy People. Answer: F pages 46-49 39. In the Haida story “The Raven Steals the Light,” the Raven is an example of a trickster. Answer: T pages 49-52 40. The Haida story “The Raven Steals the Light,” tells of the origin of whales and seals. Answer: F pages 49-52 41. The structure of the hero story or monomyth is that of a rite of passage. Answer: T page 48 Essay Questions 42. What are the implications of the Navaho and the Euro-American worldviews with response

to conservation? (pages 31-32) 43. Although the story of Snow White contains many supernatural elements and contains a moral

lesson, it is not considered to be a religious story. Why? (pages 32-33) 44. What do the Wogeo myths tell us? (pages 34-35) 45. What are the essential differences between Genesis and the Navaho Creation Story? (pages

35-37, 46-49) 46. What are some of the consequences of the oral transmission of myth compared with the

written transmission of myth? (pages 38-39) 47. Discuss the Gururumba Creation Story from a structuralist point of view. (pages 43-44)

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48. What was Sigmund Freud’s approach to the study of myth? (pages 44-45) 49. In what ways are trickster deities also creator deities? (page 47) 50. Give several examples of the monomyth seen in contemporary motion pictures. (pages 52-

53)

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