Section 1 Making Political Gains Section 2 The African Connection

Holt African American HistoryHolt African American History Chapter 12Chapter 12


Section 1Section 1 Making Political Gains

Section 2Section 2 The African Connection

Section 3Section 3 Economic and Social Challenges

A Time of TransitionA Time of Transition


Reading Focus

• What were some of the key political gains made by African Americans in the 1970s and 1980s?

• What are the arguments for and against affirmative action?

• What policies did conservative leaders support?

• How did the black community respond to conservatism?

Main Idea

In the 1970s and 1980s more black Americans became involved in the political process.

Section 1:Section 1: Making Political Gains


Building Background

Thanks to the successes of the civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s, black Americans made great strides towards full equality. The 1970s and 1980s proved to be a time of transition as African Americans tested their new political strength. During this period, blacks rose to power politically and took on key issues for all Americans.


African Americans made great strides during the 1950s and 1960s, and by early 1970s would enter mainstream politics on local and national levels.

The Rise of African American Politicians

Entering the Political World

• President Lyndon Johnson appointed Thurgood Marshall to the Supreme Court and Patricia Harris as U.S. Ambassador

• Republican Edward Brooke elected to the U.S. Senate in 1966; he was the first black so elected since Reconstruction

• Shirley Chisholm became 1st black woman elected to Congress

Black Members of Congress

• In 1969 nine African American members of the House of Representatives formed caucus

• Organization formed to represent and unite black members of Congress; now called the Congressional Black Caucus

• Open to all members, the group primarily represents Democrats; group had 43 members in 2007



The Gary Convention

• National Black Political Convention held in Gary, Indiana in 1972– The several thousand present included politicians, social

activists, and students

– Social and political leaders Jesse Jackson and Louis Farrakhan

• Goal of convention to identify ways to address key issues among the black community

– Despite disagreements, delegates drafted a formal platform

– Known as the National Black Political Agenda

– Focused health care, housing, and the economy

• Encouraged African Americans to seek political office– Social and economic improvement only through political strength

• African Americans began entering political world in greater numbers


Two Leading Politicians• Douglas Wilder first won election to the Virginia state senate before

eventually becoming the first elected black governor in U.S. history

• Texan Barbara Jordan served in the U.S. House of Representatives

• Best remembered for her role in congressional hearings on the impeachment of President Richard Nixon

Black Political Leaders• Rose to prominence on national and local political scenes during the

1970s and 1980s

• From local sheriffs to U.S. senators, black politicians determined to make a difference


Draw Conclusions

Why did some people believe that social and economic improvements could come only with political strength?

Reading Check

Answer(s):

They thought that political power would allow them to make improvements.


Affirmative Action

One of Key Issues

• Affirmative action—the policy of giving special consideration to women and nonwhites to correct years of discrimination

• Actively promotes the admittance of minorities to schools or the workplace

• Goal is to help correct the underrepresentation of women and minorities in certain occupations and educational institutions

Idea’s History

• Dates back to Roosevelt in 1940s; defense companies prohibited from discriminating against job seekers

• Civil Rights Act of 1964 expanded prohibition to cover all companies

• 1965 Johnson established the policy of affirmative action by issuing an executive order for companies to increase minority representation


Extended for Women

• Affirmative action extended to include women in 1967

• Companies, agencies had hiring goals; schools created programs with spots set aside

Critics

• Opponents say promotes selection based on race rather than merit

• Raises issues of “reverse discrimination”

Supporters

• Argued needed to improve job and educational opportunities

• Level the playing field• Enhances diversity in schools

and workplaces

Challenges to Policy

• Court cases being argued • Supreme Court ruling in 1978

on Bakke case that set-aside programs were unconstitutional

• Still a hotly contested issue

Extent of Practices



Recall

What is the goal of affirmative action?

Reading Check

Answer(s):

to help correct years of under-representation of minorities in schools and the workplace


New Political Era• In late 1970s U.S. politics changing with growing conservative ideology

taking hold

• Ronald Reagan’s election in 1980 kicked off a new conservative era

New Agendas• Called for an end to affirmative action, gun control, and huge federal budgets

• Made dramatic budget cuts; resulted in less money for federal programs such as food stamps, student loans, and unemployment compensation

The Reagan Years• Focused on restoring national prosperity and strength

• Called for return to smaller government, lower taxes, and conservative moral values; opposed liberal social and racial policies

The Conservative Era


Black Conservatives• Rise of new group of conservative black politicians

– One of the leading black conservatives in the 1980s was Alan Keyes; trained as a diplomat; in 1983 named ambassador to the United Nations

– Colin Powell also a Reagan appointee; serving in various positions until finally being named Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff

• Leaders in the 1990s– Clarence Thomas appointed to Supreme Court in 1991; J. C. Watts of

Oklahoma elected U.S. Representative; Condoleezza Rice served as a special adviser on national security to President George H. W. Bush

• Conservatives now – Colin Powell appointed Secretary of State in 2001; was first African

American to hold position; was succeeded in 2005 by Condoleezza Rice – National Leadership Network of Black Conservatives – The American Civil Rights Institute (ACRI) opposes affirmative action

policies across the nation




Identify Cause and Effect

What led to the rise of the conservative movement?

Reading Check

Answer(s):

the election of President Ronald Reagan in 1980


Reaction to ConservatismOpposition to Conservatives

• Many black Americans felt new conservative economic and social programs hurt their communities

• With economic recession of 1980, unemployment rose, homelessness increased, and spending cuts were made in housing and education

• Poor African Americans were hit very hard by new policies

Blacks Negatively Affected

• By 1985, unemployment rate at 15 percent for African Americans; rate was 5 percent for whites

• 30 percent of African Americans lived below the poverty line; 11 percent of white Americans lived below this line

• African Americans were ready for change


Making History• Jackson became first black man to seek presidential nomination of

major political party; his 1984 campaign broke new ground

• “Hands that picked cotton in 1884 will pick the President in 1994”

• Convinced African Americans to register

• Jackson failed to win the nomination but earned significant support

Jesse Jackson Seeks the Presidency• Leading liberal black politician of 1980s was Jesse Jackson

• A civil rights leader, Jackson turned to mainstream politics

• 1983 voter registration drive help elect Harold Washington first black mayor of Chicago; later that year Jackson announced for president



The Rainbow Coalition

• Jackson used run for presidency to speak out against policies of conservative Republican administration

– Brought together young people, minorities, and poor Americans

– Formed Rainbow Coalition aimed at uniting unsatisfied voters to enact reform; coalition reflected the diversity of the United States

• Jackson sought Democratic nomination again in 1988

– Rainbow Coalition attracted farmers, blue-collar workers, and environmentalists

– Jackson made a strong showing; won eleven primaries

– Was front-runner for short time

• Jackson finished second to eventual nominee Dukakis

– Jackson engineered extremely effective campaign

– Was proof of new political heights for African Americans


Analyze

Why did Jesse Jackson appeal to many voters?

Reading Check

Answer(s):

He appealed to voters, including the poor and minorities, who were unsatisfied with conservative politics.


Reading Focus

• How did nationalism bring about changes in Africa?

• What was apartheid, and how did it shape life in South Africa?

• What led activists around the world to protest apartheid, and what was the result of their protests?

Main Idea

After 1940 major changes came to Africa as former colonies demanded independence and South Africans sought to end years of racial division.

Section 2:Section 2: The African Connection


Building Background

While African American activists were protesting for equal rights and making gains in U.S. politics, their counterparts in Africa were demanding their independence from European empires. In the 1950s and 1960s a wave of nationalism led to independence for many African nations. In the years that followed, African nations focused on rebuilding from decades of colonial rule.


African Nationalism

• In 1940s African nationalism on the rise– Africans demanded freedom from European powers; young African

activists led nationalist movement

– Pan-Africanism united people of African heritage in freedom struggle

• Gold Coast a British colony – Among first West African colonies to gain independence

– 1947 Kwame Nkrumah became leader of nationalist movement there

– Influenced by Du Bois and Garvey; used strikes and demonstrations

– National elections held in 1951 with huge victory for Nkrumah’s Convention People’s Party

• Independence from Britain 1957– Nkrumah became first prime minister of new nation of Ghana


Most Nations Independent• By 1980s most African nations won independence

• European powers withdrew; left African nations with task of building new government and rebuilding economies

• Difficulties with ethnic conflicts and civil war in several countries

Wars for Independence• Kenyan nationalists led rebellion against British control;

• 1963 nationalist leader Jomo Kenyatta first prime minister of Kenya; year later became president

• Algeria gained independence in 1962 after bloody war with France

• 1970s Guinea-Bissau, Mozambique, and Angola independent


Identify

What methods did some African countries use to achieve independence?

Reading Check

Answer(s):

Strikes, protests, rebellions, warfare


Although 75% of the population, nonwhite South Africans had long been ruled by white descendants of Europeans settlers and had no rights under the law.

Apartheid in South Africa

The Beginning of Apartheid

• 1948 new National Party in power in South Africa; set in place a system that fully segregated South African society

• System of legal separation called apartheid, “apartness” in Afrikaans

• Rights of nonwhite South Africans were curtailed even more; forced to move into set-aside regions

Homelands

• Original plan “homelands” would eventually be independent

• Located in remote and barren parts of country, people there remained poor and dependent

• Others forced to live in townships outside towns, mostly slum areas

• Could work only in certain jobs and were denied education


Opposition to ApartheidAfrican National Congress

• Founded in 1921 to fight for equal rights; the ANC’s most vocal leader Nelson Mandela

• 1950s ANC launched program of nonviolent protest; annoyed government arrested and imprisoned ANC leaders

• 1960 nonviolent protest against apartheid ended with the Sharpeville Massacre; police firing into crowd killed 70 people

Nonviolence Failed

• ANC disbanded; worldwide attention and condemnation of government

• Mandela and other leaders grew convinced that violent protests were necessary

• Mandela formed Umkhonto we Sizwe (“Spear of the Nation”) underground militant branch of ANC

• Dedicated to sabotage


Protest ContinuedMandela Arrested

• In 1962 sentenced to five years in prison; changed to life

• Despite disbanding of ANC protest work continued from bases outside South Africa

• New leaders of the anti-apartheid movement emerged

• Among them Archbishop Desmond Tutu

Work for Equal Rights

• Tutu favored peaceful solutions

• Leading religious figure worked tirelessly for equal rights for all citizens

• Medical student Stephen Biko turned activist; founded Black Consciousness movement to encourage black Africans to be proud of heritage

• Biko was vocal in his protests; arrested, he died in prison


Summarize

What methods did South Africans use to protest against apartheid?

Reading Check

Answer(s):

nonviolent protests, sabotage, the Black Consciousness Movement


Slow Beginnings• Early 1960s Western nations traded heavily with South Africa; western

governments did not want to suspend trade with South Africa

• Some international organizations moved quickly against apartheid; United Nations voted to ban arms sales to South Africa in 1963; WHO and others ousted South Africa from ranks; South Africa excluded from Olympics

International Protests• European and U.S. citizens protested against apartheid; public opinion finally

led European and U.S. lawmakers to act against apartheid

• In 1985 both the UK and the U.S. leveled sanctions, penalties intended to force a country to change its policies, against the South African government

• Companies began a policy of divestment, or shedding of business ties

African Americans Take on Apartheid



Pressure Succeeds• 1989 South African government began to dismantle apartheid system

• President F.W. de Klerk lifted ban on anti-apartheid rallies; restored legal status of ANC; and ordered Mandela released after 27 years imprisonment

Dismantling of Apartheid • 1991 all apartheid laws repealed; three years later country held first all-races

election, the ANC won majority of seats; Mandela elected president

• Mandela and de Klerk shared 1993 Nobel Prize for work to end apartheid

Mandela Free• Nelson Mandela spoke out; urging that sanctions stay in place until the “total

elimination of apartheid and the extension of the vote to all people.”

• Mandela also recalled being inspired by traditions in American history

The End of Apartheid



Explain

How did the United States help bring an end to apartheid in South Africa?

Reading Check

Answer(s):

American protests and sanctions helped force the South African government to change its policies.


Reading Focus

• What steps did Americans take to address the issue of urban poverty?

• What social challenges did African Americans experience?

Main Idea

During the last part of the twentieth century, African Americans addressed a variety of economic and social issues.

Section 3:Section 3: Economic and Social Challenges


Building Background

The 1970s and 1980s saw dramatic improvements in equal rights and political opportunities for African Americans. However, difficulties still loomed for many African Americans as they attempted to deal with economic and social issues.


Urban Poverty

• Poverty and the Inner City– Black Americans moved to northern cities in first half of 1900s; jobs and

opportunities available in inner-city neighborhoods

– Overcrowded conditions, deteriorating housing, and racial tensions in inner-cities; white city dwellers began move to suburbs

– Inner-city neighborhoods became dominated by African American and other minorities

• Serious Decline in 1970s – Factories moved out of cities; jobs scarce, high unemployment

– Poverty and crime rates on rise; but gains from 1960s allowed middle-class blacks to leave for the suburbs

– City governments collected less taxes; neighborhoods became rundown; difficult to escape poverty of inner city


Theory of Report• Growing number of single-parent families had negative effect on inner-city

African American society; most earned less than two-parent households; poverty levels increased; more single mothers on government aid

• Social problems leading to juvenile delinquency, drop-out rates, and drug addiction could be traced to decline in traditional two-parent families

• Moynihan argued that a unified national effort was required to address problems

The Moynihan Report• Intense debate triggered by 1965 findings of government study on poverty in

inner cities

• The Moynihan Report attempted to identify the causes of economic troubles among inner-city black Americans

• Concluded much of the poverty based on decline of two-parent families; Moynihan claimed the black family was in crisis



The Moynihan Report generated intense controversy, and Americans were divided over its conclusions. Lyndon Johnson and others supported the report.

Response to the Moynihan Report

Supporters

• In speech at Howard University, Johnson called on black students and the government to work to strengthen the black family

• Supporters contended that strengthening black families would help lessen inner-city poverty and reliance on government aid

• But most reaction to the report was negative

Critics

• Many outraged at findings; felt it fueled stereotypes

• Economic and social troubles result of years of discrimination; not result of family structure

• Moynihan charged with racism; and with “blaming the victim”

• James Farmer of CORE and activist Bayard Rustin opposed the findings; report was rejected


The Family Assistance PlanMoynihan Tries Again

• 1969 Moynihan undertook efforts to aid poor families

• Helped to draft the Family Assistance Plan (FAP) a program to give poor families annual income of $1,600 provided they work or attend job training

• Goal was to eliminate bureaucratic welfare programs such as food stamps or Medicaid

• Nixon claimed FAP was a method for putting people back to work

Black Support

• African American leaders hoped the annual income and job training would help pull some out of poverty

• Plan had many critics

• Some feared program too expensive

• Others believed income proposed not enough to provide for families

• Result of opposition—plan failed to pass both houses of Congress


Analyze

What arguments did opponents of the Moynihan Report put forth?

Reading Check

Answer(s):

They argued that it was based on stereotypes of African Americans and blamed African Americans for the economic problems they faced.


School Busing• After federal pressure majority of schools in the South had integrated by the

late 1960s; but issues remained about integration of students in classes and school-related activities

• In the North many urban school remained largely segregated because of the way segregated neighborhoods developed

• Mid-1960s pressure to integrate urban schools led Berkeley, California officials to implement a school busing plan to desegregate by transporting students from one part of the city to another

• Federal courts began ordering some schools to implement busing as a solution to segregation

• Busing met fierce opposition; parents objected to having students go long distances to sometimes dangerous neighborhoods; some violent protests

• Despite opposition, school busing remained in place through the 1980s

Social Issues



Important social issue• Leaders hoped to improve educational opportunities for young blacks

• 1964 government began the Head Start program; main focus to help pre-school-age children from low-income families prepare to start school

Students • New focus on programs to help students from nation’s impoverished inner

cities, members of minority groups, or students learning English

• Schools offer mentoring and tutoring; programs to keep students in schools

“A Nation at Risk”• 1980s report on nation’s public schools found them in serious decline;

educators and officials looked for ways to improve education

• Many programs aimed at students less likely to complete their education

Educational Opportunities



Explain

What social challenges faced African Americans, and how were they addressed?

Reading Check

Answer(s):

challenges—a lack of fully integrated schools in many northern cities, the need for better education opportunitiesaddressed—school busing, Head Start program

Documents

Section 1 Making Political Gains Section 2 The African Connection